Journal articles on the topic 'Microscopy'
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1
Schatten, G., J. Pawley, and H. Ris. "Integrated microscopy resource for biomedical research at the university of wisconsin at madison." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 594–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100127451.
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The High Voltage Electron Microscopy Laboratory [HVEM] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a National Institutes of Health Biomedical Research Technology Resource, has recently been renamed the Integrated Microscopy Resource for Biomedical Research [IMR]. This change is designed to highlight both our increasing abilities to provide sophisticated microscopes for biomedical investigators, and the expansion of our mission beyond furnishing access to a million-volt transmission electron microscope. This abstract will describe the current status of the IMR, some preliminary results, our upcoming plans, and the current procedures for applying for microscope time.The IMR has five principal facilities: 1.High Voltage Electron Microscopy2.Computer-Based Motion Analysis3.Low Voltage High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy4.Tandem Scanning Reflected Light Microscopy5.Computer-Enhanced Video MicroscopyThe IMR houses an AEI-EM7 one million-volt transmission electron microscope.
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Chen, Xiaodong, Bin Zheng, and Hong Liu. "Optical and Digital Microscopic Imaging Techniques and Applications in Pathology." Analytical Cellular Pathology 34, no. 1-2 (2011): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/150563.
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The conventional optical microscope has been the primary tool in assisting pathological examinations. The modern digital pathology combines the power of microscopy, electronic detection, and computerized analysis. It enables cellular-, molecular-, and genetic-imaging at high efficiency and accuracy to facilitate clinical screening and diagnosis. This paper first reviews the fundamental concepts of microscopic imaging and introduces the technical features and associated clinical applications of optical microscopes, electron microscopes, scanning tunnel microscopes, and fluorescence microscopes. The interface of microscopy with digital image acquisition methods is discussed. The recent developments and future perspectives of contemporary microscopic imaging techniques such as three-dimensional and in vivo imaging are analyzed for their clinical potentials.
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J. H., Youngblom, Wilkinson J., and Youngblom J.J. "Telepresence Confocal Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (August 2000): 1164–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600038319.
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The advent of the Internet has allowed the development of remote access capabilities to a growing variety of microscopy systems. The Materials MicroCharacterization Collaboratory, for example, has developed an impressive facility that provides remote access to a number of highly sophisticated microscopy and microanalysis instruments. While certain types of microscopes, such as scanning electron microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, scanning probe microscopes, and others have already been established for telepresence microscopy, no one has yet reported on the development of similar capabilities for the confocal laser scanning microscope.At California State University-Stanislaus, home of the CSUPERB (California State University Program for Education and Research in Biotechnology) Confocal Microscope Core Facility, we have established a remote access confocal laser scanning microscope facility that allows users with virtually any type of computer platform to connect to our system. Our Leica TCS NT confocal system, with an interchangeable upright (DMRXE) and inverted microscope (DMIRBE) set up,
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Youngblom, J. H., J. Wilkinson, and J. J. Youngblom. "Telepresence Confocal Microscopy." Microscopy Today 8, no. 10 (December 2000): 20–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500054146.
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The advent of the Internet has allowed the development of remote access capabilities to a growing variety of microscopy systems. The Materials MicroCharacterization Collaboratory, for example, has developed an impressive facility that provides remote access to a number of highly sophisticated microscopy and microanalysis instruments, While certain types of microscopes, such as scanning electron microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, scanning probe microscopes, and others have already been established for telepresence microscopy, no one has yet reported on the development of similar capabilities for the confocal laser scanning microscope.
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Brooks, Donald A. "The College of Microscopy — Meeting Rapidly Growing Microscopy Demands." Microscopy Today 15, no. 4 (July 2007): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500055735.
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The McCrone Group Inc. recently announced the completion of a 40,000 sq ft addition to house its new College of Microscopy. Since its founding in 1956, The McCrone Group has grown into a multi-faceted organization and now encompasses three main organizations, McCrone Associates - the analytical service and consulting firm; McCrone Microscopes & Accessories - the microscope and instrument sales group; and, the College of Microscopy - the microscopy learning center. The newly completed addition houses the first and only College of Microscopy and offers the largest array of basic and advanced modern microscopy courses and analytical instrumentation within any single educational facility worldwide. At The McCrone Group, we have more than $15 million worth of microscopes and analytical instrumentation and assembled one of the best scientific/administrative teams in the world.
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Graef, M. De, N. T. Nuhfer, and N. J. Cleary. "Implementation Of A Digital Microscopy Teaching Environment." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 4–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600013349.
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The steady evolution of computer controlled electron microscopes is dramatically changing the way we teach microscopy. For today’s microscopy student, an electron microscope may be just another program on the desktop of whatever computer platform he or she uses. This is reflected in the use of the term Desktop Microscopy. The SEM in particular has become a mouse and keyboard controlled machine, and running the microscope is not very different from using a drawing program or a word processor. Transmission electron microscopes are headed in the same direction.While one can debate whether or not it is wise to treat an SEM or a TEM as just another black-box computer program, it is a fact that these machines are here to stay, which means that microscopy educators must adapt their traditional didactic tools and methods. One way to bring electron microscopes into the classroom is through the use of remote control software packages, such as Timbuktu Pro or PC-Anywhere. The remote user essentially opens a window containing the desktop of the microscope control computer and has all functions available. On microscopes with specialized graphics boards, integration of the image and control display for remote operation may not be straightforward, and often requires the purchase of additional graphics boards for the remote machine.
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Martone, Maryann E. "Bridging the Resolution Gap: Correlated 3D Light and Electron Microscopic Analysis of Large Biological Structures." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 526–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600015956.
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One class of biological structures that has always presented special difficulties to scientists interested in quantitative analysis is comprised of extended structures that possess fine structural features. Examples of these structures include neuronal spiny dendrites and organelles such as the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. Such structures may extend 10's or even 100's of microns, a size range best visualized with the light microscope, yet possess fine structural detail on the order of nanometers that require the electron microscope to resolve. Quantitative information, such as surface area, volume and the micro-distribution of cellular constituents, is often required for the development of accurate structural models of cells and organelle systems and for assessing and characterizing changes due to experimental manipulation. Performing estimates of such quantities from light microscopic data can result in gross inaccuracies because the contribution to total morphometries of delicate features such as membrane undulations and excrescences can be quite significant. For example, in a recent study by Shoop et al, electron microscopic analysis of cultured chick ciliary ganglion neurons showed that spiny projections from the plasmalemma that were not well resolved in the light microscope effectively doubled the surface area of these neurons.While the resolution provided by the electron microscope has yet to be matched or replaced by light microscopic methods, one drawback of electron microscopic analysis has always been the relatively small sample size and limited 3D information that can be obtained from samples prepared for conventional transmission electron microscopy. Reconstruction from serial electron micrographs has provided one way to circumvent this latter problem, but remains one of the most technically demanding skills in electron microscopy. Another approach to 3D electron microscopic imaging is high voltage electron microscopy (HVEM). The greater accelerating voltages of HVEM's allows for the use of much thicker specimens than conventional transmission electron microscopes.
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Youngblom, J. H., J. Wilkinson, and J. J. Youngblom. "Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy By Remote Access." Microscopy Today 7, no. 7 (September 1999): 32–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500064798.
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In recent years there have been a growing number of facilities interested in developing remote access capabilities to a variety of microscopy systems. While certain types of microscopes, such as electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes have been well established for telepresence microscopy, no one has yet reported on the development of similar capabilities for the confocal microscope.At California State University, home to the CSUPERB (California State University Program for Education and Research in Biotechnology) Confocal Microscope Core Facility, we have established a remote access confocal laser scanning microscope facility that allows users with virtually any type of computer platform to connect to our system.
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O'Keefe, Michael A., John H. Turner, John A. Musante, Crispin J. D. Hetherington, A. G. Cullis, Bridget Carragher, Ron Jenkins, et al. "Laboratory Design for High-Performance Electron Microscopy." Microscopy Today 12, no. 3 (May 2004): 8–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500052093.
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Since publication of the classic text on the electron microscope laboratory by Anderson, the proliferation of microscopes with field emission guns, imaging filters and hardware spherical aberration correctors (giving higher spatial and energy resolution) has resulted in the need to construct special laboratories. As resolutions iinprovel transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) and scanning transmission electron microscopes (STEMs) become more sensitive to ambient conditions. State-of-the-art electron microscopes require state-of-the-art environments, and this means careful design and implementation of microscope sites, from the microscope room to the building that surrounds it. Laboratories have been constructed to house high-sensitive instruments with resolutions ranging down to sub-Angstrom levels; we present the various design philosophies used for some of these laboratories and our experiences with them. Four facilities are described: the National Center for Electron Microscopy OAM Laboratory at LBNL; the FEGTEM Facility at the University of Sheffield; the Center for Integrative Molecular Biosciences at TSRI; and the Advanced Microscopy Laboratory at ORNL.
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Möller, Lars, Gudrun Holland, and Michael Laue. "Diagnostic Electron Microscopy of Viruses With Low-voltage Electron Microscopes." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 68, no. 6 (May 21, 2020): 389–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1369/0022155420929438.
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Diagnostic electron microscopy is a useful technique for the identification of viruses associated with human, animal, or plant diseases. The size of virus structures requires a high optical resolution (i.e., about 1 nm), which, for a long time, was only provided by transmission electron microscopes operated at 60 kV and above. During the last decade, low-voltage electron microscopy has been improved and potentially provides an alternative to the use of high-voltage electron microscopy for diagnostic electron microscopy of viruses. Therefore, we have compared the imaging capabilities of three low-voltage electron microscopes, a scanning electron microscope equipped with a scanning transmission detector and two low-voltage transmission electron microscopes, operated at 25 kV, with the imaging capabilities of a high-voltage transmission electron microscope using different viruses in samples prepared by negative staining and ultrathin sectioning. All of the microscopes provided sufficient optical resolution for a recognition of the viruses tested. In ultrathin sections, ultrastructural details of virus genesis could be revealed. Speed of imaging was fast enough to allow rapid screening of diagnostic samples at a reasonable throughput. In summary, the results suggest that low-voltage microscopes are a suitable alternative to high-voltage transmission electron microscopes for diagnostic electron microscopy of viruses.
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Jester, J. V., H. D. Cavanagh, and M. A. Lemp. "In vivo confocal imaging of the eye using tandem scanning confocal microscopy (TSCM)." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 46 (1988): 56–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100102365.
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New developments in optical microscopy involving confocal imaging are now becoming available which dramatically increase resolution, contrast and depth of focus by optically sectioning through structures. The transparency of the anterior ocular structures, cornea and lens, make microscopic visualization and optical sectioning of the living intact eye an interesting possibility. Of the confocal microscopes available, the Tandem Scanning Reflected Light Microscope (referred to here as the Tandem Scanning Confocal Microscope), developed by Professors Petran and Hadravsky at Charles University in Pilzen, Czechoslovakia, permits real-time image acquisition and analysis facilitating in vivo studies of ocular structures.Currently, TSCM imaging is most successful for the cornea. The corneal epithelium, stroma, and endothelium have been studied in vivo and photographed in situ. Confocal scanning images of the superficial epithelium, similar to those obtained by scanning electron microscopy, show both light and dark surface epithelial cells.
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Ross, Frances M. "Materials Science in the Electron Microscope." MRS Bulletin 19, no. 6 (June 1994): 17–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400036691.
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This issue of the MRS Bulletin aims to highlight the innovative and exciting materials science research now being done using in situ electron microscopy. Techniques which combine real-time image acquisition with high spatial resolution have contributed to our understanding of a remarkably diverse range of physical phenomena. The articles in this issue present recent advances in materials science which have been made using the techniques of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), including holography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM), and high-voltage electron microscopy (HVEM).The idea of carrying out dynamic experiments involving real-time observation of microscopic phenomena has always had an attraction for materials scientists. Ever since the first static images were obtained in the electron microscope, materials scientists have been interested in observing processes in real time: we feel that we obtain a true understanding of a microscopic phenomenon if we can actually watch it taking place. The idea behind “materials science in the electron microscope” is therefore to use the electron microscope—with its unique ability to image subtle changes in a material at or near the atomic level—as a laboratory in which a remarkable variety of experiments can be carried out. In this issue you will read about dynamic experiments in areas such as phase transformations, thin-film growth, and electromigration, which make use of innovative designs for the specimen, the specimen holder, or the microscope itself. These articles speak for themselves in demonstrating the power of real-time analysis in the quantitative exploration of reaction mechanisms.The first transmission electron microscopes operated at low accelerating voltages, up to about 100 kV. This placed a severe limitation on the thickness of foils that could be examined: Heavy elements, for example, had to be made into foils thinner than 0.1 μm. It was felt that any phenomenon whose “mean free path” was comparable to the foil thickness would be significantly affected by the foil surfaces, and therefore would be unsuitable for study in situ. However, technology quickly generated ever higher accelerating voltages, culminating in the giant 3 MeV electron microscopes. At these voltages, electrons can penetrate materials as thick as 6–9 μm for light elements such as Si and Al, and 1 μm for very heavy ones such as Au and U.
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Madrid-Wolff, Jorge, and Manu Forero-Shelton. "Protocol for the Design and Assembly of a Light Sheet Light Field Microscope." Methods and Protocols 2, no. 3 (July 4, 2019): 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mps2030056.
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Light field microscopy is a recent development that makes it possible to obtain images of volumes with a single camera exposure, enabling studies of fast processes such as neural activity in zebrafish brains at high temporal resolution, at the expense of spatial resolution. Light sheet microscopy is also a recent method that reduces illumination intensity while increasing the signal-to-noise ratio with respect to confocal microscopes. While faster and gentler to samples than confocals for a similar resolution, light sheet microscopy is still slower than light field microscopy since it must collect volume slices sequentially. Nonetheless, the combination of the two methods, i.e., light field microscopes that have light sheet illumination, can help to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of light field microscopes and potentially improve their resolution. Building these microscopes requires much expertise, and the resources for doing so are limited. Here, we present a protocol to build a light field microscope with light sheet illumination. This protocol is also useful to build a light sheet microscope.
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Yamanaka, Kazushi. "Ultrasonic Force Microscopy." MRS Bulletin 21, no. 10 (October 1996): 36–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400031626.
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As an imaging method of elastic properties and subsurface features on the microscopic scale, the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) provides spatial resolution comparable or superior to that of optical microscopes. Nondestructive evaluation methods of defects and elastic properties on the microscopic scale were developed by using the SAM, and they have been widely applied to various fields in science and technology. One major problem in acoustic microscopy is resolution. The best resolution of SAM with water as the coupling fluid has been 240 nm at a frequency of 4.4 GHz. At a more conventional frequency of 1 GHz, the resolution is about 1 μm. Therefore the resolution of SAM is not always sufficient for examining nanoscale defects and advanced micro/nanodevices.For materials characterization on the nanometer scale, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was developed and extended in order to observe elastic properties in force-modulation mode. In the force-modulation mode, the sample is vibrated, and the resultant cantilever-deflection vibration is measured and used to produce elasticity images of objects. The lateral force-modulation AFM can evaluate the friction force or the shear elasticity in real time. However in the force-modulation mode, it is difficult to analyze stiff objects such as metals and ceramics.When the sample is vertically vibrated at ultrasonic frequencies much higher than the cantilever resonance frequency, the tip cannot vibrate due to the inertia of the cantilever. However by modulating the amplitude of the ultrasonic vibration, deflection vibration of the cantilever at the modulation frequency is excited due to the rectifier effect of the nonlinear force curves. Based on the tip-sample indentation during ultrasonic vibration, we developed ultrasonic force microscopy (UFM) for contact elasticity and subsurface imaging of rigid objects using a soft cantilever with a stiffness of the order of 0.1 N/m.
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Govil, Anurag, David M. Pallister, and Michael D. Morris. "Three-Dimensional Digital Confocal Raman Microscopy." Applied Spectroscopy 47, no. 1 (January 1993): 75–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702934048497.
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We describe an iterative image restoration technique which functions as digital confocal microscopy for Raman images. We deconvolute the lateral and axial components of the microscope point spread function from a series of optical sections, to generate a stack of well-resolved Raman images which describe the three-dimensional topology of a sample. The technique provides an alternative to confocal microscopy for three-dimensional microscopic Raman imaging.
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Bracker, CE, and P. K. Hansma. "Scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy: New tools for biology." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 47 (August 6, 1989): 778–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100155864.
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A new family of scanning probe microscopes has emerged that is opening new horizons for investigating the fine structure of matter. The earliest and best known of these instruments is the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). First published in 1982, the STM earned the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics for two of its inventors, G. Binnig and H. Rohrer. They shared the prize with E. Ruska for his work that had led to the development of the transmission electron microscope half a century earlier. It seems appropriate that the award embodied this particular blend of the old and the new because it demonstrated to the world a long overdue respect for the enormous contributions electron microscopy has made to the understanding of matter, and at the same time it signalled the dawn of a new age in microscopy. What we are seeing is a revolution in microscopy and a redefinition of the concept of a microscope.Several kinds of scanning probe microscopes now exist, and the number is increasing. What they share in common is a small probe that is scanned over the surface of a specimen and measures a physical property on a very small scale, at or near the surface. Scanning probes can measure temperature, magnetic fields, tunneling currents, voltage, force, and ion currents, among others.
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Storey, Malcolm. "Mycological Microscopy – choosing a stereo microscope." Field Mycology 20, no. 2 (April 2019): 48–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fldmyc.2019.03.006.
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Marti, O., B. Drake, S. Gould, and P. K. Hansma. "Atomic force microscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy with a combination atomic force microscope/scanning tunneling microscope." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 6, no. 3 (May 1988): 2089–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.575191.
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Sharmin, Nazlee, Ava Chow, and Alice Dong. "A Comparison Between Virtual and Conventional Microscopes in Health Science Education." Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology 49, no. 2 (November 28, 2023): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.21432/cjlt28270.
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Virtual microscopes are computer or web-based programs that enable users to visualize digital slides and mimic the experience of using a real light microscope. Traditional light microscopes have always been an essential teaching tool in health science education to observe and learn cell and tissue structures. However, studies comparing virtual and real light microscopes in education reported learners’ satisfaction with virtual microscopes regarding their usability, image quality, efficiency, and availability. Although the use of virtual or web-based microscopy is increasing, there is no equivalent decrease in the number of schools utilizing traditional microscopes. We conducted a scoping review to investigate the comparative impact of conventional and virtual microscopes on different aspects of learning. We report a relative effect of virtual and light microscopy on student performance, long-term knowledge retention, and satisfaction. Our results show that virtual microscopy is superior to traditional microscopes as a teaching tool in health science education. Further studies are needed on different learning components to guide the best use of virtual microscopy as a sole teaching tool for health care education.
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Hudson, J. S. "Correlative microscopy techniques for material science." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 53 (August 13, 1995): 688–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100139810.
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The microscopy center at Clemson University recently invested funds to provide a computer network system that incorporates all of its microscopes. The facility connects SEM, TEM, STM/AFM, Auger Microprobe and the light microscope to Sun workstations equipped with chemical analysis and imaging programs. Images from the network system microscopes can be sent to any of the workstations. I should like to review a few applications of correlative microscopy techniques related to material science; this is a technology that allows the acquisition of multiple data from a given sample. Often a given technique can be augmented by the use of complimentary microscopy technique. Since electron microscopy is subject to interpretation, correlative microscopy methods will prove to be useful in reaching conclusions regarding the image micrographs. Additionally, more than one type of information may be necessary for a given material and this can be found with the different systems of microscopy. In my presentation I will discuss instrumentation and methods by demonstrating advantages and disadvantages of applications as they apply to materials such as polymers, ceramics, microstructures and textiles.
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Davidson, Michael W. "50 Most Frequently Asked Questions About Optical Microscopy." Microscopy Today 8, no. 6 (August 2000): 12–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500052780.
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A significant percentage of technical experts who employ optical microscopes have had little or no formal training in optical microscope basics. Some, typically, were required to use microscopes during their technical education but, in general, microscope terminology and technology was a sideline to their major training. As a result, many useful basic microscope technical details were not learned because they were not necessary to accomplish what was needed in order to survive their major class work. At Florida State University, we try to make the [earning of microscope technology an inherent part of the students training. An important part of this training is this compendium of 50 of the most frequently asked questions about Optical Microscopy.
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Daberkow, I., and M. Schierjott. "Possibilities And Examples For Remote Microscopy Including Digital Image Acquisition, Transfer, and Archiving." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 2–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600020134.
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Recent developments promise the possibility to externally control every aspect of microscopes through a computer interface. In combination with high-resolution cameras and feedback to the microscope, this can be leveraged to create highly automatic routines, e.g., to remotely correct astigmatism. Together with the development of fast computer networks this creates a new branch of microscopy, the so-called “telemicroscopy”. The goal of telemicroscopy is the control of a microscope over a large distance including the transfer of images with an acceptable repetition rate. A big advantage for electron microscopy in particular is the possibility of having access to expensive and well-equipped microscopes. In the field of light microscopy the branch “telemedicine” was created, meaning the “virtual” presence of a colleague or specialist for discussion or diagnosis.Using transmission electron microscopy as an example, the history and special requirements for automation and telemicroscopy will be discussed. In the late 80's the first TEM with a remote control was revealed. Shortly thereafter, first automatic functions for defocus control and astigmatism correction were developed using a video camera as electronic image converter.
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Erlandsen, Stanley L. "Microscopy Society of America." Microscopy and Microanalysis 8, no. I1 (July 2002): 36–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927602021098.
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It is my pleasure to welcome you to Microscopy and Microanalysis 2002, jointly sponsored by the Microscopy Society of America, Microbeam Analysis Society, Microscopy Society of Canada/Société de Microscopie du Canada, and the International Metallographic Society. An excellent program with an outstanding list of invited speakers for symposia has been assembled by the Program Committee consisting of the Chair, Edgar Voelkl, and Co-Chairs, David Piston (MSA), Raynald Gauvin (MAS/MSC), and Allan Lockley (IMS). Highlights of Microscopy and Microanalysis 2002 include the world's largest display of microscopes and related technologies together with outstanding sessions on all aspects of microscopy and microanalysis. Symposia will be held on 3-D electron microscopy of macromolecules and cryo-electron microscopy of macromolecules, the quantitative aspects of X-ray microscopy, confocal microscopy, biomaterials, biological and materials specimen preparation. Special sessions will be held on holography, phase imaging, deep tissue imaging, (S)TEM instrumentation, developments in focused-ion beam instruments and imaging, metallographic specimen preparation from start to finish, and the changing role of atom probe microscopes in the nanotechnology era. Advances in immunolabeling, EELS, and detectors for X-ray microanalysis also will be presented. A special analytical electron microscopy session honoring the work of Elmar Zeitler is also scheduled. A pre-meetingworkshop “Future of Materials Characterization of Charging Materialsusing Microbeam Analysis” organized by Dr. Raynald Gauvin will be held at McGill University in Montreal on August 2–3. The Local Arrangements Committee, headed by Pierre Charest, has coordinated the scheduling of many local events to complement the meeting.
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Sun Mingli, 孙明丽, 李驰野 Li Chiye, 陈睿黾 Chen Ruimin, and 施钧辉 Shi Junhui. "微观探索的新光芒：便携式光声显微成像技术（特邀）." Laser & Optoelectronics Progress 61, no. 6 (2024): 0618017. http://dx.doi.org/10.3788/lop232623.
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Martone, Maryann E., Andrea Thor, Stephen J. Young, and Mark H. Ellisman. "Correlated 3D Light and Electron Microscopy of Large, Complex Structures: Analysis of Transverse Tubules in Heart Failure." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 440–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600022327.
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Light microscopic imaging has experienced a renaissance in the past decade or so, as new techniques for high resolution 3D light microscopy have become readily available. Light microscopic (LM) analysis of cellular details is desirable in many cases because of the flexibility of staining protocols, the ease of specimen preparation and the relatively large sample size that can be obtained compared to electron microscopic (EM) analysis. Despite these advantages, many light microscopic investigations require additional analysis at the electron microscopic level to resolve fine structural features.High voltage electron microscopy allows the use of relatively thick sections compared to conventional EM and provides the basis for excellent new methods to bridge the gap between microanatomical details revealed by LM and EM methods. When combined with electron tomography, investigators can derive accurate 3D data from these thicker specimens. Through the use of correlated light and electron microscopy, 3D reconstructions of large cellular or subcellular structures can be obtained with the confocal microscope,
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Chen, C. Julian. "Microscopic view of scanning tunneling microscopy." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 9, no. 1 (January 1991): 44–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.577128.
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Nessler, Randy, Ryan Potter, Jodi Stahl, Katina Wilson, Thomas Moninger, and Kenneth Moore. "Formal and Informal Microscopy Education at the University of Iowa Central Microscopy Research Facility: Project Centered Training." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (August 2001): 814–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600030142.
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The University of Iowa Central Microscopy Research Facility (CMRF) has been in existence for 27 years. Starting out as a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) research laboratory, the facility has offered formal college courses. These courses require that students identify a project to investigate during the semester. Theory from the formal lecture is reinforced by work performed in the laboratory session. From its modest beginnings, the CMRF has continually grown. Currently, the facility offers two Confocal microscopes, two Scanning Electron Microscopes, a Scanning Probe Microscope, Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy, a Mossbauer spectrometer, a PTI Ion Imaging/Ratio system, a Freeze Fracture apparatus, and three light microscopes equipped with CCD cameras. Techniques range from routine histology to in-situ hybridization. Technological advances over the history of the facility have not been confined to the lab. in the past, most lectures were given using overheads and 35mm slides.
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Yang, Thomas Zhirui, and Yumin Wu. "Seeing cells without a lens: Compact 3D digital lensless holographic microscopy for wide-field imaging." Theoretical and Natural Science 12, no. 1 (November 17, 2023): 61–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-8818/12/20230434.
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Optical microscopy is an essential tool for biomedical discoveries and cell diagnosis at micro- to nano-scales. However, conventional microscopes rely on lenses to record 2-D images of samples, which limits in-depth inspection of large volumes of cells. This research project implements a novel 3-D lensless microscopic imaging system that achieves a wide field of view, high resolution, and an extremely compact, cost-effective design: the Digital Lensless Holographic Microscope (DLHM).A lensless holographic microscope is built with only a light source, a sample, and an imaging chip (with other non-essential supporting structures). The entire setup costs $500 to $600. A series of MATLAB-based algorithms were designed to reconstruct phase information of samples simultaneously from the recorded hologram with built-in high-resolution and phase unwrapping functions. This produces 3-D images of cell samples. The 3-D cell reconstruction of biological samples maintained a comparable resolution with conventional optical microscopes while covering a field of view of 36.2 mm2, which is 20-30 times larger. While most microscopes are extremely time-consuming and require professional expertise, the lensless holographic microscope is portable, low-cost, high-stability, and extremely simple. This makes it accessible for point-of-care testing (POCT) to a broader coverage, including developing regions with limited medical facilities.
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Cunningham, Brian. "Microscopy in the Real World - Instrumentation Requirements." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (August 2001): 524–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600028695.
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In the last two decades, microscopy, in particular transmission electron microscopy, has moved from the research environment into industry. As such, the user requirements of the microscopes have changed. Previously, users required the highest performance in all aspects of microscopy e.g. imaging, analytical capabilities, with little regard to other factors. Today, additional requirements are being placed on areas such as ease of use, reliability, high throughput, expanded sample requirements, and networking capabilities. However, the “high performance” aspects of the instrumentation are still a high priority to the end user. These user requirements cause microscope manufacturers a dilemma in many instances. It is not always possible to provide the “new” requirements while still maintaining the high performance of the instruments, at a “reasonable” cost. An example is the large sample requirements in scanning electron microscopes. Large stages are inherently more prone to vibration than smaller stages, and therefore adversely affect resolution.
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Schäfer, Max B., Sophie Weiland, Kent W. Stewart, and Peter P. Pott. "Compact Microscope Module for High- Throughput Microscopy." Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering 6, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 530–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cdbme-2020-3136.
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AbstractMicroscopy is an essential tool in research and science. However, it is relatively resource consuming regarding cost, time of usage, and consumable supplies. Current low-cost approaches provide good imaging quality but struggle in terms of versatility or applicability to varying setups. In this paper, a Compact Microscope Module for versatile application in custom-made setups or research projects is presented. As a first application and proof of concept, the use of the module in a High-Throughput Microscope for screening of samples in microtiter plates is shown. The Compact Microscope Module allows for simple and resource-efficient microscopy in various applications while still enabling relatively good imaging qualities.
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Collins, Joel T., Joe Knapper, Julian Stirling, Joram Mduda, Catherine Mkindi, Valeriana Mayagaya, Grace A. Mwakajinga, et al. "Robotic microscopy for everyone: the OpenFlexure microscope." Biomedical Optics Express 11, no. 5 (April 8, 2020): 2447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/boe.385729.
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Mehta, PK, DH Campbell, and JS Galehouse. "Quantitative Clinker Microscopy with the Light Microscope." Cement, Concrete and Aggregates 13, no. 2 (1991): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/cca10123j.
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You, Sungyong, Jerry Chao, Edward A. K. Cohen, E. Sally Ward, and Raimund J. Ober. "Microscope calibration protocol for single-molecule microscopy." Optics Express 29, no. 1 (December 22, 2020): 182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.408361.
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Wilke, V. "Optical scanning microscopy-The laser scan microscope." Scanning 7, no. 2 (1985): 88–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950070204.
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Vilà, Anna, Sergio Moreno, Joan Canals, and Angel Diéguez. "A Compact Raster Lensless Microscope Based on a Microdisplay." Sensors 21, no. 17 (September 3, 2021): 5941. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21175941.
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Lensless microscopy requires the simplest possible configuration, as it uses only a light source, the sample and an image sensor. The smallest practical microscope is demonstrated here. In contrast to standard lensless microscopy, the object is located near the lighting source. Raster optical microscopy is applied by using a single-pixel detector and a microdisplay. Maximum resolution relies on reduced LED size and the position of the sample respect the microdisplay. Contrarily to other sort of digital lensless holographic microscopes, light backpropagation is not required to reconstruct the images of the sample. In a mm-high microscope, resolutions down to 800 nm have been demonstrated even when measuring with detectors as large as 138 μm × 138 μm, with field of view given by the display size. Dedicated technology would shorten measuring time.
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Zemke, Valentina, Volker Haag, and Gerald Koch. "Wood identification of charcoal with 3D-reflected light microscopy." IAWA Journal 41, no. 4 (September 11, 2020): 478–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22941932-bja10033.
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Abstract The present study focusses on the application of 3D-reflected light microscopy (3D-RLM) for the wood anatomical identification of charcoal specimens produced from domestic and tropical timbers. This special microscopic technique offers a detailed investigation of anatomical features in charcoal directly compared with the quality of field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The advantages of using the 3D-RLM technology are that fresh fracture planes of charcoal can be directly observed under the microscope without further preparation or surface treatment. Furthermore, the 3D-technique with integrated polarized light illumination creates high-contrast images of uneven and black charcoal surfaces. Important diagnostic structural features such as septate fibres and intercellular canals can be clearly detected and intervessel pits are directly measured. The comparison of the microscopic analyses reveals that 3D-reflected light microscopy (3D-RLM) provides an effective alternative technique to conventional field emission scanning electron microscopy for the identification of carbonized wood.
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Sun, Jiatong. "Super-resolution Microscopy and Photo-lithography: How can one inspire the other." Applied and Computational Engineering 66, no. 1 (May 29, 2024): 211–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/66/20240955.
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The principles of microscopy and lithography projection techniques are similar. To improve the resolution of the microscope or further reduce the image projection, both techniques face similar limitations, diffraction limits. The diffraction limit is a limitation of physical optics. In the development process of microscopes, to improve optical microscopy technology, researchers have proposed the idea of reducing the wavelength of light sources and increasing the numerical aperture based on the principle of diffraction limit generation. Modern scientists have proposed techniques to break through the diffraction limit and gradually increase the resolution of microscopes to further improve resolution. These breakthroughs also provide ideas for lithography technology, and researchers have invented techniques such as immersion lithography, multi-exposure, and two-photon direct writing. This article introduces the development process of super-resolution microscopy and lithography technology and analyzes the inspiration and influence of microscopy technology on lithography technology, that is, providing ideas for improving the accuracy of lithography technology.
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Reffner, John A., and William T. Wihlborg. "FR-IR Molecular Microanalysis System." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 2 (August 12, 1990): 270–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100134958.
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The IRμs™ is the first fully integrated system for Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy. FT-IR microscopy combines light microscopy for morphological examination with infrared spectroscopy for chemical identification of microscopic samples or domains. Because the IRμs system is a new tool for molecular microanalysis, its optical, mechanical and system design are described to illustrate the state of development of molecular microanalysis. Applications of infrared microspectroscopy are reviewed by Messerschmidt and Harthcock.Infrared spectral analysis of microscopic samples is not a new idea, it dates back to 1949, with the first commercial instrument being offered by Perkin-Elmer Co. Inc. in 1953. These early efforts showed promise but failed the test of practically. It was not until the advances in computer science were applied did infrared microspectroscopy emerge as a useful technique. Microscopes designed as accessories for Fourier transform infrared spectrometers have been commercially available since 1983. These accessory microscopes provide the best means for analytical spectroscopists to analyze microscopic samples, while not interfering with the FT-IR spectrometer’s normal functions.
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Hamm, Peter, Janina Schulz, and Karl-Hans Englmeier. "CONTENT-BASED AUTOFOCUSING IN AUTOMATED MICROSCOPY." Image Analysis & Stereology 29, no. 3 (November 1, 2010): 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.5566/ias.v29.p173-180.
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Autofocusing is the fundamental step when it comes to image acquisition and analysis with automated microscopy devices. Despite all efforts that have been put into developing a reliable autofocus system, recent methods still lack robustness towards different microscope modes and distracting artefacts. This paper presents a novel automated focusing approach that is generally applicable to different microscope modes (bright-field, phase contrast, Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) and fluorescence microscopy). The main innovation consists in a Content-based focus search that makes use of a priori knowledge about the observed objects by employing local object features and Boosted Learning. Hence, this method turns away from common autofocus approaches that apply solely whole image frequency measurements to obtain the focus plane. Thus, it is possible to exclude artefacts from being brought into focus calculation as well as locating the in-focus layer of specific microscopic objects.
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WOOLARD, DWIGHT, PEIJI ZHAO, CHRISTOPHER RUTHERGLEN, ZHEN YU, PETER BURKE, STEVEN BRUECK, and ANDREAS STINTZ. "NANOSCALE IMAGING TECHNOLOGY FOR THz-FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION MICROSCOPY." International Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems 18, no. 01 (March 2008): 205–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s012915640800528x.
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A novel nanoscale-engineering methodology is presented that has potential for the first-time development of a microscope-system capable of collecting terahertz (THz) frequency spectroscopic signatures from microscopic biological (bio) structures. This unique THz transmission microscopy approach is motivated by prior studies on bio-materials and bio-agents (e.g., DNA, RNA and bacterial spores) that have produced spectral features within the THz frequency regime (i.e., ~ 300 GHz to 1000 GHz) that appear to be representative of the internal structure and characteristics of the constituent bio-molecules. The suggested THz transmission microscopy is a fundamentally new technological approach that seeks to avoid the limitations that exist in traditional experiments (i.e., that must average over large numbers of microscopic molecules) by prescribing a viable technique whereby the THz frequency signatures may be collected from individual bio-molecules and/or microscopic biological constructs. Specifically, it is possible to envision the development of a “nanoscale imaging array” that possesses the characteristics necessary (e.g., sub-wavelength resolution) for successfully performing “THz-frequency microscopy.”
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Borg, Thomas K., James A. Stewart, and Michael A. Sutton. "Imaging the Cardiovascular System: Seeing Is Believing." Microscopy and Microanalysis 11, no. 3 (May 12, 2005): 189–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927605050439.
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From the basic light microscope through high-end imaging systems such as multiphoton confocal microscopy and electron microscopes, microscopy has been and will continue to be an essential tool in developing an understanding of cardiovascular development, function, and disease. In this review we briefly touch on a number of studies that illustrate the importance of these forms of microscopy in studying cardiovascular biology. We also briefly review a number of imaging modalities such as computed tomography, (CT) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, and positron emission tomography (PET) that, although they do not fall under the realm of microscopy, are imaging modalities that greatly complement microscopy. Finally we examine the role of proper imaging system calibration and the potential importance of calibration in understanding biological tissues, such as the cardiovascular system, that continually undergo deformation in response to strain.
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Kondo, Y., K. Yagi, K. Kobayashi, H. Kobayashi, and Y. Yanaka. "Construction Of UHV-REM-PEEM for Surface Studies." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 1 (August 12, 1990): 350–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100180501.
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Recent development of ultra-high vacuum electron microscopy (UHV-EM) is very rapid. This is due to the fact that it can be applied to variety of surface science fields.There are various types of surface imaging in UHV condition; low energy electron microscopy (LEEM) [1], transmission (TEM) and reflection electron microscopy (REM) [2] using conventional transmission electron microscopes (CTEM) (including scanning TEM and REM)), scanning electron microscopy, photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) [3] and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM including related techniques such as scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS), atom force microscopy and magnetic force microscopy)[4]. These methods can be classified roughly into two; in one group image contrast is mainly determined by surface atomic structure and in the other it is determined by surface electronic structure. Information obtained by two groups of surface microscopy is complementary with each other. A combination of the two methods may give images of surface crystallography and surface electronic structure. STM-STS[4] and LEEM-PEEM [3] so far developed are typical examples.In the present work a combination of REM(TEM) and PEEM (Fig. 1) was planned with use of a UHV CTEM. Several new designs were made for the new microscope.
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Perkins, J. M., D. A. Blom, D. W. McComb, and L. F. Allard. "Functional Collaborative Remote Microscopy: Inter-Continental Atomic Resolution Imaging." Microscopy Today 16, no. 3 (May 2008): 46–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500059277.
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In recent years the development of remote microscopy, specifically in electron microscopes, has begun to emerge as a useful research tool rather than simply an educational or teaching aid. Scientists have long been able to work collaboratively at a distance; however, it is often in terms of receiving data or sending some instructions where there may be a delay in receipt of the information. When defining remote control it is important to note that electron microscopy requires instantaneous control and receipt of the feedback (in most cases via images on a screen). Without realtime control it is impossible to conduct high resolution imaging and analysis work. In terms of electron microscopy, there are several reasons for conducting experiments remotely: With sub-Ångström aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopes, the environment within which the microscope itself sits is of utmost importance.
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Lee, Henry C. "Applying Microscopy in Forensic Science." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 490–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600022571.
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Microscopy is of vital importance in the real world of the forensic scientist. In today's society, physical evidence is critical to the criminal justice system for the detection, investigation and prosecution of criminal acts. A trail of microscopic fibers led investigators in Atlanta to the conviction of the serial killer, Wayne Williams. Flecks of paint on a hit-run victim, analyzed microscopically, can be compared with the paint on a suspect vehicle to exclude or match it to the crime. The forensic firearms examiner compares the microscopic striations on a bullet to match it to the gun it was fired from. Microscopes are used throughout the modern forensic laboratory. They are essential in searching for evidence. They aid the examiner in identifying and comparing trace evidence. As the scales of justice symbolize forensic science, microscopes symbolize the trace evidence examiner.Because of the variety of physical evidence, forensic scientists use several types of microscopes in their investigations.
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Doerr, A., S. Badger, P. Brown, and S. Sahu. "Montages Link Microscopic to Macroscopic Information in Concrete Analys." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 266–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600021450.
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One of the limitations of microscopy is that only a relatively small area is viewed and that both microscopic and macroscopic information is needed to better understand a process or relationship. Microscopic structures that can only be seen at high magnification may appear insignificant at magnifications required to see macroscopic structures. Montages from the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical microscope allow large areas to be displayed at relatively high magnifications revealing both macroscopic and microscopic features.The use of automated digital microscopy and image software have reduced the barriers for creation of montages and provided new display modes, thereby stimulating their use as an enhanced data acquisition, review, and interpretation technique.The ability to create digital montages is a valuable tool in the analysis of cement and concrete. It has been used to evaluate the relationship between small scale deleterious phases and their larger scale effects.
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Mansfield, John F. "Digital imaging: When should one take the plunge?" Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 54 (August 11, 1996): 602–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100165471.
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The current imaging trend in optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is to record all data digitally. Most manufacturers currently market digital acquisition systems with their microscope packages. The advantages of digital acquisition include: almost instant viewing of the data as a high-quaity positive image (a major benefit when compared to TEM images recorded onto film, where one must wait until after the microscope session to develop the images); the ability to readily quantify features in the images and measure intensities; and extremely compact storage (removable 5.25” storage devices which now can hold up to several gigabytes of data).The problem for many researchers, however, is that they have perfectly serviceable microscopes that they routinely use that have no digital imaging capabilities with little hope of purchasing a new instrument.
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Price, R. L. "Practical considerations and applications of digital imaging in a core microscopy facility." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 54 (August 11, 1996): 606–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100165495.
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The Integrated Microscopic Analysis Facility (IMAF) at the University of South Carolina School of Medicine is a core research and imaging facility that provides service for the faculty, staff and students of the medical school and associated hospitals. The IMAF currently houses one scanning and two transmission electron microscopes, a confocal scanning laser microscope, and several image processing computers and programs. While not yet totally converted to digital technology, we have been successful in introducing digital imaging to several areas of our imaging capabilities during the last few years. The purpose of this abstract and subsequent presentation is to present some practical considerations and problems we have encountered in the conversion of the IMAF to digital imaging microscopy, and to present brief results from some projects which were not possible before the introduction of digital imaging to the facility.There is little doubt that in the past few years one of the major advances for those of us who work in the areas of light and electron microscopy has been the development of digital imaging technology.
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BULAT, TANJA, OTILIJA KETA, LELA KORIĆANAC, JELENA ŽAKULA, IVAN PETROVIĆ, ALEKSANDRA RISTIĆ-FIRA, and DANIJELA TODOROVIĆ. "Radiation dose determines the method for quantification of DNA double strand breaks." Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 88, no. 1 (March 4, 2016): 127–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201620140553.
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ABSTRACT Ionizing radiation induces DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) that trigger phosphorylation of the histone protein H2AX (γH2AX). Immunofluorescent staining visualizes formation of γH2AX foci, allowing their quantification. This method, as opposed to Western blot assay and Flow cytometry, provides more accurate analysis, by showing exact position and intensity of fluorescent signal in each single cell. In practice there are problems in quantification of γH2AX. This paper is based on two issues: the determination of which technique should be applied concerning the radiation dose, and how to analyze fluorescent microscopy images obtained by different microscopes. HTB140 melanoma cells were exposed to γ-rays, in the dose range from 1 to 16 Gy. Radiation effects on the DNA level were analyzed at different time intervals after irradiation by Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence microscopy. Immunochemically stained cells were visualized with two types of microscopes: AxioVision (Zeiss, Germany) microscope, comprising an ApoTome software, and AxioImagerA1 microscope (Zeiss, Germany). Obtained results show that the level of γH2AX is time and dose dependent. Immunofluorescence microscopy provided better detection of DSBs for lower irradiation doses, while Western blot analysis was more reliable for higher irradiation doses. AxioVision microscope containing ApoTome software was more suitable for the detection of γH2AX foci.
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Wait, Eric C., Michael A. Reiche, and Teng-Leong Chew. "Hypothesis-driven quantitative fluorescence microscopy – the importance of reverse-thinking in experimental design." Journal of Cell Science 133, no. 21 (November 1, 2020): jcs250027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.250027.
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ABSTRACTOne of the challenges in modern fluorescence microscopy is to reconcile the conventional utilization of microscopes as exploratory instruments with their emerging and rapidly expanding role as a quantitative tools. The contribution of microscopy to observational biology will remain enormous owing to the improvements in acquisition speed, imaging depth, resolution and biocompatibility of modern imaging instruments. However, the use of fluorescence microscopy to facilitate the quantitative measurements necessary to challenge hypotheses is a relatively recent concept, made possible by advanced optics, functional imaging probes and rapidly increasing computational power. We argue here that to fully leverage the rapidly evolving application of microscopes in hypothesis-driven biology, we not only need to ensure that images are acquired quantitatively but must also re-evaluate how microscopy-based experiments are designed. In this Opinion, we present a reverse logic that guides the design of quantitative fluorescence microscopy experiments. This unique approach starts from identifying the results that would quantitatively inform the hypothesis and map the process backward to microscope selection. This ensures that the quantitative aspects of testing the hypothesis remain the central focus of the entire experimental design.
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Zeineh, Jack A. "Integrated Live and Stored Internet Based Digital Microscopy for Education." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (August 2000): 1168–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600038332.
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Few educational institutions have well maintained microscopes that facilitate the experience intended by the creators of their teaching texts. The cost of putting a high quality selection of the different types of microscopes at every educational institution for access by all students is prohibitive. The advent of the Internet and the rapid proliferation of computers at educational institutions offer the prospect for dramatic improvements in microscopy education.We present an Internet based digital microscopy system with unique features for education. We have developed a unified architecture for management and transmission of live and stored microscope data over the Internet. The system consists of a combination of software and hardware. The hardware includes a microscope with a motorized stage, focus, and optionally a motorized nosepiece. Standard off the shelf components for each of the items can be used so that the user is afforded great flexibility in utilizing available hardware. Image acquisition is done by attaching a video camera to the microscope. Both analog and digital video cameras are supported, although it should be noted that users have experienced outstanding results with relatively inexpensive analog cameras.