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Journal articles on the topic 'Metazoan development'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 20 February 2023

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1

Isaeva, Valeria V., and Nickolay V. Kasyanov. "Symmetry Transformations in Metazoan Evolution and Development." Symmetry 13, no. 2 (January 20, 2021): 160. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym13020160.

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In this review, we consider transformations of axial symmetry in metazoan evolution and development, the genetic basis, and phenotypic expressions of different axial body plans. In addition to the main symmetry types in metazoan body plans, such as rotation (radial symmetry), reflection (mirror and glide reflection symmetry), and translation (metamerism), many biological objects show scale (fractal) symmetry as well as some symmetry-type combinations. Some genetic mechanisms of axial pattern establishment, creating a coordinate system of a metazoan body plan, bilaterian segmentation, and left–right symmetry/asymmetry, are analysed. Data on the crucial contribution of coupled functions of the Wnt, BMP, Notch, and Hedgehog signaling pathways (all pathways are designated according to the abbreviated or full names of genes or their protein products; for details, see below) and the axial Hox-code in the formation and maintenance of metazoan body plans are necessary for an understanding of the evolutionary diversification and phenotypic expression of various types of axial symmetry. The lost body plans of some extinct Ediacaran and early Cambrian metazoans are also considered in comparison with axial body plans and posterior growth in living animals.
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2

Babonis, Leslie S., and Mark Q. Martindale. "Phylogenetic evidence for the modular evolution of metazoan signalling pathways." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372, no. 1713 (February 5, 2017): 20150477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0477.

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Communication among cells was paramount to the evolutionary increase in cell type diversity and, ultimately, the origin of large body size. Across the diversity of Metazoa, there are only few conserved cell signalling pathways known to orchestrate the complex cell and tissue interactions regulating development; thus, modification to these few pathways has been responsible for generating diversity during the evolution of animals. Here, we summarize evidence for the origin and putative function of the intracellular, membrane-bound and secreted components of seven metazoan cell signalling pathways with a special focus on early branching metazoans (ctenophores, poriferans, placozoans and cnidarians) and basal unikonts (amoebozoans, fungi, filastereans and choanoflagellates). We highlight the modular incorporation of intra- and extracellular components in each signalling pathway and suggest that increases in the complexity of the extracellular matrix may have further promoted the modulation of cell signalling during metazoan evolution. Most importantly, this updated view of metazoan signalling pathways highlights the need for explicit study of canonical signalling pathway components in taxa that do not operate a complete signalling pathway. Studies like these are critical for developing a deeper understanding of the evolution of cell signalling. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
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3

Cornejo-Páramo, Paola, Kathrein Roper, Sandie M. Degnan, Bernard M. Degnan, and Emily S. Wong. "Distal regulation, silencers, and a shared combinatorial syntax are hallmarks of animal embryogenesis." Genome Research 32, no. 3 (January 19, 2022): 474–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gr.275864.121.

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The chromatin environment plays a central role in regulating developmental gene expression in metazoans. Yet, the ancestral regulatory landscape of metazoan embryogenesis is unknown. Here, we generate chromatin accessibility profiles for six embryonic, plus larval and adult stages in the sponge Amphimedon queenslandica. These profiles are reproducible within stages, reflect histone modifications, and identify transcription factor (TF) binding sequence motifs predictive of cis-regulatory elements operating during embryogenesis in other metazoans, but not the unicellular relative Capsaspora. Motif analysis of chromatin accessibility profiles across Amphimedon embryogenesis identifies three major developmental periods. As in bilaterian embryogenesis, early development in Amphimedon involves activating and repressive chromatin in regions both proximal and distal to transcription start sites. Transcriptionally repressive elements (“silencers”) are prominent during late embryogenesis. They coincide with an increase in cis-regulatory regions harboring metazoan TF binding motifs, as well as an increase in the expression of metazoan-specific genes. Changes in chromatin state and gene expression in Amphimedon suggest the conservation of distal enhancers, dynamically silenced chromatin, and TF-DNA binding specificity in animal embryogenesis.
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4

Banaszynski, Laura A., C. David Allis, and Peter W. Lewis. "Histone Variants in Metazoan Development." Developmental Cell 19, no. 5 (November 2010): 662–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2010.10.014.

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5

Valentine, James W. "Two genomic paths to the evolution of complexity in bodyplans." Paleobiology 26, no. 3 (2000): 513–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0513:tgptte>2.0.co;2.

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Morphologically complex metazoans appear abruptly during the Cambrian explosion. Suggested measures of metazoan complexity include number of cell morphotypes and aspects of the genome such as the amount of DNA, the number of genes, and the information content of the genome or egg. Estimates of gene numbers are now available for metazoan species belonging to five different phyla or subphyla. There is little correlation between gene number and morphological complexity in the invertebrates: relatively complex forms can have fewer genes than relatively simple forms. Presumably, the more complex forms use more gene-expression events during development, implying that, on average, cis-regulatory elements of more complex invertebrates are richer in binding sites than are those of simpler forms. Vertebrates have many more genes than invertebrates and therefore have more total gene-expression events during development, although they may have, on average, fewer expression events per gene than the invertebrates. There are thus two genomic pathways in the evolution of metazoan complexity: one involves increasing the number of genes, the other involves increasing the number of cis-regulatory binding sites. Both modes were associated with the origin of bodyplans that first appear as fossils during the Cambrian explosion.
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6

Studer, Romain A., Emilie Person, Marc Robinson-Rechavi, and Bernard C. Rossier. "Evolution of the epithelial sodium channel and the sodium pump as limiting factors of aldosterone action on sodium transport." Physiological Genomics 43, no. 13 (July 2011): 844–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00002.2011.

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Despite large changes in salt intake, the mammalian kidney is able to maintain the extracellular sodium concentration and osmolarity within very narrow margins, thereby controlling blood volume and blood pressure. In the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron (ASDN), aldosterone tightly controls the activities of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and Na,K-ATPase, the two limiting factors in establishing transepithelial sodium transport. It has been proposed that the ENaC/degenerin gene family is restricted to Metazoans, whereas the α- and β-subunits of Na,K-ATPase have homologous genes in prokaryotes. This raises the question of the emergence of osmolarity control. By exploring recent genomic data of diverse organisms, we found that: 1) ENaC/degenerin exists in all of the Metazoans screened, including nonbilaterians and, by extension, was already present in ancestors of Metazoa; 2) ENaC/degenerin is also present in Naegleria gruberi , an eukaryotic microbe, consistent with either a vertical inheritance from the last common ancestor of Eukaryotes or a lateral transfer between Naegleria and Metazoan ancestors; and 3) The Na,K-ATPase β-subunit is restricted to Holozoa, the taxon that includes animals and their closest single-cell relatives. Since the β-subunit of Na,K-ATPase plays a key role in targeting the α-subunit to the plasma membrane and has an additional function in the formation of cell junctions, we propose that the emergence of Na,K-ATPase, together with ENaC/degenerin, is linked to the development of multicellularity in the Metazoan kingdom. The establishment of multicellularity and the associated extracellular compartment (“internal milieu”) precedes the emergence of other key elements of the aldosterone signaling pathway.
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7

O'Farrell, Patrick H. "Quiescence: early evolutionary origins and universality do not imply uniformity." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1584 (December 27, 2011): 3498–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0079.

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Cell cycle investigations have focused on relentless exponential proliferation of cells, an unsustainable situation in nature. Proliferation of cells, whether microbial or metazoan, is interrupted by periods of quiescence. The vast majority of cells in an adult metazoan lie quiescent. As disruptions in this quiescence are at the foundation of cancer, it will be important for the field to turn its attention to the mechanisms regulating quiescence. While often presented as a single topic, there are multiple forms of quiescence each with complex inputs, some of which are tied to conceptually challenging aspects of metazoan regulation such as size control. In an effort to expose the enormity of the challenge, I describe the differing biological purposes of quiescence, and the coupling of quiescence in metazoans to growth and to the structuring of tissues during development. I emphasize studies in the organism rather than in tissue culture, because these expose the diversity of regulation. While quiescence is likely to be a primitive biological process, it appears that in adapting quiescence to its many distinct biological settings, evolution has diversified it. Consideration of quiescence in different models gives us an overview of this diversity.
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8

Mitra, Sahana, and Hyung Don Ryoo. "The unfolded protein response in metazoan development." Journal of Cell Science 132, no. 5 (February 15, 2019): jcs217216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.217216.

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9

Poelmann, Robert E., and Adriana C. Gittenberger‐de Groot. "Development and evolution of the metazoan heart." Developmental Dynamics 248, no. 8 (May 20, 2019): 634–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.45.

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10

Isaeva, Valeria, Eugene Presnov, and Alexey Chernyshev. "Topological Patterns in Metazoan Evolution and Development." Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 68, no. 8 (July 19, 2006): 2053–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11538-006-9063-2.

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11

Leys, S. P., and A. V. Ereskovsky. "Embryogenesis and larval differentiation in sponges." Canadian Journal of Zoology 84, no. 2 (February 1, 2006): 262–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z05-170.

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Having descended from the first multicellular animals on earth, sponges are a key group in which to seek innovations that form the basis of the metazoan body plan, but sponges themselves have a body plan that is extremely difficult to reconcile with that of other animals. Adult sponges lack overt anterior–posterior polarity and sensory organs, and whether they possess true tissues is even debated. Nevertheless, sexual reproduction occurs as in other metazoans, with the development of embryos through a structured series of cellular divisions and organized rearrangements of cellular material, using both mesenchymal and epithelial movements to form a multicellular embryo. In most cases, the embryo undergoes morphogenesis into a spatially organized larva that has several cell layers, anterior–posterior polarity, and sensory capabilities. Here we review original data on the mode of cleavage, timing of cellular differentiation, and the mechanisms involved in the organization of differentiated cells to form the highly structured sponge larva. Our ultimate goal is to develop interpretations of the phylogenetic importance of these data within the Porifera and among basal Metazoa.
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12

ERWIN, DOUGLAS H. "The origin of metazoan development: a palaeobiological perspective." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 50, no. 4 (December 1993): 255–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00931.x.

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13

Kuzmina, J. L., V. V. Panov, N. E. Vorobyeva, N. V. Soshnikova, M. R. Kopantseva, J. V. Nikolenko, E. N. Nabirochkina, S. G. Georgieva, and Yu V. Shidlovskii. "SAYP is a novel regulator of metazoan development." Russian Journal of Genetics 46, no. 8 (August 2010): 917–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1022795410080028.

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14

Oxford, Julia Thom, Jonathon C. Reeck, and Makenna J. Hardy. "Extracellular Matrix in Development and Disease." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, no. 1 (January 8, 2019): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010205.

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The evolution of multicellular metazoan organisms was marked by the inclusion of an extracellular matrix (ECM), a multicomponent, proteinaceous network between cells that contributes to the spatial arrangement of cells and the resulting tissue organization. [...]
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15

Collier, Jackie L., and Joshua S. Rest. "Swimming, gliding, and rolling toward the mainstream: cell biology of marine protists." Molecular Biology of the Cell 30, no. 11 (May 15, 2019): 1245–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e18-11-0724.

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Marine protists are a polyphyletic group of organisms playing major roles in the ecology and biogeochemistry of the oceans, including performing much of Earth’s photosynthesis and driving the carbon, nitrogen, and silicon cycles. In addition, marine protists occupy key positions in the tree of life, including as the closest relatives of metazoans. Despite all the reasons to better understand them, knowledge of the cell biology of most marine protist lineages is sparse. This is beginning to change thanks to vibrant growth in the development of new model organisms. Here, we survey some recent advances in studying the cell biology of marine protists toward understanding the functional basis of their unique features, gaining new perspectives on universal eukaryotic biology, and for understanding homologous biology within metazoans and the evolution of metazoan traits.
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16

Chothia, Cyrus. "Protein families in the metazoan genome." Development 1994, Supplement (January 1, 1994): 27–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.1994.supplement.27.

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The evolution of development involves the development of new proteins. Estimates based on the initial results of the genome projects, and on the data banks of protein sequences and structures, suggest that the large majority of proteins come from no more than one thousand families. Members of a family are descended from a common ancestor. Protein families evolve by gene duplication and mutation. Mutations change the conformation of the peripheral regions of proteins; i.e. the regions that are involved, at least in part, in their function. If mutations proceed until only 20% of the residues in related proteins are identical, it is common for the conformational changes to affect half the structure. Most of the proteins involved in the interactions of cells, and in their assembly to form multicellular organisms, are mosaic proteins. These are large and have a modular structure, in that they are built of sets of homologous domains that are drawn from a relatively small number of protein families. Patthy's model for the evolution of mosaic proteins describes how they arose through the insertion of introns into genes, gene duplications and intronic recombination. The rates of progress in the genome sequencing projects, and in protein structure analyses, means that in a few years we will have a fairly complete outline description of the molecules responsible for the structure and function of organisms at several different levels of developmental complexity. This should make a major contribution to our understanding of the evolution of development.
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17

Barfield, Sarah, Galina V. Aglyamova, and Mikhail V. Matz. "Evolutionary origins of germline segregation in Metazoa: evidence for a germ stem cell lineage in the coral Orbicella faveolata (Cnidaria, Anthozoa)." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 283, no. 1822 (January 13, 2016): 20152128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.2128.

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The ability to segregate a committed germ stem cell (GSC) lineage distinct from somatic cell lineages is a characteristic of bilaterian Metazoans. However, the occurrence of GSC lineage specification in basally branching Metazoan phyla, such as Cnidaria, is uncertain. Without an independently segregated GSC lineage, germ cells and their precursors must be specified throughout adulthood from continuously dividing somatic stem cells, generating the risk of propagating somatic mutations within the individual and its gametes. To address the potential for existence of a GSC lineage in Anthozoa, the sister-group to all remaining Cnidaria, we identified moderate- to high-frequency somatic mutations and their potential for gametic transfer in the long-lived coral Orbicella faveolata (Anthozoa, Cnidaria) using a 2b-RAD sequencing approach. Our results demonstrate that somatic mutations can drift to high frequencies (up to 50%) and can also generate substantial intracolonial genetic diversity. However, these somatic mutations are not transferable to gametes, signifying the potential for an independently segregated GSC lineage in O. faveolata. In conjunction with previous research on germ cell development in other basally branching Metazoan species, our results suggest that the GSC system may be a Eumetazoan characteristic that evolved in association with the emergence of greater complexity in animal body plan organization and greater specificity of stem cell functions.
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18

Li, Zhidan, Yiming Zhang, Stephen J. Bush, Chao Tang, Li Chen, Dan Zhang, Araxi O. Urrutia, Jing-wen Lin, and Lu Chen. "MeDAS: a Metazoan Developmental Alternative Splicing database." Nucleic Acids Research 49, no. D1 (October 21, 2020): D144—D150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaa886.

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Abstract Alternative splicing is widespread throughout eukaryotic genomes and greatly increases transcriptomic diversity. Many alternative isoforms have functional roles in developmental processes and are precisely temporally regulated. To facilitate the study of alternative splicing in a developmental context, we created MeDAS, a Metazoan Developmental Alternative Splicing database. MeDAS is an added-value resource that re-analyses publicly archived RNA-seq libraries to provide quantitative data on alternative splicing events as they vary across the time course of development. It has broad temporal and taxonomic scope and is intended to assist the user in identifying trends in alternative splicing throughout development. To create MeDAS, we re-analysed a curated set of 2232 Illumina polyA+ RNA-seq libraries that chart detailed time courses of embryonic and post-natal development across 18 species with a taxonomic range spanning the major metazoan lineages from Caenorhabditis elegans to human. MeDAS is freely available at https://das.chenlulab.com both as raw data tables and as an interactive browser allowing searches by species, tissue, or genomic feature (gene, transcript or exon ID and sequence). Results will provide details on alternative splicing events identified for the queried feature and can be visualised at the gene-, transcript- and exon-level as time courses of expression and inclusion levels, respectively.
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19

Gaggioli, Vincent, Manuela R. Kieninger, Anna Klucnika, Richard Butler, and Philip Zegerman. "Identification of the critical replication targets of CDK reveals direct regulation of replication initiation factors by the embryo polarity machinery in C. elegans." PLOS Genetics 16, no. 12 (December 15, 2020): e1008948. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1008948.

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During metazoan development, the cell cycle is remodelled to coordinate proliferation with differentiation. Developmental cues cause dramatic changes in the number and timing of replication initiation events, but the mechanisms and physiological importance of such changes are poorly understood. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are important for regulating S-phase length in many metazoa, and here we show in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that an essential function of CDKs during early embryogenesis is to regulate the interactions between three replication initiation factors SLD-3, SLD-2 and MUS-101 (Dpb11/TopBP1). Mutations that bypass the requirement for CDKs to generate interactions between these factors is partly sufficient for viability in the absence of Cyclin E, demonstrating that this is a critical embryonic function of this Cyclin. Both SLD-2 and SLD-3 are asymmetrically localised in the early embryo and the levels of these proteins inversely correlate with S-phase length. We also show that SLD-2 asymmetry is determined by direct interaction with the polarity protein PKC-3. This study explains an essential function of CDKs for replication initiation in a metazoan and provides the first direct molecular mechanism through which polarization of the embryo is coordinated with DNA replication initiation factors.
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20

Hoenigsberg, H. F., and C. Sanabria. "New TheoryA genomic parasite in the evolution of metazoan development." Genetics and Molecular Research 8, no. 3 (2009): 896–914. http://dx.doi.org/10.4238/vol8-3gmr571.

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21

Dijkwel, Yasmin, and David J. Tremethick. "The Role of the Histone Variant H2A.Z in Metazoan Development." Journal of Developmental Biology 10, no. 3 (July 1, 2022): 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jdb10030028.

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During the emergence and radiation of complex multicellular eukaryotes from unicellular ancestors, transcriptional systems evolved by becoming more complex to provide the basis for this morphological diversity. The way eukaryotic genomes are packaged into a highly complex structure, known as chromatin, underpins this evolution of transcriptional regulation. Chromatin structure is controlled by a variety of different epigenetic mechanisms, including the major mechanism for altering the biochemical makeup of the nucleosome by replacing core histones with their variant forms. The histone H2A variant H2A.Z is particularly important in early metazoan development because, without it, embryos cease to develop and die. However, H2A.Z is also required for many differentiation steps beyond the stage that H2A.Z-knockout embryos die. H2A.Z can facilitate the activation and repression of genes that are important for pluripotency and differentiation, and acts through a variety of different molecular mechanisms that depend upon its modification status, its interaction with histone and nonhistone partners, and where it is deposited within the genome. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge about the different mechanisms by which H2A.Z regulates chromatin function at various developmental stages and the chromatin remodeling complexes that determine when and where H2A.Z is deposited.
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22

Halfon, Marc S., and Alan M. Michelson. "Exploring genetic regulatory networks in metazoan development: methods and models." Physiological Genomics 10, no. 3 (September 3, 2002): 131–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00072.2002.

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One of the foremost challenges of 21st century biological research will be to decipher the complex genetic regulatory networks responsible for embryonic development. The recent explosion of whole genome sequence data and of genome-wide transcriptional profiling methods, such as microarrays, coupled with the development of sophisticated computational tools for exploiting and analyzing genomic data, provide a significant starting point for regulatory network analysis. In this article we review some of the main methodological issues surrounding genome annotation, transcriptional profiling, and computational prediction of cis-regulatory elements and discuss how the power of model genetic organisms can be used to experimentally verify and extend the results of genomic research.
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23

Lee, Nam-Sihk, Sudhakar Veeranki, Bohye Kim, and Leung Kim. "The function of PP2A/B56 in non-metazoan multicellular development." Differentiation 76, no. 10 (December 2008): 1104–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-0436.2008.00301.x.

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24

Burke, Robert D., Daniel J. Moller, Oliver A. Krupke, and Valerie J. Taylor. "Sea urchin neural development and the metazoan paradigm of neurogenesis." genesis 52, no. 3 (March 2014): 208–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dvg.22750.

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25

Özbek, Suat, Prakash G. Balasubramanian, Ruth Chiquet-Ehrismann, Richard P. Tucker, and Josephine C. Adams. "The Evolution of Extracellular Matrix." Molecular Biology of the Cell 21, no. 24 (December 15, 2010): 4300–4305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e10-03-0251.

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We present a perspective on the molecular evolution of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in metazoa that draws on research publications and data from sequenced genomes and expressed sequence tag libraries. ECM components do not function in isolation, and the biological ECM system or “adhesome” also depends on posttranslational processing enzymes, cell surface receptors, and extracellular proteases. We focus principally on the adhesome of internal tissues and discuss its origins at the dawn of the metazoa and the expansion of complexity that occurred in the chordate lineage. The analyses demonstrate very high conservation of a core adhesome that apparently evolved in a major wave of innovation in conjunction with the origin of metazoa. Integrin, CD36, and certain domains predate the metazoa, and some ECM-related proteins are identified in choanoflagellates as predicted sequences. Modern deuterostomes and vertebrates have many novelties and elaborations of ECM as a result of domain shuffling, domain innovations and gene family expansions. Knowledge of the evolution of metazoan ECM is important for understanding how it is built as a system, its roles in normal tissues and disease processes, and has relevance for tissue engineering, the development of artificial organs, and the goals of synthetic biology.
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Price, Lauren E., Abigail B. Loewen Faul, Aleksandra Vuchkovska, Kevin J. Lopez, Katie M. Fast, Andrew G. Eck, David W. Hoferer, and Jeffrey O. Henderson. "Molecular Genetic Analysis of Rbm45/Drbp1: Genomic Structure, Expression, and Evolution." Journal of Student Research 7, no. 2 (August 1, 2019): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.47611/jsr.v7i2.426.

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RNA recognition motif-type RNA-binding domain containing proteins (RBDPs) participate in RNA metabolism including regulating mRNA stability, nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling, and splicing. Rbm45 is an RBDP first cloned from rat brain and expressed spatiotemporally during rat neural development. More recently, RBM45 has been associated with pathological aggregates in the human neurological disorders amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, and Alzheimer’s. Rbm45 and the neural developmental protein musashi-1 are in the same family of RDBPs and have similar expression patterns. In contrast to Musashi-1, which is upregulated during colorectal carcinogenesis, we found no association of RBM45 overexpression in human colon cancer tissue. In order to begin characterizing RNA-binding partners of Rbm45, we have successfully cloned and expressed human RBM45 in an Intein fusion-protein expression system. Furthermore, to gain a better understanding of the molecular genetics and evolution of Rbm45, we used an in silico approach to analyze the gene structure of the human and mouse Rbm45 homologues and explored the evolutionary conservation of Rbm45 in metazoans. Human RBM45 and mouse Rbm45 span ~17 kb and 13 kb, respectively, and contain 10 exons, one of which is non-coding. Both genes have TATA-less promoters with an initiator and a GC-rich element. Downstream of exon 10, both homologues have canonical polyadenylation signals and an embryonic cytoplasmic polyadenylation element. Moreover, our data indicate Rbm45 is conserved across all metazoan taxa from sponges (phylum Porifera) to humans (phylum Chordata), portending a fundamental role in metazoan development.
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27

Davidson, E. H. "Spatial mechanisms of gene regulation in metazoan embryos." Development 113, no. 1 (September 1, 1991): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.113.1.1.

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The basic characteristics of embryonic process throughout Metazoa are considered with focus on those aspects that provide insight into how cell specification occurs in the initial stages of development. There appear to be three major types of embryogenesis: Type 1, a general form characteristic of most invertebrate taxa of today, in which lineage plays an important role in the spatial organization of the early embryo, and cell specification occurs in situ, by both autonomous and conditional mechanisms; Type 2, the vertebrate form of embryogenesis, which proceeds by mechanisms that are essentially independent of cell lineage, in which diffusible morphogens and extensive early cell migration are particularly important; Type 3, the form exemplified by long germ band insects in which several different regulatory mechanisms are used to generate precise patterns of nuclear gene expression prior to cellularization. Evolutionary implications of the phylogenetic distribution of these types of embryogenesis are considered. Regionally expressed homeodomain regulators are utilized in all three types of embryo, in similar ways in later and postembryonic development, but in different ways in early embryonic development. A specific downstream molecular function for this class of regulator is proposed, based on evidence obtained in vertebrate systems. This provides a route by which to approach the comparative regulatory strategies underlying the three major types of embryogenesis.
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28

Hoekzema, Renee S., Martin D. Brasier, Frances S. Dunn, and Alexander G. Liu. "Quantitative study of developmental biology confirms Dickinsonia as a metazoan." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1862 (September 13, 2017): 20171348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1348.

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The late Ediacaran soft-bodied macroorganism Dickinsonia (age range approx. 560–550 Ma) has often been interpreted as an early animal, and is increasingly invoked in debate on the evolutionary assembly of eumetazoan body plans. However, conclusive positive evidence in support of such a phylogenetic affinity has not been forthcoming. Here we subject a collection of Dickinsonia specimens interpreted to represent multiple ontogenetic stages to a novel, quantitative method for studying growth and development in organisms with an iterative body plan. Our study demonstrates that Dickinsonia grew via pre-terminal ‘deltoidal’ insertion and inflation of constructional units, followed by a later inflation-dominated phase of growth. This growth model is contrary to the widely held assumption that Dickinsonia grew via terminal addition of units at the end of the organism bearing the smallest units. When considered alongside morphological and behavioural attributes, our developmental data phylogenetically constrain Dickinsonia to the Metazoa, specifically the Eumetazoa plus Placozoa total group. Our findings have implications for the use of Dickinsonia in developmental debates surrounding the metazoan acquisition of axis specification and metamerism.
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Fromm, Bastian, Diana Domanska, Eirik Høye, Vladimir Ovchinnikov, Wenjing Kang, Ernesto Aparicio-Puerta, Morten Johansen, et al. "MirGeneDB 2.0: the metazoan microRNA complement." Nucleic Acids Research 48, no. D1 (October 10, 2019): D132—D141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkz885.

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Abstract Small non-coding RNAs have gained substantial attention due to their roles in animal development and human disorders. Among them, microRNAs are special because individual gene sequences are conserved across the animal kingdom. In addition, unique and mechanistically well understood features can clearly distinguish bona fide miRNAs from the myriad other small RNAs generated by cells. However, making this distinction is not a common practice and, thus, not surprisingly, the heterogeneous quality of available miRNA complements has become a major concern in microRNA research. We addressed this by extensively expanding our curated microRNA gene database - MirGeneDB - to 45 organisms, encompassing a wide phylogenetic swath of animal evolution. By consistently annotating and naming 10,899 microRNA genes in these organisms, we show that previous microRNA annotations contained not only many false positives, but surprisingly lacked &gt;2000 bona fide microRNAs. Indeed, curated microRNA complements of closely related organisms are very similar and can be used to reconstruct ancestral miRNA repertoires. MirGeneDB represents a robust platform for microRNA-based research, providing deeper and more significant insights into the biology and evolution of miRNAs as well as biomedical and biomarker research. MirGeneDB is publicly and freely available at http://mirgenedb.org/.
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Wolpert, L. "Gastrulation and the evolution of development." Development 116, Supplement (April 1, 1992): 7–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.116.supplement.7.

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The original eukaryotic cell may have possessed the key processes necessary for metazoan development - cell differentiation, patterning and motility - and these are present in the cell cycle. Protozoa also possess key patterning processes. It remains a problem as to why there should be two main modes of development - one based on asymmetric cell division and the other on cellular interactions. The latter may be related to asexual reproduction. The morphogenetic movements of gastrulation - as distinct from specifying the body plan - are highly conserved in a wide variety of organisms. This may reflect the requirement for patterning being specified in two dimensions, sheets of cells, and a third dimension being created by cell infolding. The origin of the gastrula can be accounted for in terms of Haeckel's gastrea theory - an early metazoan resembling the gastrula. Gastrulation in Cnidaria may resemble the primitive condition but there is nevertheless considerable diversity. While this may reflect, for example, yolkiness, it seems that there is little selection on developmental processes other than for reliability. Thus it is possible that the embryo is privileged with respect to selection and this may help account for the evolution of novel processes like the origin of the neural crest. Reliability is the key demand made on development This may be provided by apparent redundancy. Since many developmental processes involve switches and spatial patterning reliability is provided by parallel buffering mechanisms and not by negative feedback.
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Pang, K., and M. Q. Martindale. "Comb Jellies (Ctenophora): A Model for Basal Metazoan Evolution and Development." Cold Spring Harbor Protocols 2008, no. 12 (November 1, 2008): pdb.emo106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/pdb.emo106.

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32

Cooke, Jonathan, Martin A. Nowak, Maarten Boerlijst, and John Maynard-Smith. "Evolutionary origins and maintenance of redundant gene expression during metazoan development." Trends in Genetics 13, no. 9 (September 1997): 360–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9525(97)01233-x.

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33

Suga, Hiroshi, and Iñaki Ruiz-Trillo. "Development of ichthyosporeans sheds light on the origin of metazoan multicellularity." Developmental Biology 377, no. 1 (May 2013): 284–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.01.009.

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34

Schep, Alicia N., and Boris Adryan. "A Comparative Analysis of Transcription Factor Expression during Metazoan Embryonic Development." PLoS ONE 8, no. 6 (June 14, 2013): e66826. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0066826.

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35

KINNER, N., and C. CURDS. "Development of protozoan and metazoan communities in rotating biological contactor biofilms." Water Research 21, no. 4 (April 1987): 481–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(87)90197-7.

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36

Kwon, Jae Young, and Junho Lee. "Biological significance of a universally conserved transcription mediator in metazoan developmental signaling pathways." Development 128, no. 16 (August 15, 2001): 3095–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.128.16.3095.

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Transcription mediators are known to be required for regulated transcription in yeast and higher eukaryotes. However, little is known about the specific roles of mediators in vivo during development. In this report, we have characterized the biological functions of the C. elegans genemed-6, which is the homolog of the yeast mediator med-6. We first identified a genetic mutation in the med-6 gene by comparing genetic and physical maps and determining the molecular lesion. Next, we demonstrated that med-6 plays an important role in metazoan development by regulating the transcription of genes in evolutionarily conserved signaling pathways. We showed that med-6 is involved in the transcription of genes of the Ras pathway by showing that med-6 RNAi suppressed phenotypes associated with gain-of-function alleles oflet-23 and let-60, and enhanced those associated with a reduction-of-function allele of lin-3. We also found thatmed-6 is involved in male ray development, which is partly mediated by the Wnt pathway. As MED-6 is universally conserved, including in yeast, and the mediator-related proteins that function in vulval and male ray development are metazoan specific, our results suggest the role of med-6 as a point of convergence where signals transmitted through metazoan-specific mediator-related proteins meet. In addition, RNAi experiments inrde-1 background showed that maternal and zygotic med-6activities have distinct roles in development.
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Chioda, Mariacristina, Fabio Spada, Ragnhild Eskeland, and Eric M. Thompson. "Histone mRNAs Do Not Accumulate during S Phase of either Mitotic or Endoreduplicative Cycles in the Chordate Oikopleura dioica." Molecular and Cellular Biology 24, no. 12 (June 15, 2004): 5391–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.24.12.5391-5403.2004.

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ABSTRACT Metazoan histones are generally classified as replication-dependent or replacement variants. Replication-dependent histone genes contain cell cycle-responsive promoter elements, their transcripts terminate in an unpolyadenylated conserved stem-loop, and their mRNAs accumulate sharply during S phase. Replacement variant genes lack cell cycle-responsive promoter elements, their polyadenylated transcripts lack the stem-loop, and they are expressed at low levels throughout the cell cycle. During early development of some organisms with rapid cleavage cycles, replication-dependent mRNAs are not fully S phase restricted until complete cell cycle regulation is achieved. The accumulation of polyadenylated transcripts during this period has been considered incompatible with metazoan development. We show here that histone metabolism in the urochordate Oikopleura dioica does not accord with some key tenets of the replication-dependent/replacement variant paradigm. During the premetamorphic mitotic phase of development, expressed variants shared characteristics of replication-dependent histones, including the 3′ stem-loop, but, in contrast, were extensively polyadenylated. After metamorphosis, when cells in many tissues enter endocycles, there was a global downregulation of histone transcript levels, with most variant transcripts processed at the stem-loop. Contrary to the 30-fold S-phase upregulation of histone transcripts described in common metazoan model organisms, we observed essentially constant histone transcript levels throughout both mitotic and endoreduplicative cell cycles.
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Mogilevsky, Klarita, Amandeep Glory, and Catherine Bachewich. "The Polo-Like Kinase PLKA in Aspergillus nidulans Is Not Essential but Plays Important Roles during Vegetative Growth and Development." Eukaryotic Cell 11, no. 2 (December 2, 2011): 194–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.05130-11.

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ABSTRACTThe Polo-like kinases (Plks) are conserved, multifunctional cell cycle regulators that are induced in many forms of cancer and play additional roles in metazoan development. We previously identifiedplkAinAspergillus nidulans, the only Plk investigated in filamentous fungi to date, and partially characterized its function through overexpression. Here, we report theplkAnull phenotype. Surprisingly,plkAwas not essential, unlike Plks in other organisms that contain a single homologue. A subset of cells lacking PLKA contained defects in spindle formation and chromosome organization, supporting some conservation in cell cycle function. However, septa were present, suggesting that PLKA, unlike other Plks, is not a central regulator of septation. Colonies lacking PLKA were compact with multibranched hyphae, implying a role for this factor in aspects of hyphal morphogenesis. These defects were suppressed by high temperature or low concentrations of benomyl, suggesting that PLKA may function during vegetative growth by influencing microtubule dynamics. However, the colonies also showed reduced conidiation and precocious formation of sexual Hülle cells in a benomyl- and temperature-insensitive manner. This result suggests that PLKA may influence reproduction through distinct mechanisms and represents the first example of a link between Plk function and development in fungi. Finally, filamentous fungal Plks have distinct features, and phylogenetic analyses reveal that they may group more closely with metazoan PLK4. In contrast, yeast Plks are more similar to metazoan proteins PLK1 to PLK3. Thus,A. nidulansPLKA shows some conservation in cell cycle function but may also play novel roles during hyphal morphogenesis and development.
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Draper, Graham W., Deborah K. Shoemark, and Josephine C. Adams. "Modelling the early evolution of extracellular matrix from modern Ctenophores and Sponges." Essays in Biochemistry 63, no. 3 (August 23, 2019): 389–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/ebc20180048.

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Abstract Animals (metazoans) include some of the most complex living organisms on Earth, with regard to their multicellularity, numbers of differentiated cell types, and lifecycles. The metazoan extracellular matrix (ECM) is well-known to have major roles in the development of tissues during embryogenesis and in maintaining homoeostasis throughout life, yet insight into the ECM proteins which may have contributed to the transition from unicellular eukaryotes to multicellular animals remains sparse. Recent phylogenetic studies place either ctenophores or poriferans as the closest modern relatives of the earliest emerging metazoans. Here, we review the literature and representative genomic and transcriptomic databases for evidence of ECM and ECM-affiliated components known to be conserved in bilaterians, that are also present in ctenophores and/or poriferans. Whereas an extensive set of related proteins are identifiable in poriferans, there is a strikingly lack of conservation in ctenophores. From this perspective, much remains to be learnt about the composition of ctenophore mesoglea. The principal ECM-related proteins conserved between ctenophores, poriferans, and bilaterians include collagen IV, laminin-like proteins, thrombospondin superfamily members, integrins, membrane-associated proteoglycans, and tissue transglutaminase. These are candidates for a putative ancestral ECM that may have contributed to the emergence of the metazoans.
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40

Degnan, Sandie M., and Bernard M. Degnan. "The initiation of metamorphosis as an ancient polyphenic trait and its role in metazoan life-cycle evolution." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365, no. 1540 (February 27, 2010): 641–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0248.

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Comparative genomics of representative basal metazoans leaves little doubt that the most recent common ancestor to all modern metazoans was morphogenetically complex. Here, we support this interpretation by demonstrating that the demosponge Amphimedon queenslandica has a biphasic pelagobenthic life cycle resembling that present in a wide range of bilaterians and anthozoan cnidarians. The A. queenslandica life cycle includes a compulsory planktonic larval phase that can end only once the larva develops competence to respond to benthic signals that induce settlement and metamorphosis. The temporal onset of competence varies between individuals as revealed by idiosyncratic responses to inductive cues. Thus, the biphasic life cycle with a dispersing larval phase of variable length appears to be a metazoan synapomorphy and may be viewed as an ancestral polyphenic trait. Larvae of a particular age that are subjected to an inductive cue either maintain the larval form or metamorphose into the post-larval/juvenile form. Variance in the development of competence dictates that only a subset of a larval cohort will settle and undergo metamorphosis at a given time, which in turn leads to variation in dispersal distance and in location of settlement. Population divergence and allopatric speciation are likely outcomes of this conserved developmental polyphenic trait.
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Alié, Alexandre, Tetsutaro Hayashi, Itsuro Sugimura, Michaël Manuel, Wakana Sugano, Akira Mano, Nori Satoh, Kiyokazu Agata, and Noriko Funayama. "The ancestral gene repertoire of animal stem cells." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 51 (December 7, 2015): E7093—E7100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514789112.

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Stem cells are pivotal for development and tissue homeostasis of multicellular animals, and the quest for a gene toolkit associated with the emergence of stem cells in a common ancestor of all metazoans remains a major challenge for evolutionary biology. We reconstructed the conserved gene repertoire of animal stem cells by transcriptomic profiling of totipotent archeocytes in the demosponge Ephydatia fluviatilis and by tracing shared molecular signatures with flatworm and Hydra stem cells. Phylostratigraphy analyses indicated that most of these stem-cell genes predate animal origin, with only few metazoan innovations, notably including several partners of the Piwi machinery known to promote genome stability. The ancestral stem-cell transcriptome is strikingly poor in transcription factors. Instead, it is rich in RNA regulatory actors, including components of the “germ-line multipotency program” and many RNA-binding proteins known as critical regulators of mammalian embryonic stem cells.
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42

Hamm, Danielle C., and Melissa M. Harrison. "Regulatory principles governing the maternal-to-zygotic transition: insights from Drosophila melanogaster." Open Biology 8, no. 12 (December 2018): 180183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsob.180183.

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The onset of metazoan development requires that two terminally differentiated germ cells, a sperm and an oocyte, become reprogrammed to the totipotent embryo, which can subsequently give rise to all the cell types of the adult organism. In nearly all animals, maternal gene products regulate the initial events of embryogenesis while the zygotic genome remains transcriptionally silent. Developmental control is then passed from mother to zygote through a process known as the maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT). The MZT comprises an intimately connected set of molecular events that mediate degradation of maternally deposited mRNAs and transcriptional activation of the zygotic genome. This essential developmental transition is conserved among metazoans but is perhaps best understood in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster . In this article, we will review our understanding of the events that drive the MZT in Drosophila embryos and highlight parallel mechanisms driving this transition in other animals.
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43

Vorobyeva, Nadezhda E., Nataliya V. Soshnikova, Julia L. Kuzmina, Marina R. Kopantseva, Julia V. Nikolenko, Elena N. Nabirochkina, Sofia G. Georgieva, and Yulii V. Shidlovskii. "The novel regulator of metazoan development SAYP organizes a nuclear coactivator supercomplex." Cell Cycle 8, no. 14 (July 15, 2009): 2152–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/cc.8.14.9115.

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44

Isaeva, Valeria V., Nickolay V. Kasyanov, and Eugene V. Presnov. "Topology in Biology: Singularities and Surgery Transformations in Metazoan Development and Evolution." Applied Mathematics 05, no. 17 (2014): 2664–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/am.2014.517255.

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45

Coppola, Ugo, and Joshua S. Waxman. "Origin and evolutionary landscape of Nr2f transcription factors across Metazoa." PLOS ONE 16, no. 11 (November 22, 2021): e0254282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254282.

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Background Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 2 Group F (Nr2f) orphan nuclear hormone transcription factors (TFs) are fundamental regulators of many developmental processes in invertebrates and vertebrates. Despite the importance of these TFs throughout metazoan development, previous work has not clearly outlined their evolutionary history. Results We integrated molecular phylogeny with comparisons of intron/exon structure, domain architecture, and syntenic conservation to define critical evolutionary events that distinguish the Nr2f gene family in Metazoa. Our data indicate that a single ancestral eumetazoan Nr2f gene predated six main Bilateria subfamilies, which include single Nr2f homologs, here referred to as Nr2f1/2/5/6, that are present in invertebrate protostomes and deuterostomes, Nr2f1/2 homologs in agnathans, and Nr2f1, Nr2f2, Nr2f5, and Nr2f6 orthologs that are found in gnathostomes. Four cnidarian Nr2f1/2/5/6 and three agnathan Nr2f1/2 members are each due to independent expansions, while the vertebrate Nr2f1/Nr2f2 and Nr2f5/Nr2f6 members each form paralogous groups that arose from the established series of whole-genome duplications (WGDs). Nr2f6 members are the most divergent Nr2f subfamily in gnathostomes. Interestingly, in contrast to the other gnathostome Nr2f subfamilies, Nr2f5 has been independently lost in numerous vertebrate lineages. Furthermore, our analysis shows there are differential expansions and losses of Nr2f genes in teleosts following their additional rounds of WGDs. Conclusion Overall, our analysis of Nr2f gene evolution helps to reveal the origins and previously unrecognized relationships of this ancient TF family, which may allow for greater insights into the conservation of Nr2f functions that shape Metazoan body plans.
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46

Pomponi, S. A. "Biology of the Porifera: cell culture." Canadian Journal of Zoology 84, no. 2 (February 1, 2006): 167–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z05-188.

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The discovery that dissociated sponge cells will reaggregate to form a functional organism was the basis for the establishment of sponge cell cultures that have been used as a model for the study of fundamental processes in developmental biology and immunology. More recent is the discovery of unique bioactive compounds in marine sponges, and the feasibility of in vitro production of these chemicals is being evaluated. Techniques are well established for cell dissociation; development of several nutrient media formulations has resulted in improvements in viability and cell division; and molecular approaches to identification of genes responsible for regulation of cell cycling may provide unique perspectives in culture optimization. The use of novel substrates for immobilization of cells offers alternatives for proliferation and scale-up. All of these results support the potential for development of a model system for the study of basic metabolic processes involved in cell differentiation, as well as an in vitro production system for sponge-derived bioactive compounds. Perhaps more important, however, is the development of cell lines of these "simple" metazoans to facilitate basic cell physiology and molecular biology research that may be applied to understanding more complex metazoan systems, including humans.
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47

Gonzalez, C., G. Tavosanis, and C. Mollinari. "Centrosomes and microtubule organisation during Drosophila development." Journal of Cell Science 111, no. 18 (September 15, 1998): 2697–706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.111.18.2697.

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Are the microtubule-organising centers of the different cell types of a metazoan interchangeable? If not, what are the differences between them? Do they play any role in the differentiation processes to which these cells are subjected? Nearly one hundred years of centrosome research has established the essential role of this organelle as the main microtubule-organising center of animal cells. But only now are we starting to unveil the answers to the challenging questions which are raised when the centrosome is studied within the context of a pluricellular organism. In this review we present some of the many examples which illustrate how centrosomes and microtubule organisation changes through development in Drosophila and discuss some of its implications.
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48

Small, Stephen, and David N. Arnosti. "Transcriptional Enhancers in Drosophila." Genetics 216, no. 1 (September 2020): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.120.301370.

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Key discoveries in Drosophila have shaped our understanding of cellular “enhancers.” With a special focus on the fly, this chapter surveys properties of these adaptable cis-regulatory elements, whose actions are critical for the complex spatial/temporal transcriptional regulation of gene expression in metazoa. The powerful combination of genetics, molecular biology, and genomics available in Drosophila has provided an arena in which the developmental role of enhancers can be explored. Enhancers are characterized by diverse low- or high-throughput assays, which are challenging to interpret, as not all of these methods of identifying enhancers produce concordant results. As a model metazoan, the fly offers important advantages to comprehensive analysis of the central functions that enhancers play in gene expression, and their critical role in mediating the production of phenotypes from genotype and environmental inputs. A major challenge moving forward will be obtaining a quantitative understanding of how these cis-regulatory elements operate in development and disease.
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Brown, Elvin, Sreepurna Malakar, and Jocelyn E. Krebs. "How many remodelers does it take to make a brain? Diverse and cooperative roles of ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes in developmentThis paper is one of a selection of papers published in this Special Issue, entitled 28th International West Coast Chromatin and Chromosome Conference, and has undergone the Journal's usual peer review process." Biochemistry and Cell Biology 85, no. 4 (August 2007): 444–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/o07-059.

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The development of a metazoan from a single-celled zygote to a complex multicellular organism requires elaborate and carefully regulated programs of gene expression. However, the tight packaging of genomic DNA into chromatin makes genes inaccessible to the cellular machinery and must be overcome by the processes of chromatin remodeling; in addition, chromatin remodeling can preferentially silence genes when their expression is not required. One class of chromatin remodelers, ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling enzymes, can slide nucleosomes along the DNA to make specific DNA sequences accessible or inaccessible to regulators at a particular stage of development. While all ATPases in the SWI2/SNF2 superfamily share the fundamental ability to alter DNA accessibility in chromatin, they do not act alone, but rather, are subunits of a large assortment of protein complexes. Recent studies illuminate common themes by which the subunit compositions of chromatin-remodeling complexes specify the developmental roles that chromatin remodelers play in specific tissues and at specific stages of development, in response to specific signaling pathways and transcription factors. In this review, we will discuss the known roles in metazoan development of 3 major subfamilies of chromatin-remodeling complexes: the SNF2, ISWI, and CHD subfamilies.
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50

Galis, Frietson, Johan A. J. Metz, and Jacques J. M. van Alphen. "Development and Evolutionary Constraints in Animals." Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 49, no. 1 (November 2, 2018): 499–522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062339.

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We review the evolutionary importance of developmental mechanisms in constraining evolutionary changes in animals—in other words, developmental constraints. We focus on hard constraints that can act on macroevolutionary timescales. In particular, we discuss the causes and evolutionary consequences of the ancient metazoan constraint that differentiated cells cannot divide and constraints against changes of phylotypic stages in vertebrates and other higher taxa. We conclude that in all cases these constraints are caused by complex and highly controlled global interactivity of development, the disturbance of which has grave consequences. Mutations that affect such global interactivity almost unavoidably have many deleterious pleiotropic effects, which will be strongly selected against and will lead to long-term evolutionary stasis. The discussed developmental constraints have pervasive consequences for evolution and critically restrict regeneration capacity and body plan evolution.
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