Journal articles on the topic 'Mine haul trucks'

Transport of ore and overburden in open-pit mines is often performed with large haul trucks. Battery-electric operation of haul trucks can significantly reduce the CO2 emissions and the fossil fuel dependence of open-pit mining. This simulation study investigates the feasibility and economy of operating large haul trucks battery-electrically, charging from an electric road system in the form of overhead trolley lines. The used simulation model is verified against measurements on diesel-electric haul trucks in normal operation. The simulation model is then tested with five drive cycles representing typical operations in the Aitik copper mine in northern Sweden. This simulation study shows that battery-electric operation with an electric road is feasible. It is shown that battery-electric operation is much cheaper than diesel-electric operation under reasonable assumptions. It is also much cheaper than diesel-electric operation assisted by an electric road.

The task of ore transportation is performed in all mines, regardless of their type (open pit/underground) or mining process. A substantial number of enterprises utilize wheeled machines to perform ore haulage, especially haul trucks and loaders. These machines’ work consists of repeating cycles, and each cycle can be divided into 4 operations: loading, driving with full box/bucket, unloading and driving with empty box/bucket. Monitoring this process is essential to create analytical tools that support foremen and other management crew in achieving effective and optimal production and planning activities. Unfortunately, information gathered regarding the process is frequently based on operators’ oral testimony. This process not only allows for abuse but is also a repetitive and tedious task that must be performed by foremen. The time and attention of foremen is valuable as they are responsible for managing practically everything in their current mine section (machines, operators, works, repairs, emergencies, safety, etc.). Therefore, the automatization of the described process of information gathering should be performed. In this article, we present two neural network models (one for haul trucks and one for loaders) build for detecting work cycles of the ore haulage process. Both models were built utilizing a 2-stage approach. In the first stage, the models’ structures were optimized, while the second was focused on optimizing hyperparameters for the structure with best performance. Both of the proposed models were trained using data collected from on-board monitoring systems over hundreds of the machines’ work hours and utilized the same input features: vehicle speed, fuel consumption, selected gear and engine rotational speed. Models have been subjected to comprehensive testing during which the efficiency and stability of the model responsible for haul trucks was proven. Results for loaders were not as high quality for haul trucks; however, some interesting facts were discovered that indicate possible directions for future development.

Purpose The most costly part in an open-pit mine is the transportation of material out of the mine. The efficiency of the truck-and-shovel fleet plays a major role in cost control. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach The truck dispatching simulation model with consideration of age-based maintenance is proposed. Findings This paper underlines an impact of truck dispatching decisions and reveals remarkable differences in the total production under different approaches of operational availability. Additionally, the simulated results introduce an effective scheduled maintenance for different truck age levels. Originality/value The approach is based on a case study taking into account the stochastic equipment behavior and environment in a real open-pit mine. This approach can be used more generally in situations in which truck fleets are used to transport material.

Although mine haul roads only provide support for mining activities, their role can be quite significant in any effort to optimize transportation with trucks in open pit mining. In 2009, an inventory about the design, construction and maintenance conditions of these structures in mines in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero was undertaken through a partnership between a large mining company and UFOP. Although the conditions of the roads could be considered broadly satisfactory, several points with potential for improvement were observed. This partnership was recently resumed on enlarged bases for an upgrade, but with a quantitative approach and in a representative mine. The report of this mine haul road diagnosis with a feedback on how we can do more and better for mine haul roads are presented in this work.

Many trucks are used for a class of activities involving a sequence of basic load-haul-dump operations. The repetitiveness of this operation has been an enabler for autonomous vehicle technology in efforts to increase safety and efficiency. In this paper, we present a framework for the automation of the load-haul-dump operation in a mine setting using an articulated dump truck. A simulation environment for the testing of autonomous driving algorithms is developed and a custom mining environment is generated to adapt to our simulation settings. We also present an operational decomposition of the sequence of tasks and develop a finite state machine for high-level decision making based on this decomposition. A path tracking module that considers both bodies of the articulated truck is also developed. The resulting architecture was implemented to achieve autonomy for a load-haul-dump operation in the simulated environment within a fixed path. Experiments show that the proposed FSM-path tracking system can automate the load-haul-dump operation; and that the simulation environment can support the testing and development of autonomous driving algorithms for configurations such as an articulated truck.

The mining industry is facing sustainable development challenges, among which the energy efficiency issues seem to be of major importance. As transport of the mined ore is considered as one of the most energy intensive operations, the improvement of its energy efficiency is a key indicator in terms of sustainable actions taken by mining companies. In open-pit mines, the material handling operations are mostly performed with trucks. Their electrified version—truck trolley systems—surpass diesel trucks’ efficiency while comparing the increased production capacity and the reduction of maintenance cost and fuel consumption. The paper analyzes the opportunities and benefits of the replacement of an ore transport system based on hauling trucks with a regenerative belt conveying in an open-pit mine. Presented case study has been analyzed from energy consumption and environmental impact reduction perspectives. Generally, conception of a regenerative conveyor is based on recuperation of energy or continuous braking needed while a conveyor is running downhill. Energy generated during the braking process (converted from the potential gravitational energy of the conveyed material) is fed back to the electrical grid. Then the regenerative conveyor can be considered as a machine that mines energy as an additional by-product of an exploited deposit. It was shown that difference in transportation cost between haul trucks and energy efficient regenerative conveyors is around 95%. The paper points the conditioning elements to allow the implementation of a regenerative belt conveyor system.

Dumping is one of the main unit operations of mining. Notwithstanding a long history of using large rear dump trucks in mining, little knowledge exists on the cascading behavior of the run-of-mine material during and after dumping. In order to better investigate this behavior, a method for generating high fidelity models (HFMs) of dump profiles was devised and investigated. This method involved using unmanned aerial vehicles with mounted cameras to generate photogrammetric models of dumps. Twenty-eight dump profiles were created from twenty-three drone flights. Their characteristics were presented and summarized. Four types of dump profiles were observed to exist. Factors that influence the determination of these profiles include the location of the truck relative to the dump crest, the movement of the underlying dump material during the dumping process and the differences in the dump profile prior to dumping. The HFMs created in this study could possibly be used for calibrating computer simulations of dumps to better match reality.

Truck-Shovel (TS) systems are the most common mining system currently used in large surface mines. They offer high productivity combined with the flexibility to be rapidly relocated and to adjust load/haul capacity and capital expenditure according to market conditions. As the world moves to decarbonise as part of the transition to net zero emission targets, it is relevant to examine options for decarbonising the haulage systems in large surface mines. In-Pit Crushing and Conveying (IPCC) systems offer a smaller environmental footprint regarding emissions, but they are associated with a number of limitations related to high initial capital expenditure, capacity limits, mine planning and inflexibility during mine operation. Among the emerging technological options, innovative Trolley Assist (TA) technology promises to reduce energy consumption for lower carbon footprint mining systems. TA systems have demonstrated outstanding potential for emission reduction from their application cases. Battery and energy recovery technology advancements are shaping the evolution of TAs from diesel-electric truck-based patterns toward purely electrified BT ones. Battery Trolley (BT) systems combined with autonomous battery-electric trucks and Energy Recovery Systems (ERSs) are novel and capable of achieving further significant emission cuts for surface mining operations associated with safety, energy saving and operational improvements. This article reviews and compares electrification alternatives for large surface mines, including IPCC, TA and BT systems. These emerging technologies provide opportunities for mining companies and associated industries to adopt zero-emission solutions and help transition to an intelligent electric mining future.

The unpaved road network of a surface mine is extensive, comprising numerous roads of varying construction and material qualities with highly variable traffic volumes. Existing haul road maintenance management systems (MMSs) work well for predictable traffic volumes, but for complex mine road networks, the MMS becomes onerous and results in suboptimal road maintenance strategies, with the attendant increase in total road-user costs and reduction in service. A real-time MMS was thus sought to overcome the deficiencies of existing systems for mine roads. Because most large mines operate trucks with onboard diagnostic data collation, linked through a centralized communication and Global Positioning System backbone, it was proposed that road condition could be monitored on a real-time basis through onboard vibration signature analysis. A real-time mine haul road MMS was developed. Mine road maintenance practices were reviewed. The real-time system architecture was devised, and a field trial was conducted of onboard vibration signature assessment. Trial results were evaluated in the light of road defect signature recognition, analysis, signature repeatability, and system limitations. This approach is applicable to other situations, such as a network of district roads, subject to an analysis of economic feasibility. The conclusion is reached that modern technology has the potential to apply maintenance as and where needed, with possible reductions in authority cost and an improvement in service provided to road users.

Productivity management in materials handling is critical to mining operations. Most open pit mines use modular dispatch systems to control and monitor the movement of their materials handling equipment and operations. Statistical methods can be used on the data collected by the dispatch systems to identify major losses in time, tonnage and finances in productivity management. In this study, three ranking methods (a base case and two modified ranking methods) were used to evaluate the significance of the deviation and correlation parameters in productivity losses. A load and haul productivity loss ranking model was developed using data obtained from Mempeasem Gold Mine’s from January to October 2018 and tested with data obtained in November 2018. The results show that the ranking model can be used in the analysis of production data over any period of time and that the model is applicable in the analysis of the performance of all types of discrete load and haul equipment (trucks and excavators), either operating individually or in combination. The ranking based on deviation values is useful for comparative purposes. However, the ranking based on reduced values is more useful in decision making processes as it enables mine operators to take mitigation measures according to the level of priority of each item. Decision makers could also use the suggested colour coding for easy identification of the priority losses.

Productivity management in materials handling is critical to mining operations. Most open pit mines use modular dispatch systems to control and monitor the movement of their materials handling equipment and operations. Statistical methods can be used on the data collected by the dispatch systems to identify major losses in time, tonnage and finances in productivity management. In this study, three ranking methods (a base case and two modified ranking methods) were used to evaluate the significance of the deviation and correlation parameters in productivity losses. A load and haul productivity loss ranking model was developed using data obtained from Mempeasem Gold Mine’s from January to October 2018 and tested with data obtained in November 2018. The results show that the ranking model can be used in the analysis of production data over any period of time and that the model is applicable in the analysis of the performance of all types of discrete load and haul equipment (trucks and excavators), either operating individually or in combination. The ranking based on deviation values is useful for comparative purposes. However, the ranking based on reduced values is more useful in decision making processes as it enables mine operators to take mitigation measures according to the level of priority of each item. Decision makers could also use the suggested colour coding for easy identification of the priority losses.

Abstract Vehicle vibrations caused by poor haul road conditions create multiple negative effects for mines, including slower cycle times, increased maintenance, and operator injury. Vibration levels in vehicles result in part from road roughness. Mine roads are mainly constructed from in-pit materials that are more likely to deteriorate overtime and require frequent maintenance to maintain a smooth surface. The decision for when and where road maintenance is conducted is primarily based on visual inspections. This method can provide subjective, inaccurate, and delayed response to adverse conditions. The recent increase in vehicle telemetry data allows instant access to several types of data; mainly being used for haul fleet dispatching, collision avoidance, and geologic surveying, telemetry data has yet to see widespread use in road maintenance dispatching. This paper examines current road roughness characterization techniques and current telemetry data streams. An initial case study was conducted using vibration and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) telemetry data to determine road roughness. Data from three haul trucks under normal operating conditions were collected over the course of a week. The results of this case study demonstrate localized vibration levels can be used to objectively identify rough roads. This can be further developed to dispatch road maintenance crews leading to overall reduced mining costs and increased operator health. The researches propose continuing to full scale test using data from an entire fleet and longer timeframe.

Purpose. Off-road tires (OTR) for mining and earthmoving applications which are specially developed for extreme mine site conditions can take 1020% of transportation costs. Up to 15% of OTR content is natural rubber produced from a rubber tree known as hevea brasiliensis. A significant number of OTR fail before the target life built in by tire manufacturers. This has certain negative impacts on the environment and wildlife due to deforestation effect. Thus, the purpose of the work is to increase the durability or, in the terminology of the operators, the mileage of the OTR. Methodology. The current study represents analyses of new modern digital technology for monitoring the mining haul road condition within a site study on Bogatyr Komir coal mine in North Kazakhstan. The influence of operating conditions was controlled, i.e. road quality, temperature conditions, tire pressure, and other parameters on tire life. Findings. The results show the effectiveness of digital technologies and the possibility of extending the life of tires by following the recommendations of the system in a timely manner. As a result of the analysis of temperature regimes and pressure in tires, especially in summer conditions, recommendations for rational operating conditions were determined, which makes it possible to increase the durability of tires. Originality. Modern operational digital methodology for monitoring open pit mines road condition defines ton kilometer per hour (TKPH) indicator per every trip, which provides on-time information for road design and maintenance. Practical value. Growing worldwide demand is driving the development of the mining industry. In the future, more and more fields with a low content of produced raw materials will be put into operation. The development of deposits with a low content of a useful product means that more rock mass must be moved in order for these developments to be profitable. Transportation costs in low-grade mines can be as high as 70% of mining costs due to more haul trucks and longer roads that need to be commissioned. Thus, an increase in the durability of OTR can give a great economic effect not only in the conditions of the Bogatyr Komir quarry under consideration but also in other mining and processing plants.

Operating Surface Haul Trucks (SHT) exposes mineworkers to whole body vibration (WBV), but risk assessment methods are not uniform in the Barents Region. We intended to measure WBV exposure from SHT, and discuss and compare risk assessment outcome by European and Russian methods. 17 WBV measurements were performed at the operator seat interface on 14 SHTs in an open cast mine in Northwest Russia. Measurement periods ranged from 13 to 58 minutes in real work cycles during 8 hours of driving. It was found that mean WBV exposure (A(8) rms) for the 14 SHT’s was (1.0 ± 0.23) m/s 2, mean crest factor - (12.78 ± 5.26) and mean vibration dose value - (10.35 ± 2.61) m/s 1· 75. The study shows that WBV levels defining the lower limit of hazard class 3.2 (Russia) is close to the limit value 1.15 m/s 2 (European countries).

The operation quality of shovel-truck systems (STSs) at open-pit coal mines in the summer and transitional autumn-spring periods differs markedly. This is due to a decrease in the speed of haul trucks during the transitional season compared to the summer season. This leads to an increase in the travel time of trucks. Shovels and trucks must work longer to ensure the planned volumes of loading and transportation and the required number of hauls. Consequently, the duration of the working shift (or day) increases. This leads to deterioration in the STS performance in the autumn-spring period. A quantitative assessment of changes in the STS operation quality will reveal the directions of its improvement.

Exposure to whole-body vibration (1-80 Hz) manifest in higher incidences of low back pain and other musculoskeletal disorders among the workforce in mining industry. The aim of the study was to determine the vibration intensity of twelve mining equipments which are regularly deployed in an underground mine and to evaluate the long term health risk of their operators as per ISO 2631-1:1997 guidelines. It was observed that the low profile dump trucks (LPDT) and load haul dumpers (LHD) had x axis (front-back) as dominant axis of vibration. The operators of LPDTs and LHDs had moderate health risk considering frequency weighted root mean square (r.m.s.) acceleration values of vibration (0.46 – 1.01 m/s2) and corresponding daily exposure of about 6 hours in a shift. Operators of three equipments i.e. water sprinkler, utility vehicle and backfill material carrier had high health risk with z (vertical) as dominant axis of vibration. RMS acceleration values were comparatively high (1.30- 1.96 m/s2) even though their duration of exposure was less (2.5-5.0 hours). Motor grader operator had minimal health risk from vibration exposure while rest two operators of explosive and personnel carrier had moderate health risk. Additional assessment of health risk was carried out using total vibration dose values wherever applicable. High health risks were attributed to fast and harsh driving, poor seat condition and absence of independent seat suspension. Besides technical and operational modifications, training programs should be organised to improve the awareness of this hazard among miners in India.

The authors analyze the potential effects of automation on the jobs of truck drivers and conclude that media accounts predicting the imminent loss of millions of truck-driving jobs are overstated. Their conclusion is based on three main factors. First, the count of truck drivers is often inflated due to a misunderstanding of the occupational classification system used in federal statistics. Second, truck drivers do more than drive, and these non-driving tasks will continue to be in demand. Third, the requirements of technology, combined with complex regulations over how trucks can operate in the United States, imply that certain segments of trucking will be easier to automate than others. Long-haul trucking (which constitutes a minority of jobs) will be much easier to automate than will short-haul trucking (or the last mile), in which the bulk of employment lies. Although technology will likely transform the status quo in the trucking industry, it does not necessarily imply the wholesale elimination of the demand for truck drivers, as conventional accounts suggest.

One of the essential issues of the benches’ development procedure is the choice of the method of seam development in the complex structure: joint development of rock and coal seams in one complex face or their separate excavation in blocks of 50-100 m in length. The decision of this question is connected with the mode of mining works, represented by the schedule of stripping and winning works. The choice of one or another method is connected with operative-dispatching control of haul trucks delivery. When rock and coal are mined together in a complex face, overburden haul trucks should be supplied for loading rock and coal haul trucks for coal in turns. It is organizationally difficult to supply haul trucks of different purposes during the shift. It is necessary to proceed from the shift (daily) planning of haul trucks supply for specific faces. In addition, it is necessary to take into account that rock and coal faces are often located on opposite sides of the quarry pit. This article studies the issue of organizing the operation of excavation and loading equipment during the mining of the coal-bearing zone of the open pit in order to reduce the loss of output of haul trucks.

The feasibility of constructing mine roads at oil sands mines (Fort McMurray, Alberta) using concrete prepared from bitumen extraction and upgrading by-products and mine wastes (sulfur, fly ash, coke, and tailing sand) is evaluated. An extensive laboratory test program, including unconfined compression testing, sonic velocity measurement, and split tensile and freeze–thaw durability tests, was carried out to characterize the physical and mechanical properties of different mix designs of sulfur concrete. A study of the geochemical interaction of sulfur concrete with the near-surface environment included short-term interaction of surface-exposed sulfur concrete during the construction and operational life of the haul road and long-term interaction of sulfur concrete with groundwater following its eventual burial with mine wastes in the mined-out pits. Haul road test sections were designed based on the critical strain and resilient modulus design method. Stress and strain distributions in the selected haul road cross section induced by the truck tires were calculated using finite element analysis. Required pavement layer thicknesses were then determined on the basis of the truck loads, and resilient modulus and strength of the sulfur concrete and subgrade material using the critical strain and resilient modulus design method.Key words: sulfur concrete, mine haul road design, concrete pavement.

The open pit mining load and haul system has been a mainstay of the mining industry for many years. While machines have increased in size and scale and automation has become an important development, there have been few innovations to the actual load and haul process itself in recent times. This research highlights some of the potential productivity and safety benefits that the incorporation of a surge loader may bring to the load and haul system through an analysis of the system, discussion of component characteristics, and mine planning aspects. The incorporation of the surge loader into open pit loading and haulage operations also enables improved safety. This is a result of a reduction in shovel–truck interactions and the reduced likelihood of truck overfilling and uneven loading. This paper details the number of mine worker deaths that a surge loader may have prevented within the Peruvian and Chilean mining industries.

PT Timah (Persero) Tbk is a company engaged in mining especially tin. Tin is one of the most important deposits in the development of world technology. PT Timah (Persero) Tbk has an important role in the procurement of tin in the world. In mining, the mine planning stage is very important before the exploitation stage. At the planning stage of a mine will be planned in such a way as to obtain optimal results. One of the stages of mine planning is the planning of the required load equipment and haul equipment. PT Timah (Persero) Tbk plans to open a mine with open pit system that is using mechanical equipment in Mining Permit Area of West Bangka Regency, Bangka Belitung Islands Province. The mine plan has an ore-gain capacity of 200 m3/hour, requiring the planning of load and haul equipment to meet the ore getting capacity and stripping of overburden and haul geometry in general. Based on the factors that exist in the mine, the load equipment used is the excavator and haul equipment used is Articulared Dumpt Truck. By taking the cycle time as a reference and then converted by the distance of overburden stripping and ore getting activity every year, then can be known the productivity of equipment and the amount of equipment required each activity every year. The number of equipment required is at least 1 load equipment and 4 haul equipment, while the most are 4 load equipment and 13 haul equipment. The geometry of the haul road based on the specification of the haul equipment at the location of the plan has the width of the haul road on a 12 meter straight road, the haul road width at 21 meters, and the 9,1 meter bend radius

Open-pit mines generally have operational problems such as puddling and inappropriate water flow over haul roads, particularly if located in areas with high rainfall indices. These situations increase truck cycle times, promote rapid deterioration of haul-road wearing-course material, reduce productivity due to downtime and increase road maintenance. In addition, operational costs are raised as the frequency of truck maintenance and tire failures also increase. The use of a high-resolution three-dimensional elevation model, created based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry, has been shown to be an effective technique to detect anomalies in a fast and precise way. With the proposed approach, it is possible to diagnose haul-road conditions after rainfall or to anticipate the potential occurrence of such anomalies before they become a greater problem. This diagnosis can then be used to prioritize maintenance activities in open-pit mines. To describe the methodology, a case study is presented demonstrating and validating the results obtained.

In open pit operations, the loading equipment drives production but the haulage fleet drives costs. Most quarries in Malawi face challenges in shovel-truck productivity due to factors which require optimization of mine operations. The case of Njuli quarry is used to come up with a model that can be applied by quarries in Malawi. Loading and haulage costs account as much as 50 – 60 % of a company’s total operation cost hence it is necessary to maintain an efficient shovel-truck system. This research optimized the shovel-truck productivity per day, applied the queuing theory to the haul cycle, and suggested ways to improve the efficiency of materials handling operations. Examining a match between truck body size and shovel bucket size yielded the size of the load, cycle time and number of trips in an hour. The cycle time depended on the weight of the equipment, the horsepower of the engine, haul distance, and condition of the road plus dump area. Quarry companies in Malawi will apply this new knowledge to improve equipment selection and maximize the tonnage of aggregates produced per day to meet production targets.

This article focuses on the fact that engineers at Meritor Automotive decided to learn how truck components really held up on the highways. So they outfitted an 18-wheeler with the company’s products for a 24,000-mile trial, in real time and in the real world. According to Meritor, the comprehensive data generated by the test has spurred improvements in brake components, clutches, drivelines, axles, and transmissions. The company claims that the data opens opportunities for improvements in virtually every type of heavy-duty truck component that Meritor builds. The engineers in Meritor’s experimental mechanics unit enlisted support from all the groups in the heavy vehicle division. The use of a channel to record clutch pedal displacement helped engineers improve their model for determining the number of clutch applications in a line-haul duty cycle. Meritor expects that this information will lead to improved durability of several clutch components.

Eastern Extension of Pit Air Laya Limoa Mine was one of Air Laya Mine site that has coal miningbusiness license owned by PT Bukit Asam (Persero) Tbk. Excavator and truck method were applied inthat mine site. Mechanical equipments used in this site were 1 unit of Komatsu PC 800 SE Excavatorand 6 units of HINO LM 500 Dump Truck. Coal production target in Eastern Extension of Pit Air LayaLimoa Mine in October 2015 was 180.000 ton, but the production capacity of load haul equipment was157.179,39 ton with the work time efficiency at 14,07 hour/day and load haul equipment productiononly 129.245,20 ton with the work time efficiency at 13,97 hour/day. Therefore, evaluation wasnecessary throughout factors affecting working performance of mechanical equipment to achieve thetarget. Evaluation in achieving the target of coal production was conducted by calculating theproductivity, work efficiency and match factor. The data required to obtain these values includedequipment cycle time, the effective work time effeciency, the amount of bucket loading, density andcoal swell factor. Then the data was processed by using formula of mechanical soil removal andanalyzed based on literature related to the issue. After the evaluation of factors affectingperformance of mechanical equipments then work time effeciency corrected to be 15,61 hours/dayand additional of 6 to 7 unit of conveyance. There were changes in work time effeciency between loadhaul equipments and conveyance from 0,83 to 0,97. Production capabilities generated load haulequipment after being evaluated was 192.291,14 tons and production capabilities of conveyances,after the evaluation amounted to 188.236,03 tons.

Many factors influence the fatigue state of human beings, and fatigue has a significant adverse effect on the health and safety of the haulage operators in the mine. Among various fatigue monitoring systems in mine operations, currently, the Percentage of Eye Closure (PERCLOS) is common. However, work and other environmental factors influence the fatigue state of haul truck drivers; PERCLOS systems do not consider these factors in their modeling of fatigue. Therefore, modeling work and environmental factors’ impact on individual operations fatigue state could yield interesting insights into managing fatigue. This study provides an approach of using operational data sets to find the leading indicators of the operators’ fatigue. A machine learning algorithm is used to model the fatigue of the individual. eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithm is chosen for this model because of its efficiency, accuracy, and feasibility, which integrates multiple tree models and has stronger interpretability. A significant number of negative and positive samples are created from the available data to increase the number of datasets. Then, the results are compared with other existing models. A selected algorithm, along with a big data set was able to create a comprehensive model. The model was able to find the importance of the individual factors along with work and environmental factors among operational data sets.

Mining activities are usually associated with environmental impacts, particularly that of air pollution by fugitive dust. Malmberget mine is one of the most important iron mines in Sweden and the dust problem has been noticed by the inhabitants for a long time. Dust collectors had been installed to measure the dust fallout around the mining site. In this research the dust fallout recorded during the period August 2006 till July 2010 were analyzed. Generally speaking the amount of dust fallout was decreasing year by year due to some implemented dust control methods. Mining activities produced more dust during summer than winter. The peak value was 265g/100m2/30d appeared in May 2007, and the lowest dust fallout was 25g/100m2/30d happened in August 2009. Dust was determined to be originated from the open pit area and the industrial center area. Truck transportation on the haul roads, wind erosion of stockpiles and exposed areas were the main activities that caused dust generation.

Reducing the costs of the transport component, reaching up to 50% or more of the total cost of the mined coal, is an urgent task that does not require additional confirmation. Since the development of measures to improve the purely technical indicators of motor transport at open-pit mines is beyond the scope of the general study, we will limit ourselves to the search for technological solutions that can have a positive impact on the overall cost of production. This may include, for example, the search for solutions to reduce the duration of the transport cycle and optimization of its components. It is also necessary to study the possible changes in the indicators of the transport technology of open-pit mining when using classic open-pit dump trucks and autonomous heavy platforms (unmanned open-pit haul trucks). The article presents an analysis of existing technical and technological solutions and research on the use of unmanned transport technologies. It is established that the parameters of transport technology will change to some extent with the introduction of unmanned heavy platforms, which will inevitably lead both to the correction of the existing regulatory documentation, and a possible revision of the classical postulates of open-pit mining.

AbstractA major part of the European Union’s (EU) project Sustainable Intelligent Mining System (SIMS) is investigating the development of diesel-free/carbon–neutral underground mines in order to ensure sustainable underground mining in the future. Replacing diesel machines with electric vehicles in underground hard rock mines has been widely acknowledged by the mining industry worldwide as a critical step to improve working conditions by reducing diesel exhaust–related contaminants, to reduce mine ventilation electrical power cost by reducing mine airflow quantity, and to reduce mine greenhouse gas emissions. All of these are major requirements to achieve sustainable future underground mining practices. A field trial of Epiroc’s 2nd generation of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) at Agnico Eagle Finland’s Kittilä mine was conducted during 2019–2020. Vehicles tested were MT42 mine truck, ST14 Load-Haul-Dump (LHD), and Boomer E2 jumbo drill rig. This paper outlines the improvement of the working conditions observed in the field trial, and the opinions of the mine personnel at Kittilä mine on using BEVs instead of diesel machines. Measurements of atmospheric contaminants and air temperatures taken during the field trial clearly demonstrated a significant improvement of working conditions when BEVs were operating as opposed to diesel machines. This field observation was supported by the opinion of the majority of the Kittilä mine workers. However, some remaining concerns must be addressed before BEVs can replace diesel machines.

Background:Lower back pain is broadly defined discomfort or pain within the lumbar region of the human spine and it is the leading cause of function limitation, resulting in significant losses in productivity and billions of dollars in medical costs yearly. Its prevalence is estimated to be associated with a lower socioeconomic status and lower education levels. The intention of this study was to analyse the ergonomic factors linked with lower back pain amongst load-haul-dump truck operators at Freda Rebecca Gold Mine. Methods: A descriptive non-interventional cross-sectional study was used with the probit model and the chi-square used as the estimation techniques. The simple random sampling method was adopted in the survey with a total of 140 respondents who are all employees at Freda Rebecca Gold Mine, Zimbabwe. The Statistical Package Stata was used12. Results: The study indicated that 77.8% of the respondents suffered lower back pain at one time or the other. Results showed an association between lower back pain with demographic factors such as experience, gender and age, organisational factors such as type and duration of shift work, biomechanical factors such as lifting and handling protocols, postures, whole body vibrations exposure resulting from work related conditions such as road conditions, equipment conditions and design and other psychosocial factors. Conclusion: Therefore, the study promoted the adoption of a broad approach to reduction and management of LBP, including equipment engineering solutions to manage whole body vibration exposure, operator education, equipment assistive technology, strong equipment maintenance regime.Further interventions include adoption of best practice systems and improved clinical treatment systems

A survey of contamination with Salmonella was done in the breeder/multiplier and broiler houses, feed mills, hatcheries, and processing plants of two integrated broiler firms. Samples of insects and mice were also collected at each location. Sixty percent (60%) of the meat and bone meal samples collected at feed mills were contaminated. Salmonella was isolated from 35% of the mash feed samples tested. The pelleting process reduced Salmonella isolation rates by 82.0%. Data collected from breeder/multiplier houses suggested that feed was the ultimate source of Salmonella contamination in that environment. Salmonella was found in 9.4% of the yolk sac samples collected from day-old chicks in hatcheries. Fecal dropping samples collected in broiler houses about one week prior to slaughter were contaminated at a rate of 5.2%. Salmonella was found in 33% of the samples collected from live haul trucks and 21.4% of the whole processed broiler carcasses sampled at processing plants. Salmonella typhimurium was the serotype most commonly isolated. The gastrointestinal tract of one of 19 mice sampled was contaminated with Salmonella. Data suggest that insects were primarily mechanical carriers. Results suggest Salmonella contamination in the U.S. broiler production and processing system has changed little since 1969. The data also underline the contention that effective Salmonella control efforts must be comprehensive.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to conduct life-cycle cost analysis of a short-haul underground freight transportation (UFT) system for the Dallas Fort Worth international airport. Design/methodology/approach The research approach includes: identifying the cost components of the proposed airport UFT system; estimating life-cycle cost (LCC) of system components using various methods; determining life-cycle cash flows; evaluating the reliability of the results using sensitivity analysis; and assessing the validity of the results using analogues cases. Findings Although the capital cost of constructing an airport UFT system seems to be the largest cost of such innovative projects, annual costs for running the system are more significant, taking a life-cycle perspective. System administrative cost, tunnel operation and maintenance, and tunnel construction cost are the principle cost components of the UFT system representing approximately 46, 24 and 19 percent of the total LCC, respectively. The shipping cost is estimated to be $4.14 per ton-mile. Although this cost is more than the cost of transporting cargos by trucks, the implementation of UFT systems could be financially justified considering their numerous benefits. Originality/value This paper, for the first time, helps capital planners understand the LCC of an airport UFT system with no or limited past experience, and to consider such innovative solutions to address airport congestion issues.

Fuel cells for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) have attracted considerable attention because of their unique scalability, better fuel economy, and less demand for hydrogen refilling infrastructure relative to the light-duty vehicle application.1 However, the HDV application requires more stringent fuel cell durability, up to 25,000 h or 1 million miles of operation and increased efficiency. 1-2 Cathodes with relatively high Pt loading (~0.3 mg-Pt/cm2) have drawn extensive attention over initially highly active but unstable Pt-transition metal (Pt-TM) alloy3 catalysts owing to their capability of delivering high performance over long HDV lifetime. To fully exploit the potential of Pt in the HDV cathodes, new insights into the relationship between different drive cycles and operating conditions of HDVs and durability are needed with a particular emphasis on understanding the mechanisms for dissolution of Pt. Several mechanisms for dissolution of platinum have been proposed including direct Pt dissolution and electrochemical oxidation of the Pt surface atoms followed by chemical dissolution of the resulting Pt surface oxide. This presentation will outline the dissolution of Pt under various operating conditions in an electrochemical flow cell system connected to an inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) capable of detecting trace concentrations (<ppb) of dissolved elements in solution. The electrochemical data combined with the ICP-MS data are used to evaluate the influence of various factors such as potential, potentiodynamic profile parameters (e.g., scan rate, upper and lower potential limits), Pt catalyst particle size, and support type on the dissolution processes in acidic electrolytes at room and elevated temperatures. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO) through the Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck (M2FCT) Consortium. Argonne National Laboratory is managed for the U.S Department of Energy by the University of Chicago Argonne, LLC, also under contract DE-AC-02-06CH11357. References A. Cullen, K. C. Neyerlin, R. K. Ahluwalia, R. Mukundan, K. L. More, R. L. Borup, A. Z. Weber, D. J. Myers, and A. Kusoglu, Nat. Energy, 6, 462 (2021). Marcinkoski, et al. Hydrogen Class 8 Long Haul Truck Targets (US Department of Energy, 2019);https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19006_hydrogen_class8_long_haul_truck_targets.pdf L. Borup, et al., Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 21, 192–200 (2020).

Reliability analysis has a very important role in supporting the operation of a system in harsh working conditions such as mines. Haul trucks are considering as a main asset of an open pit mine. Dump trucks are comprised of different sub-systems and among them, tires have a significant effect on the haulage economy. This study focused on the remaining life estimation of the mining truck tires considering the environmental operating conditions at an open pit iron ore mine in Iran. To achieve this, the proportional hazard model was used to estimate the conditional reliability functions and then the mean residual life of tires at the various initial survival times. The results of this study show that the ambient temperature has a significant effect on the reliability performance. By increasing the initial life of tires from 500 to 1000 h, the mean residual life will be decreased by 21% and 30% in low (below 15°C) and high (above 15°C) ambient temperature levels. These results are helpful to keep the truck tire performance at a desirable level by considering the appropriate preventive maintenance intervals.

Operators of mining vehicles are frequently exposed to harmful levels of whole-body vibration (WBV). Long time exposure to WBV causes backache and has non-ergonomic effects on the human body. Exposure levels of the WBV have already been evaluated for different vehicles. Among these vehicles, mining trucks usually operate at the various working phases and also in different haul road conditions. This paper aims to develop a simultaneous integrated model to predict the WBV exposure for mining truck drivers. Considering the effect of the speed level, weight and geometry of load on the WBV exposure for the mining truck drivers are limited. There is not much research to predict the vibrational health risk level in conditions with no or missing data, as well. The root mean squire (RMS) of the vertical vibration of the seat and cabin floor was obtained during different operational conditions of an open pit mine in Iran. Then an artificial neural network was designed for the prediction of the vibrational health risk level. Regarding the results of this study, haul road quality, speed level, and load profile had a significant effect on vibration exposure. The average of the RMS values were 0.942 and 1.176 m/s2 for the good and poor road conditions, respectively that are in the high health risk levels. However, there was no significant relationship between the payloads, in the range of 20 to 30 tons, in the RMS values. At speeds higher than 30 km/h, the vibrational health risk was at high level for all conditions. Moreover, there were 93.83% correlation between the measured and simulated RMS values was found in the application of the neural network. This paper helps the mine managers to predict the unsafe conditions and consider the practical approach for the WBV risk reduction.

Mining operations determine a long-term production schedule, often to maximize net present value. For a time horizon of between years and decades, optimization models seek the extraction times—with monthly or yearly fidelity—of three-dimensional, notional blocks of ore and waste within a deposit to satisfy spatial precedence constraints, as well as resource constraints on the amount of material extracted and sent to the mill. With algorithmic advances, as well as those in mine planning software and in hardware, we are able to solve instances with a decade-long horizon at daily fidelity. The resulting objective, repeatable, and defensible schedules inform production and maintenance supervisory decisions based on resource availability, that is, loaders, shovels, haul trucks, and mineral processors. We implement our solutions at the Turquoise Ridge underground gold mine in Nevada, United States. These solutions indicate more than a 2% increase in total ounces extracted over a decade while decreasing development footage by as much as 11% over the same time horizon. Furthermore, we are able to incorporate rules governing a shared resource and to evaluate binding versus nonbinding capacity constraints.

AbstractThe retained coal in the end slope of an open-pit mine can be mined by the highwall mining techniques. However, the instability mechanism of the reserved rib pillar under dynamic loads of mining haul trucks and static loads of the overlying strata is not clear, which restricts the safe and efficient application of highwall mining. In this study, the load-bearing model of the rib pillar in highwall mining was established, the cusp catastrophe theory and the safety coefficient of the rib pillar were considered, and the criterion equations of the rib pillar stability were proposed. Based on the limit equilibrium theory, the limit stress of the rib pillar was analyzed, and the calculation equations of plastic zone width of the rib pillar in highwall mining were obtained. Based on the Winkler foundation beam theory, the elastic foundation beam model composed of the rib pillar and roof under the highwall mining was established, and the calculation equations for the compression of the rib pillar under dynamic and static loads were developed. The results showed that with the increase of the rib pillar width, the total compression of the rib pillar under dynamic and static loads decreases nonlinearly, and the compression of the rib pillar caused by static loads of the overlying strata and trucks has a decisive role. Numerical simulation and theoretical calculation were also performed in this study. In the numerical simulation, the coal seam with a buried depth of 122 m and a thickness of 3 m is mined by highwall mining techniques. According to the established rib pillar instability model of the highwall mining system, it is found that when the mining opening width is 3 m, the reasonable width of the rib pillar is at least 1.3 m, and the safety factor of the rib pillar is 1.3. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with the results of theoretical calculation, which verifies the feasibility of the theoretical analysis of the rib pillar stability. This research provides a reference for the stability analysis of rib pillars under highwall mining.

Introduction Almost all industries in Australia today have adopted digital media in some way. However, uses in large scale activities such as mining may seem to be different from others. This article looks at mining practices with a media studies approach, and concludes that, just as many other industries, mining and media have converged. Many Australian mine sites are adopting new media for communication and control to manage communication, explore for ore bodies, simulate forces, automate drilling, keep records, and make transport and command robotic. Beyond sharing similar digital devices for communication and computation, new media in mining employ characteristic digital media operations, such as numerical operation, automation and managed variability. This article examines the implications of finding that some of the most material practices have become mediated by new media. Mining has become increasingly mediated through new media technologies similar to GPS, visualisation, game remote operation, similar to those adopted in consumer home and mobile digital media. The growing and diversified adoption of digital media championed by companies like Rio Tinto aims not only ‘improve’ mining, but to change it. Through remediating practices of digital mining, new media have become integral powerful tools in prospective, real time and analytical environments. This paper draws on two well-known case studies of mines in the Pilbara and Western NSW. These have been documented in press releases and media reports as representing changes in media and mining. First, the West Angelas mines in the Pilbara is an open cut iron ore mine introducing automation and remote operation. This mine is located in the remote Pilbara, and is notable for being operated remotely from a control centre 2000km away, near Perth Airport, WA. A growing fleet of Komatsu 930E haul trucks, which can drive autonomously, traverses the site. Fitted with radars, lasers and GPS, these enormous vehicles navigate through the open pit mine with no direct human control. Introducing these innovations to mine sites become more viable after iron ore mining became increasingly profitable in the mid-2000s. A boom in steel building in China drove unprecedented demand. This growing income coincided with a change in public rhetoric from companies like Rio Tinto. They pointed towards substantial investments in research, infrastructure, and accelerated introduction of new media technologies into mining practices. Rio Tinto trademarked the term ‘Mine of the future’ (US Federal News Service 1), and publicised their ambitious project for renewal of mining practice, including digital media. More recently, prices have been more volatile. The second case study site is a copper and gold underground mine at Northparkes in Western NSW. Northparkes uses substantial sensing and control, as well as hybrid autonomous and remote operated vehicles. The use of digital media begins with prospecting, and through to logistics of transportation. Engineers place explosives in optimal positions using computer modelling of the underground rock formations. They make heavy use of software to coordinate layer-by-layer use of explosives in this advanced ‘box cut’ mine. After explosives disrupt the rock layer a kilometre underground, another specialised vehicle collects and carries the ore to the surface. The Sandvik loader-hauler-dumper (LHD) can be driven conventionally by a driver, but it can also travel autonomously in and out of the mine without a direct operator. Once it reaches a collection point, where the broken up ore has accumulated, a user of the surface can change the media mode to telepresence. The human operator then takes control using something like a games controller and multiple screens. The remote operator controls the LHD to fill the scoop with ore. The fully-loaded LHD backs up, and returns autonomously using laser senses to follow a trail to the next drop off point. The LHD has become a powerful mediator, reconfiguring technical, material and social practices throughout the mine. The Meanings of Mining and Media Are Converging Until recently, mining and media typically operated ontologically separately. The media, such as newspapers and television, often tell stories about mining, following regular narrative scripts. There are controversies and conflicts, narratives of ecological crises, and the economics of national benefit. There are heroic and tragic stories such as the Beaconsfield mine collapse (Clark). There are new industry policies (Middelbeek), which are politically fraught because of the lobbying power of miners. Almost completely separately, workers in mines were consumers of media, from news to entertainment. These media practices, while important in their own right, tell nothing of the approaching changes in many other sectors of work and everyday life. It is somewhat unusual for a media studies scholar to study mine sites. Mine sites are most commonly studied by Engineering (Bellamy & Pravica), Business and labour and cultural histories (McDonald, Mayes & Pini). Until recently, media scholarship on mining has related to media institutions, such as newspapers, broadcasters and websites, and their audiences. As digital media have proliferated, the phenomena that can be considered as media phenomena has changed. This article, pointing to the growing roles of media technologies, observes the growing importance that media, in these terms, have in the rapidly changing domain of mining. Another meaning for ‘media’ studies, from cybernetics, is that a medium is any technology that translates perception, makes interpretations, and performs expressions. This meaning is more abstract, operating with a broader definition of media — not only those institutionalised as newspapers or radio stations. It is well known that computer-based media have become ubiquitous in culture. This is true in particular within the mining company’s higher ranks. Rio Tinto’s ambitious 2010 ‘Mine of the Future’ (Fisher & Schnittger, 2) program was premised on an awareness that engineers, middle managers and senior staff were already highly computer literate. It is worth remembering that such competency was relatively uncommon until the late 1980s. The meanings of digital media have been shifting for many years, as computers become experienced more as everyday personal artefacts, and less as remote information systems. Their value has always been held with some ambivalence. Zuboff’s (387-414) picture of loss, intimidation and resistance to new information technologies in the 1980s seems to have dissipated by 2011. More than simply being accepted begrudgingly, the PC platform (and variants) has become a ubiquitous platform, a lingua franca for information workers. It became an intimate companion for many professions, and in many homes. It was an inexpensive, versatile and generalised convergent medium for communication and control. And yet, writers such as Gregg observe, the flexibility of networked digital work imposes upon many workers ‘unlimited work’. The office boundaries of the office wall break down, for better or worse. Emails, utility and other work-related behaviours increasingly encroach onto domestic and public space and time. Its very attractiveness to users has tied them to these artefacts. The trail that leads the media studies discipline down the digital mine shaft has been cleared by recent work in media archaeology (Parikka), platform studies (Middelbeek; Montfort & Bogost; Maher) and new media (Manovich). Each of these redefined Media Studies practices addresses the need to diversify the field’s attention and methods. It must look at more specific, less conventional and more complex media formations. Mobile media and games (both computer-based) have turned out to be quite different from traditional media (Hjorth; Goggin). Kirschenbaum’s literary study of hard drives and digital fiction moves from materiality to aesthetics. In my study of digital mining, I present a reconfigured media studies, after the authors, that reveals heterogeneous media configurations, deserving new attention to materiality. This article also draws from the actor network theory approach and terminology (Latour). The uses of media / control / communications in the mining industry are very complex, and remain under constant development. Media such as robotics, computer modelling, remote operation and so on are bound together into complex practices. Each mine site is different — geologically, politically, and economically. Mines are subject to local and remote disasters. Mine tunnels and global prices can collapse, rendering active sites uneconomical overnight. Many technologies are still under development — including Northparkes and West Angelas. Both these sites are notable for their significant use of autonomous vehicles and remote operated vehicles. There is no doubt that the digital technologies modulate all manner of the mining processes: from rocks and mechanical devices to human actors. Each of these actors present different forms of collusion and opposition. Within a mining operation, the budgets for computerised and even robotic systems are relatively modest for their expected return. Deep in a mine, we can still see media convergence at work. Convergence refers to processes whereby previously diverse practices in media have taken on similar devices and techniques. While high-end PCs in mining, running simulators; control data systems; visualisation; telepresence, and so on may be high performance, ruggedised devices, they still share a common platform to the desktop PC. Conceptual resources developed in Media Ecology, New Media Studies, and the Digital Humanities can now inform readings of mining practices, even if their applications differ dramatically in size, reliability and cost. It is not entirely surprising that some observations by new media theorists about entertainment and media applications can also relate to features of mining technologies. Manovich argues that numerical representation is a distinctive feature of new media. Numbers have always already been key to mining engineering. However, computers visualise numerical fields in simulations that extend out of the minds of the calculators, and into visual and even haptic spaces. Specialists in geology, explosives, mechanical apparatuses, and so on, can use plaftorms that are common to everyday media. As the significance of numbers is extended by computers in the field, more and more diverse sources of data provide apparently consistent and seamless images of multiple fields of knowledge. Another feature that Manovich identifies in new media is the capacity for automation of media operations. Automation of many processes in mechanical domains clearly occurred long before industrial technologies were ported into new media. The difference with new media in mine sites is that robotic systems must vary their performance according to feedback from their extra-system environments. For our purposes, the haul trucks in WA are software-controlled devices that already qualify as robots. They sense, interpret and act in the world based on their surroundings. They evaluate multiple factors, including the sensors, GPS signals, operator instructions and so on. They can repeat the path, by sensing the differences, day after day, even if the weather changes, the track wears away or the instructions from base change. Automation compensates for differences within complex and changing environments. Automation of an open-pit mine haulage system… provides more consistent and efficient operation of mining equipment, it removes workers from potential danger, it reduces fuel consumption significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and it can help optimize vehicle repairs and equipment replacement because of more-predictable and better-controlled maintenance. (Parreire and Meech 1-13) Material components in physical mines tend to become modular and variable, as their physical shape lines up with the logic of another of Manovich’s new media themes, variability. Automatic systems also make obsolete human drivers, who previously handled those environmental variations, for better or for worse, through the dangerous, dull and dirty spaces of the mine. Drivers’ capacity to control repeat trips is no longer needed. The Komatsu driverless truck, introduced to the WA iron ore mines from 2008, proved itself to be almost as quick as human drivers at many tasks. But the driverless trucks have deeper advantages: they can run 23 hours each day with no shift breaks; they drive more cautiously and wear the equipment less than human drivers. There is no need to put up workers and their families up in town. The benefit most often mentioned is safety: even the worst accident won’t produce injuries to drivers. The other advantage less mentioned is that autonomous trucks don’t strike. Meanwhile, managers of human labour also need to adopt certain strategies of modulation to support the needs and expectations of their workers. Mobile phones, televisions and radio are popular modes of connecting workers to their loved ones, particularly in the remote and harsh West Angelas site. One solution — regular fly-in-fly out shifts — tends also to be alienating for workers and locals (Cheshire; Storey; Tonts). As with any operations, the cost of maintaining a safe and comfortable environment for workers requires trade-offs. Companies face risks from mobile phones, leaking computer networks, and espionage that expose the site to security risks. Because of such risks, miners tend be subject to disciplinary regimes. It is common to test alcohol and drug levels. There was some resistance from workers, who refused to change to saliva testing from urine testing (Latimer). Contesting these machines places the medium, in a different sense, at the centre of regulation of the workers’ bodies. In Northparkes, the solution of hybrid autonomous and remote operation is also a solution for modulating labour. It is safer and more comfortable, while also being more efficient, as one experienced driver can control three trucks at a time. This more complex mode of mediation is necessary because underground mines are more complex in geology, and working environments to suit full autonomy. These variations provide different relationships between operators and machines. The operator uses a games controller, and watches four video views from the cabin to make the vehicle fill the bucket with ore (Northparkes Mines, 9). Again, media have become a pivotal element in the mining assemblage. This combines the safety and comfort of autonomous operation (helping to retain staff) with the required use of human sensorimotor dexterity. Mine systems deserve attention from media studies because sites are combining large scale physical complexity with increasingly sophisticated computing. The conventional pictures of mining and media rarely address the specificity of subjective and artefactual encounters in and around mine sites. Any research on mining communication is typically within the instrumental frames of engineering (Duff et al.). Some of the developments in mechanical systems have contributed to efficiency and safety of many mines: larger trucks, more rock crushers, and so on. However, the single most powerful influence on mining has been adopting digital media to control, integrate and mining systems. Rio Tinto’s transformative agenda document is outlined in its high profile ‘Mine of the Future’ agenda (US Federal News Service). The media to which I refer are not only those in popular culture, but also those with digital control and communications systems used internally within mines and supply chains. The global mining industry began adopting digital communication automation (somewhat) systematically only in the 1980s. Mining companies hesitated to adopt digital media because the fundamentals of mining are so risky and bound to standard procedures. Large scale material operations, extracting and processing minerals from under the ground: hardly to be an appropriate space for delicate digital electronics. Mining is also exposed to volatile economic conditions, so investing in anything major can be unattractive. High technology perhaps contradicts an industry ethos of risk-taking and masculinity. Digital media became domesticated, and familiar to a new generation of formally educated engineers for whom databases and algorithms (Manovich) were second nature. Digital systems become simultaneously controllers of objects, and mediators of meanings and relationships. They control movements, and express communications. Computers slide from using meanings to invoking direct actions over objects in the world. Even on an everyday scale, computer operations often control physical processes. Anti-lock Braking Systems regulate a vehicle’s braking pressure to avoid the danger when wheels lock-up. Or another example, is the ATM, which involves both symbolic interactions, and also exchange of physical objects. These operations are examples of the ‘asignifying semiotic’ (Guattari), in which meanings and non-meanings interact. There is no operation essential distinction between media- and non-media digital operations. Which are symbolic, attached or non-consequential is not clear. This trend towards using computation for both meanings and actions has accelerated since 2000. Mines of the Future Beyond a relatively standard set of office and communications software, many fields, including mining, have adopted specialised packages for their domains. In 3D design, it is AutoCAD. In hard sciences, it is custom modelling. In audiovisual production, it may be Apple and Adobe products. Some platforms define their subjectivity, professional identity and practices around these platforms. This platform orientation is apparent in areas of mining, so that applications such as the Gemcom, Rockware, Geological Database and Resource Estimation Modelling from Micromine; geology/mine design software from Runge, Minemap; and mine production data management software from Corvus. However, software is only a small proportion of overall costs in the industry. Agents in mining demand solutions to peculiar problems and requirements. They are bound by their enormous scale; physical risks of environments, explosive and moving elements; need to negotiate constant change, as mining literally takes the ground from under itself; the need to incorporate geological patterns; and the importance of logistics. When digital media are the solution, there can be what is perceived as rapid gains, including greater capacities for surveillance and control. Digital media do not provide more force. Instead, they modulate the direction, speed and timing of activities. It is not a complete solution, because too many uncontrolled elements are at play. Instead, there are moment and situations when the degree of control refigures the work that can be done. Conclusions In this article I have proposed a new conception of media change, by reading digital innovations in mining practices themselves as media changes. This involved developing an initial reading of the operations of mining as digital media. With this approach, the array of media components extends far beyond the conventional ‘mass media’ of newspapers and television. It offers a more molecular media environment which is increasingly heterogeneous. It sometimes involves materiality on a huge scale, and is sometimes apparently virtual. The mining media event can be a semiotic, a signal, a material entity and so on. It can be a command to a human. It can be a measurement of location, a rock formation, a pressure or an explosion. The mining media event, as discussed above, is subject to Manovich’s principles of media, being numerical, variable and automated. In the mining media event, these principles move from the aesthetic to the instrumental and physical domains of the mine site. The role of new media operates at many levels — from the bottom of the mine site to the cruising altitude of the fly-in-fly out aeroplanes — has motivated significant changes in the Australian industry. When digital media and robotics come into play, they do not so much introduce change, but reintroduce similarity. This inversion of media is less about meaning, and more about local mastery. Media modulation extends the kinds of influence that can be exerted by the actors in control. In these situations, the degrees of control, and of resistance, are yet to be seen. Acknowledgments Thanks to Mining IQ for a researcher's pass at Mining Automation and Communication Conference, Perth in August 2012. References Bellamy, D., and L. Pravica. “Assessing the Impact of Driverless Haul Trucks in Australian Surface Mining.” Resources Policy 2011. Cheshire, L. “A Corporate Responsibility? The Constitution of Fly-In, Fly-Out Mining Companies as Governance Partners in Remote, Mine-Affected Localities.” Journal of Rural Studies 26.1 (2010): 12–20. Clark, N. “Todd and Brant Show PM Beaconsfield's Cage of Hell.” The Mercury, 6 Nov. 2008. Duff, E., C. Caris, A. Bonchis, K. Taylor, C. Gunn, and M. Adcock. “The Development of a Telerobotic Rock Breaker.” CSIRO 2009: 1–10. Fisher, B.S. and S. Schnittger. Autonomous and Remote Operation Technologies in the Mining Industry: Benefits and Costs. BAE Report 12.1 (2012). Goggin, G. Global Mobile Media. London: Routledge, 2010. Gregg, M. Work’s Intimacy. Cambridge: Polity, 2011. Guattari, F. Chaosmosis: An Ethico-Aesthetic Paradigm. Trans. Paul Bains and Julian Pefanis. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1992. Hjorth, L. Mobile Media in the Asia-Pacific: Gender and the Art of Being Mobile. Taylor & Francis, 2008. Kirschenbaum, M.G. Mechanisms: New Media and the Forensic Imagination. Campridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008. Latimer, Cole. “Fair Work Appeal May Change Drug Testing on Site.” Mining Australia 2012. 3 May 2013 ‹http://www.miningaustralia.com.au/news/fair-work-appeal-may-change-drug-testing-on-site›. Latour, B. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Maher, J. The Future Was Here: The Commodore Amiga. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012. Manovich, Lev. The Language of New Media. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001. McDonald, P., R. Mayes, and B. Pini. “Mining Work, Family and Community: A Spatially-Oriented Approach to the Impact of the Ravensthorpe Nickel Mine Closure in Remote Australia.” Journal of Industrial Relations 2012. Middelbeek, E. “Australia Mining Tax Set to Slam Iron Ore Profits.” Metal Bulletin Weekly 2012. Montfort, N., and I. Bogost. Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2009. Parikka, J. What Is Media Archaeology? London: Polity Press, 2012. Parreira, J., and J. Meech. “Autonomous vs Manual Haulage Trucks — How Mine Simulation Contributes to Future Haulage System Developments.” Paper presented at the CIM Meeting, Vancouver, 2010. 3 May 2013 ‹http://www.infomine.com/library/publications/docs/parreira2010.pdf›. Storey, K. “Fly-In/Fly-Out and Fly-Over: Mining and Regional Development in Western Australia.” Australian Geographer 32.2 (2010): 133–148. Storey, K. “Fly-In/Fly-Out: Implications for Community Sustainability.” Sustainability 2.5 (2010): 1161–1181. 3 May 2013 ‹http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1161›. Takayama, L., W. Ju, and C. Nas. “Beyond Dirty, Dangerous and Dull: What Everyday People Think Robots Should Do.” Paper presented at HRI '08, Amsterdam, 2008. 3 May 2013 ‹http://www-cdr.stanford.edu/~wendyju/publications/hri114-takayama.pdf›. Tonts, M. “Labour Market Dynamics in Resource Dependent Regions: An Examination of the Western Australian Goldfields.” Geographical Research 48.2 (2010): 148-165. 3 May 2013 ‹http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2009.00624.x/abstract›. US Federal News Service, Including US State News. “USPTO Issues Trademark: Mine of the Future.” 31 Aug. 2011. Wu, S., H. Han, X. Liu, H. Wang, F. Xue. “Highly Effective Use of Australian Pilbara Blend Lump Ore in a Blast Furnace.” Revue de Métallurgie 107.5 (2010): 187-193. doi:10.1051/metal/2010021. Zuboff, S. In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power. Heinemann Professional, 1988.

A scope study is conducted to investigate the technical and commercial feasibility of converting existing mine haul truck engines to a fuel regime of methane and diesel. A dual fuel engine with two technology options of homogeneous gas charge and high pressure direct injection are considered. The results of this study show that cost reduction is only possible when methane is available at a cost saving that compensates for the expense of building a new fuel infrastructure, and a clean combustion is expected. In contrast to diesel-only engines, particulate emissions in dual fuel engines are less. However, unburned methane in the exhaust gases or significant methane leakage must be seriously taken into consideration for replacing diesel with methane. This scope study argues that the dual fuel operation with HGC/CNG technology is expected to be feasible even at a relatively small truck fleet size.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the concurrent validity of learning potential and psychomotor ability measures for the prediction of haul truck operator performance in an open-pit mine. Additional goals were to determine the nature of the relationship between learning potential and psychomotor abilities and to assess the relative contributions of these variables as predictors. The predictors were the TRAM 1 Learning Potential test and Vienna Test System subtests that were administered to 128 experienced haul truck operators. The job performance criteria used were spotting in time, corrected tons hauled and supervisor ranking. The concurrent validity of the learning potential and psychomotor ability measures was partially supported. An exploratory factor analysis provided relatively convincing evidence for a general cognitive ability factor (g) underlying performance on the learning potential and several psychomotor measures. The existence of a general psychomotor factor was not substantiated in the current study. Suggestions were made for improving design and criterion shortcomings. Opsomming Die doel van die ondersoek was om die saamvallende geldigheid van leerpotensiaal en psigomotoriese metings vir die voorspelling van die werkprestasie van sleepvragwabestuurders in ’n oopgroefmyn te beoordeel. Addisionele doelwitte was om die aard van die verwantskap tussen leerpotensiaal en psigomotoriese vermoëns te gepaal en om die relatiewe bydraes van hierdie veranderlikes as voorspellers te bepaal. Die voorspellers was die TRAM 1 Leerpotensiaaltoets en die Vienna Test System subtoetse wat toegepas is op 128 ervare sleepvragwabestuurders. Die werkprestasiekriteria was inteikentyd, gekorrigeerde tonmaat gesleep en toesighouerbeoordeling. Die saamvallende geldigheid van die leerpotensiaal en psigomotoriese metings is gedeeltelik ondersteun. ’n Ondersoekende faktorontleding het die bestaan van ’n algemene kognitiewe vermoëfaktor (g), wat onderliggend aan die leerpotensiaal en verskeie psigomotoriese metings is, redelik oortuigend gestaaf. ’n Algemene psigomotoriese faktor is nie in die huidige ondersoek gevind nie. Voorstelle is gemaak om die ontwerp- en kriteriumtekortkominge te verbeter.

Cars crest the rise behind the truck stop and drop cones of light over the highway. Ryan dunks his head under a tap. He rubs red dust from his pores and tries to drink some water, but it slides down his throat like a length of wire.His older brother Josh fills their drink bottles. “Wanna get some chips or something?”Ryan shakes his head. He’s sick of watching Josh’s pulpy tongue poke his broken tooth. Their dad never left visible marks before—Ryan used to wish for a cut or bruise, so someone at school could see it. He shivers and clutches his coat tight. Josh says, “We got money.”Ryan wonders how Josh stole it. He didn’t know there was anything to steal. He stares back down the road.“Fine, fuck, I’ll get—”Ryan nudges him and he looks over his shoulder. A square silhouette approaches. The brothers stand back as a two-storey house pulls up in front of them, strapped to the back of a truck. The house is cut in half, patched with pale afterimages of furniture and light fittings. A door slams and a tattooed man with a white wedge of beard climbs out of the cabin. He stretches and heads for the toilets. Josh sidles up to the house and runs his hands along the straight, fresh edge of the floorboards. Sawdust settles onto his hoodie. He laughs and hurls his bag into one of the rooms. “Shit yeah. You coming?” Ryan hesitates. He remembers the time Josh’s Torana—a windowless wreck, used for drifting in paddocks and chasing kangaroos—broke down at the back of their property. Ryan and their dad towed Josh in the four-wheel drive while he sat in the Torana, steering with his knees. He started swinging wide, bouncing the back of the car off tree trunks, until he overshot and hit an old gum headfirst. The cable snapped, jerking the four-wheel drive to a halt. Ryan’s head smacked against the dash. Josh emerged from the smoking Torana with a bloody nose, laughing hysterically—thumping the bonnet and laughing hysterically—even after his dad came over and hit him on the back of the head. Through a window in the far wall they watch the driver eat a sausage roll. Ryan follows Josh upstairs and they stand on the edge of the second floor, where the distorted acoustics amplify the traffic sounds. From this angle, the outback barely conceals the curvature of the earth. The moon is a globe of bone amongst the clouds, a ball and socket. Ryan thinks they’re in a kid’s bedroom; a mural on the far wall depicts the bottom of the ocean and a tinted window spreads faded colours on the floor. He tries to imagine the room with all its walls in place. The brothers hide in a back room when they hear the driver's footsteps. The driver slides a torch over the house and light filters through the floorboards in front of them. They press themselves against the wall. Ryan starts shivering again and Josh elbows him in the ribs. The truck eases onto the road and the house groans, its unsupported floorboards dipping and lifting like piano keys. Signs and lights flick past. The brothers creep downstairs, struggling to stay upright on the vibrating staircase. Josh opens two tins of baked beans. A string of cold sauce as thick as an artery spills down Ryan’s neck. They place the empty tins on the floor and bet on which one will roll off the edge first. Josh wins. He grabs Ryan’s head and rubs his knuckles into it. Josh runs into the bathroom, which juts out over the edge of the trailer. Ryan hangs back in the doorway. Instead of a toilet Josh finds a small circle cut out of the floor. He steadies himself and pisses in it. Ryan sprints into the other room and pisses out the window. They laugh and piss until a horn blares behind them. Ryan ducks. Urine splatters on the sill. He scrabbles with his pants. He’s pissed on someone’s windscreen. The horn’s still going. Headlights hit the trees beside him. Josh comes in from the toilet and Ryan grabs him and pulls him to the ground. A four-wheel drive appears beside them. There’s barely enough room on the road; the truck swerves away and a branch scrapes along the roof of the house. The passengers hang out the windows, screaming abuse. Josh stumbles onto his feet and gives them the finger. Someone hurls an empty coke can and it lands on the second floor. Then the car is gone and only the wind remains, filling the house with the whining roar of a depressurised aircraft. The trees are a smear of static. Josh smacks Ryan on the back of the head. Ryan swings instinctively. Josh deflects his fist and knocks him to the floor and Ryan’s head hits the skirting board. Something crumbles. Ryan presses his thumb into Josh’s black eye and Josh twists his arm behind his back. When they were kids Josh pinned Ryan in this position and shoved gravel into his mouth. Ryan remembers the stones scratching his teeth, the bloody mud he spat out. Josh lets him up and Ryan scrambles into the corner, sick with sudden panic. He kicks his bag away. Josh wipes his mouth and laughs. He crouches down and stares at the spot where Ryan’s head hit the wall. One of the panels has collapsed inwards. Josh snorts. “Look what your fucking head did!” He pulls out the panel and tosses it onto the road. He shines his torch into the space behind it, brushes away the cobwebs and extracts a cheap gold box. “Well, well, well,” he mutters. He sets it on the ground and dusts the lid off. He tries to pry it open it but it’s locked. Ryan looks over. Josh grips the box in both hands and pulls. For a moment his top teeth dig into his lip and then the box bursts open, scattering pieces of silver. Ryan reaches out his hand, expecting jewellery, but he jerks it back when he finds a razor near his foot. The floor is littered with needles and knives. Josh picks up a brown glass bottle and squints at the label. “Iodine.” They stare at the blades in silence. A sand bank slides past as steadily as a sine wave. Josh carves the word FUCK into the floor with a scalpel. Ryan cringes but doesn’t dare warn him about diseases. On long-distance drives Ryan often stares out the window and imagines his vision is a laser-beam, cutting cleanly through cities, forests, passers-by. Now he pictures a wrecking ball swinging into the darkness and colliding with a run-down rollercoaster. He imagines the ball smashing through the tangle of struts and tracks; wrapping around and around a corkscrew section like a yoyo; sending a train of carriages hurtling through the remains of a loop. A few hours later the house passes through a town surrounded by silos and steel windmills. The brothers retreat to the mural room. Streetlights slide on and off them: orange, black, orange, black, orange, black. Josh waves at the people on the balcony of the pub. In a slouched house over a hardware store Ryan glimpses, through half-closed curtains, a topless woman sitting on the edge of a bed, combing her hair. He tries to make out the name of the town on the shopfronts. Josh lights a joint, indifferent. Ryan slides his torch over the door frame, which is marked with the family’s heights. The vibrations blur the words, but he makes out the name “Molly” at eye level. He wonders if this is her room. He stares at the underwater scene and remembers reading somewhere that squids lay eggs via a funnel under their eyes, so their offspring emerge like hard, heavy tears. Josh offers the joint to Ryan, who snatches it and takes a shallow drag. Josh brushes dandruff off his sleeves. Ryan drops the joint when a siren starts to wail: they scramble to their feet and run over to the back window, fearing the police, but the road’s empty. Josh looks up and shouts, “Smoke detector!” Ryan starts waving his jacket to clear the smoke, but Josh just rips the detector from the ceiling and hurls it into a dam beside the road. Once the houses thin out the brothers climb back downstairs and unroll their sleeping bags. Ryan uses his pack as a pillow but Josh’s is still full of tins. Dark branches clasp the stars. Ryan gets up and tugs at his penis in the toilet, watching the bitumen slide under the hole like a belt sander. He tries to remember the scene above the hardware store—the line of tea lights on the windowsill, the mosquito net over the bed, the woman’s small, pale breasts—but his mind keeps replaying the image of a young girl pressing a razor into her thigh. They're woken a few hours later by footsteps. Ryan opens his eyes. Josh is already on his feet. “What the hell is that?” The ceiling creaks again and Josh picks up the torch and the scalpel. “I'm gonna take a look.” They creep upstairs. The hall is empty. Something shuffles in one of the rooms and slams against the wall. Josh whispers, “There ain’t no doors on that side of the hall. The fucking door's in the other half of the house.' He grabs the end of the wall and leans out, struggling to see around it. The wind blasts him back and he cups his hands over his black eye. He pushes the torch into Ryan’s chest. “Go. You go.” Ryan tries to turn away but Josh blocks him and says, “Don’t be a dickhead. Just see what’s over there.” The dark, crinkled skin around his eye shines with tears. “Fuck’s sake, my eye’s killing me. I can’t go.” He pushes Ryan again. With his free hand Ryan feels for the frame behind the plaster. He swings his leg around the wall, plants his foot on the other side, presses his chest against the end of the wall and edges into the other room. It’s empty. Sliding doors in the far wall conceal a walk-in wardrobe. A door on the right leads to an en suite. His foot crunches on the coke can and he kicks it onto the road. He pushes the bathroom door open and the torch beam slides over the tiles. He glimpses movement behind him in the mirror, but it’s only the trees. The tiles remind him of the killing floor on their chicken farm. When he and Josh were little their dad just cut the chickens’ heads off with an axe and let them run around spurting blood out of their necks, but a few years ago he got new machinery installed. Now the chickens were strung up by their feet on an overhead conveyor belt that carried them to a trough filled with electrified water, which killed them as soon as their heads hit it. He walks back into the bedroom and stares at the sliding doors. “Oi hurry up!” Josh shouts from the hall. “Fuck you.” “Fuck you, dickhead!” Ryan pushes a sliding door open and shines his torch in. A man crouches in the darkness, gripping a bottle of colourless liquid in both hands. His clothes are stuffed with newspapers; his beard clings to his chin like clotted blood caked together. He stares at Ryan and shouts, “Bastards! Leave me alone ya bastards! Get outta here! Get out!” He hurls the bottle and it smacks into Ryan’s shoulder. The bottle smashes on the floor; shards of glass cascade onto the highway. The man stumbles out of the wardrobe, lunging at Ryan, grabbing at his jacket. Ryan reaches around the wall and Josh pulls him over. The man slams his fists rhythmically, like pistons, into the other side of the wall. They scramble downstairs and Ryan takes off his jacket and waves it over the edge, screaming to get the driver’s attention. He looks up and sees the man shouting at him, tears streaming sideways across his face. Josh pulls Ryan back but he struggles free. Ryan crouches near the edge and stares at the scrub racing past. There’s a hill ahead and the truck’s slowing down. Josh sees what he’s thinking and calls him an idiot, but he’s already leaning forwards, judging the distance, waiting for the driver to downshift. Josh grabs him by the collar and hisses something but he doesn’t listen and pulls away and jumps. His head smacks solidly against a root and his arm twists under his torso, grinding into the gravel. He lies on his back and spits out black dust. Blood dribbles out of his arm. When the house reaches the top of the hill something flies out and bounces along the side of the road. Ryan gets to his feet and limps towards it. He searches through the bushes and finds his bag with half the tins in it. The roof of the house disappears over the top of the hill and he imagines Josh reaching his destination, perhaps a few hours after dawn, on a small hill out in the bush somewhere, where the morning light is as sallow as blood plasma and the other half of the house is already waiting.