Academic literature on the topic 'Metaphoric meaning of collocations'

Abstract This paper studies the extension of conventional meanings of Chinese FACE expressions in their collocations as well as the collocations themselves through metonymy and metaphor. The data with five FACE expressions included are sampled from the corpus of Center for Chinese Linguistics at Peking University. The conventional meaning of these five FACE expressions is ‘the surface of the front of the head from the top of the forehead to the base of the chin and from ear to ear’. The conventional meaning of FACE in its collocations is metonymically extended to ‘facial expression, emotion, attitude, person, health state, affection, sense of honor, etc.’, and metaphorically to ‘the front space or part of something, a part, a side or an aspect of something, the surface or the exposed layer of something, the geometric plane in math or scope/range of something, etc.’. When Chinese FACE is collocated with other words, its meanings are also extended through metonymy-metonymy chains, metonymy-metaphor continuums and metonymy-metaphor combinations. The meanings of Chinese FACE collocations (phrases) are mainly metonymically extended when used in certain contexts.

The analysis of the syntagmatic relations of collocations allows clarifying the regulated constant semantic structures which are typical of the given language unit, in this case of the noun. The functional motivation of the whole structure in noun collocations in English is conditioned by the other constituents of the collocation, rather than of the noun itself. They help perceive the general semantic nuances, as well as the metaphoric meaning and different degrees of directness of the given language unit.

One of the best-known features of verb-noun collocations is that one of their constituents, the collocative, has a metaphorical sense adapted to the main element of the construction, the basis. However, there has been little attention to the relation between collocations and metaphors. Thus, the aim of this paper is double: on the one hand, to highlight the tight relationship between metaphor and collocations; and, on the other, to discuss some metaphors codded in collocations with the movement verbs venio and incido, from the analysis of a representative corpus. As we will see, collocations with these two verbs are connected to two orientational metaphors frequently used in a wide range of languages in the world: "states are containers and inceptions of events are endpoints of telic movements". Moreover, the verb incido has in many collocations a negative meaning because of the conceptualization of the “fall” in the Roman world, related to the "up is good, down is bad" metaphor.

A lot of research addresses to the definitions of collocations, their properties, and how they are different from other language forms like metaphors and idioms concerning the transparency of its adjacent constituents in contributing to meaning, both intra- and interlingually. Collocations in all languages including in Arabic, reflect conventional uses and fixed patterns, but the Qur'anic collocations show distinguished uses that are different from those existed in other Arabic genres. Thus, translating Qur'anic collocations in particular brings about a challenge because of linguistic, cultural, and communicative reasons. The present paper clarifies the distinguished characteristic of collocation in the Qur'an that makes its discourse incomparable in other languages such as English, and discusses the most appropriate strategies for rendering metaphorical collocations in the Holy Qur'an as well. Some translations of the Qur'anic text including collocation have been chosen as they display linguistic problems produced by cling on the part of the translators to the word order of the Arabic source text, thus causing eccentricity in the target language.

The paper deals with a stylistic figure «oxymoron» which expresses a polar contradiction of concepts. Sematic and pragmatic properties of this stylistic device have been described. Semantically, simple and complicated (metaphoric) types of oxymoron may be singled out. Simple oxymorons include occasional units made by combinations of affixes or roots with contradictory meanings in compound words. Standard attributive nominal collocations make the majority of oxymorons. The simplest type of such collocations is a single-root word combination with a negative prefix for a part of the dyadic unit. Elaborated oxymorons are formed with constructions formed on the basis of the formula «Though A, but B» (e. g. They have never lost a chance to lose a chance). A special subgroup of oxymorons is made of words including a negative component which is not directly expressed in the affix. Oxymorons are often used as headlines because of their high energetic potential. Another subgroup of the figures in question may be defined as metaphoric oxymorons, both parts of their dyadic unit is semantically transformed. A pragmatic approach to a description of oxymorons makes it possible to characterize the main text types attracting such stylistic figures. Pragmatically, ironical, emblematic and symbolic varieties of this stylistic figure are described. I argue that in habitual and publicist communication oxymoron is used for a comical effect, whereas in aphorisms and poetry it aims to paradoxically express a new meaning.

This study aims at exploring and solving the main obstacles in translating economic texts from Arabic into Spanish and vice versa and their impact on translating economic terminology. To that end, the study shows that the translation of economic terminology is a complex process demanding linguistic and educational proficiency, specialized terminology awareness of any extra crucial meaning to the source and target language, frequent use of metaphoric expressions and collocations in business media discourse as well as the ability to use the appropriate translation techniques and strategies that are considered the cornerstone of a good economic translation.

The paper raises an issue of possibilities that are provided by corpus-based approach in analysis of metaphorical transfer based on the aspectual pair upast’ / padat’ (‘to fall’). The author reviews the structure of metaphorical meaning of predicates, which enforce the Lakoff ’s metaphor ‘LESS IS DOWN’ and copy some parts of valency structure from the primary meaning’s structure, and also analyses how collocations correlate with valency structure. The empirical base for analysis was extracted from the Russian corpus ruskell 1.6 in Sketch Engine. It consists of 1516 collocates in total used both in primary and metaphorical contexts. Formal corpus analysis of collocations demonstrate that unlike the primary meaning, metaphorical meaning is more strict and less variable when we talk about syntagmatic rules of filling patient (valency A1), source, or primary point (A2) and goal, or final point (A3), and interval (A4). As a result of analysis, we could extract several syntagmatic groups that are correlated with the metaphorical meaning only. Corpus-based analysis helps with identifying typical and marginal types that fill the valencies, nevertheless analysis of collocates that trigger metaphorical shift is more important. In the research, we focus on the syntagmatic group “noun(nom) + predicate” that marks patient’s valency. Semi-automated tagging of patient and semantic analysis of patient let us determine some specific lexical and semantic features and classify semantic groups (as parameter, property) that are typical for the metaphorical meaning. The author suggests that the mixed corpus-based approach, which is demonstrated in the paper, could be used in analysis of more general predicate metaphorical field as “get more <less>”

This paper discusses the results of the corpus-based analysis of the semantic prosody of collocations with VACCINE in the broadsheet ‘The Guardian’. The corpus has been processed with the help of Sketch Engine. Text passages containing collocations with VACCINE have been interpreted in order to state the prosody mode of the collocation in the context. The study mostly pays attention to the nouns modified by VACCINE as most frequently used in the me­dia texts. The dictionary definition of VACCINE defines it as a word with positive semantic prosody. The discourse analysis demonstrates that collocations containing the lemma VACCINE can have positive, negative or neutral semantic colouring, which depends on the contextual meaning of the analyzed passage and which is also based on the semantic prosody mode of other words in the passage, which actually designates and presupposes the mode of the collocations in question. The nouns supply, safety, mask, uptake, access, protection, production, certification used in ‘The Guardian’ articles, having positive semantic prosody in the pattern noun + VACCINE, in general create a positive metaphorical image and defense from Covid-19. However, the nouns hesitancy, misinformation, avail­ability and skepticism possessing negative semantic prosody, are mostly used to describe people’s unwillingness to get vaccinated and their doubts about the effectiveness of the procedure. Collocations with type, mechanism, distribution, usage and VACCINE have a neutral semantic prosody, which shows that such collocations are used in text passages in the surrounding of neither positive nor negative words and the whole passage serves as a state­ment of some facts without being evaluated.

The paper studies the use of the word terrorist in the dispatches of two major international news agencies, AP and Reuters. It can be assumed that the attacks on September 11, 2001, have changed the role of terrorist and affected the meaning of the word. While terrorists have been traditionally construed as violent actors, they are now, more and more, seen as a static threat. The paper examines three collocations — terrorist attack, terrorist threat and terrorist suspect — as grammatical metaphors (cf. Halliday 1994); the collocation terrorist network is analysed as a conceptual metaphor (cf. Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Linguistic strategies manifested in the data form a pattern that I call “anti-terrorism discourse”. Modality and general vagueness of the language are conspicuous features in the news agency dispatches on terrorism; the reports focus on what may happen or may have happened. This can be argued to undermine the factuality of news agency discourse.

The presented research reveals imagery-metaphoric and phraseological objectivities of the conceptual spheres Soul, Consciousness, Envy, Jealousy and Greed in Polish, Russian, Ukrainian, Czech and Slovak languages and conceptual picture of the world (first of all in proverbs and sayings, idioms, imagery means of secondary nomination both in standard language and its regional or dialectal variants) according to the indication of holistic characteristic and semantic intersection of these concepts. It describes the spheres of their typological coincidence and differences from the point of imagery motivation. It defines the symbolic functions of these ethno cultural concepts (object sphere) with respect to the specificity of manifestation of Envy in archaic texts, believes, in the language of traditional folk culture and archaic expressions with religious sense that reach Christian ideology, ideas of moral purity and dirt, Body and Soul. It has been defined the collocations with the components envy and jealousy in some thesauri and dictionaries in terms of the specificity of interlingual equivalence and expressions of envy and similar negative emotions and their functioning in the Ukrainian and English text corpora. The analysis demonstrated that practically in all compared languages and linguistic cultures Envy is associated with greed and jealousy, psychic disorders with a corresponding complex of feelings, expressed by metaphoric predicates of destruction and remorse that encode the moral and legal aspect of conscience (conscience is a judge, witness and executioner). Metaphor of Envy containing nominations of colours differ in the Slavonic and Germanic languages whereas those denoting spatial, gustatory, odour, acoustic and parametrical meaning are similar. Many imagery contexts of Envy correlate with such conceptual oppositions as richness and poverty, light and darkness; success is associated with the frames “foreign is better than domestic” where Envy encodes the meaning of encroachment upon another's property, “envy is better than sympathy”, “envy dominates where there are richness, success, welfare, happiness” which confirms the ideas of representatives in the field of psychoanalysis, cultural anthropology and sociology. In some languages the motives of black magic, evil eye (in Polish, Ukrainian and Russian) are rooted in the sphere of folk believes and invocations, as well as cultural anthroponyms.

The main purpose of the PhD studies was to analyse the problem of the “not free combinability” between the words of the Russian language, in comparison with the Italian language, paying particular attention to the fixed structures connected with the semantic field of feeling and emotions. The choice to study the “not free combinability” between lexemes, (i.e. to analyse the regular fixed uses between two or more words, usually one next to the other, so that choosing the word “A” to express something, the choice of the word “B” to be combined with “A” is lexically fixed), was due to the interest in studying the rules of Russian language, which influence the fixed combination of words. Moreover, the interest in creating a structured teaching process to present such materials to Italian native speakers played an important role too. The need to analyse the matter not only from a linguistic point of view, but also considering the problem connected to the teaching of languages, was due to the importance of a correct use of such structures, as it guarantees a correct written and oral production and more precision in the translation process. Studying the fixed combinations, first, we tried to define their syntactic and semantic nature and, secondly, to conduct a depth analysis of real linguistic material in order to classify it, searching the common principles, on which base some types of substantives and some types of verbs join permanently to each other. Considering the above explanation, in the first chapter of the dissertation we analysed different linguistic theories that, according to many specialists, allow better to understand the characteristics of those syntactic-lexical structures that cannot be considered idioms, but not even free combinations of words. From this point of view, it was very important studying the works of various linguists such as A.A. Potebnja, F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Šakhmatov, Ch. Bally, V.V. Vinogradov, N.M. Šanskij e A.I. Molotkov, just to list some names. This analysis enabled us to understand how the material we are interested in has been studied in the history of the Russian linguistic, and it gave us also the possibility to identify why the analysed structures are included in the linguistic science and, more precisely, in phraseology. Particularly important was the study of V.V. Vinogradov’s work. Moving from the Bally’s idea, who considered the structures we are interested in as fixed verbal combinations, used as periphrasis of verbs (prinimat’ rešenije – rešit’ / to make a decision – to decide), he outlined three possible meanings in the connections between the words of a language (prjamoj nominativnoe značenije, frazeologičeski svjazannoe značenije e sintaksičeski obuslovennoe značenije – nominal direct meaning, meaning connected to the phraseology and syntactically bound meaning). Then, on this base, he classified the phraseological structures (frazeologičeskije sraščenija, frazeologičeskije jedinstva e frazeologičeskije sočetanija – phraseological links, phraseological units and phraseological combinations), including the combinations that we are studying in the frazeologičeskije sočetanija (phraseological combinations). Moreover, in the doctoral work we analysed the link between semantic and syntax, on which the phraseological combinations are based. From this point of view, some principles of the G.A. Zolotova’s communicative grammar were very important. Particularly significant was the classification of Russian verbs provided in her study. The G.A. Zolotova’s analysis allowed better to understand the nature of the verb as semantic and structural unit of fixed combinations: in the frazeologičeskije sočetanija (phraseological combinations) to the noun binds almost always a particular type of verbs called, in the communicative grammar, kompensatory (compensators). These verbs, usually binding to an abstract substantive (for example čuvstvovat’ bespokojstvo – to feel concern), increase the semantic meaning of the fixed combination expressed by this substantive and allow to determine the syntactic links, through which the same fixed combination takes place in the entire phrase. The collected linguistic material has been analyzed, firstly, from semantic and structural points of view, and, secondly, it was studied focusing its stylistic characteristics. In fact we underlined how, very often, the choice of the fixed combinations that must be used depends also from the linguistic style of the produced text. Considering the above reflections, the decision to analyze the phraseological combinations related to the sphere of feelings and emotions was not accidental: our study has shown that such structures can be found in different types of languages (literary, journalistic, official, of everyday life etc.) and for this reason it was possible to extend the work taking into account different linguistic styles. For this purpose, we created a linguistic corpus containing a high number of examples of phraseological combinations referred to the semantic field of feeling and emotions. The linguistic material collected in the corpus was divided, firstly, on the basis of the “expressed feeling” (anxiety, hope, happiness, gratitude, curiosity etc.) and, secondly, considering its linguistic style (everyday language, literary language, public language, language of economy and business, journalistic language). In this way, starting from the basis of communicative linguistic, it was possible to conduct the present analysis on real linguistic material, studied inside its context of use. The created linguistic corpus was used as basis for the work carried out in the second chapter, i.e. for the construction of a classification model for the phraseological combinations, object of the dissertation. As underlined, these structures have been studied not only according to the different linguistic styles, but also considering the syntactic and linguistic connections between the words, that compose the phraseological combinations and also between such combinations and the rest of the text in which they are included. We identified four possible syntactic-lexical relations on which basis the substantives that express feelings and emotions join with different verbs. Within these four reports, we studied the types of verbs that join with the various substantives considering the syntactic-lexical relations expressed by the sentence. Thanks to this study it was possible to show that, although there are some exceptions, according to the syntactic-lexical relation that must be expressed, there are some verbs that in a big percentage join in fixed combinations with the most of the substantives of the same semantic field, or with most of those which have similar semantic characteristics. Stylistically and syntactically, we studied how, taking into account the style of the text that we have to produce, it is possible to use the upper mentioned forms, or to substitute them with different structures, which, however, maintain the same semantic value. This part of the analysis showed that the fixed phraseological combinations are stylistically marked structures used, usually, in the literature, in official documents, in journalism. In everyday colloquial language, on the opposite, personal forms, passive participial forms and impersonal predicative forms of the verbs replace such structures. For example, in colloquial language, instead of fixed phraseological combinations as “emu okhvatylo bespokojstvo” (the concern assailed him), prevail forms as “on bespokoitsja” (he is worried), “emu strašno” (he is scared) etc.. For some substantives, then, the choice to substitute the fixed phraseological combination with the correspondent verbal form, or, in some cases, with the passive participial form, depends by the meaning that must be transmitted. For example, the form “on čuvstvuet ljubov’” (he feels love), can be replaced by the expression “on ljubit” (he loves) and by “on vljublen” (he falled in love), but considering that, from a semantic point of view, the forms “on ljubit” (he loves) and “on vljublen” (he falled in love) have different meanings. In the final part of the second chapter, after the linguistic analysis of the collected material, we proposed the hypothesis that these structures can be studied also considering the theory of the so called “kartina mira” (i.e. how the speaker’s conception of the surrounding reality is reflected in the linguistic expressions of a certain people). This hypothesis is based on the idea that in the studied constructions the substantives receive a metaphoric meaning that allow them to join with a specific verb. Both works (the lexical-syntactic analysis and the analysis of the collected expressions from the metaphorical point of view) have been conducted in a contrastive perspective with Italian language. The aim of such decision was constantly to underline the links and the differences between the two languages with reference to the construction and to the use of fixed phraseological combinations. As already mentioned, the linguistic analysis was complemented by a proposal of practical use of phraseological combinations in the teaching of Russian language to the Italian native speakers. This part of analysis was treated in the third chapter of the dissertation. This proposal has taken into account the fundamental principles of foreign language teaching and considered the big literature that describes the particularity in teaching of phraseology, of lexicology and of syntax. After the analysis of existing materials about the teaching of fixed phraseological combinations in Russian as foreign language, and after studying the approaches to the matter in the most common manuals, we defined the linguistic activities related to the choice of material. We considered the meaning of the fixed phraseological combinations, the syntactic possibilities to replace them with other linguistic structures on the base of the used linguistic register, the frequency with which the various fixed structures are used in the different type of texts, the presence, or the absence, of similar structures in Italian language. After choosing the linguistic material, considering the above listed principles, we defined the teaching methodological bases, i.e. how to present the material and how to fix the time for exercises and for control of the skills. As explained, these choices were made considering the teaching of Russian language not to foreigners in general, but in particular to Italian native speakers. The result of the analysis carried out in the third chapter was a concrete proposal of didactic materials, organized for a course of ten lessons, in order to teach the main and most frequent fixed phraseological combinations that must be not only recognized, but also active used in the autonomous production. The material for these ten lessons has been completely organized within the temporal limits of an academic lecture and is followed by other material that presents also the less frequent combinations. The two blocks of teaching material have been distinguished, in order to choose when use only one of them and when use both, depending by the available time for the course. In this way, in the presented work we linked the linguistic theory, the linguistic analysis applied to the created corpus and the fundamental didactic principles, in order to provide the theoretic base for the study of frazeologičeskije sočetanija (phraseological combinations), and also to formulate an hypothesis for practical study of the analyzed structures in a course of Russian language.

In Norstedts Comprehensive English-Swedish Dictionary (2000) it is said that the numbered list of senses under each headword is frequency ordered. Thus, the aim of this study is to see whether this frequency order of senses agrees with the frequencies appearing in the British National Corpus (BNC). Five English, polysemous verbs were studied. For each verb, a simple search in the corpus was carried out, displaying 50 random occurrences. Each collocate was encoded with the most compatible sense from the numbered list of senses in the dictionary. The encoded tokens were compiled and listed in frequency order. This list was compared to the dictionary's list of senses. Only two of the verbs reached agreement between the highest ranked dictionary sense and the most frequent sense in the BNC simple search. None of the verbs' dictionary orders agreed completely with the emerged frequency order of the corpus occurrences, why complementary collocational learning is advocated.

Esta tese apresenta elucidações técnicas e interpretações póscomposicionais de quatro peças compostas durante o doutorado: “Io” e “Calisto”, para piano solo, “Ganimedes” e “Europa”, para dois pianos. A composição musical é abordada em três etapas: a) descrição dos aspectos musicais e extramusicais dos primeiros estágios da composição; b) investigação das características sonoras das peças; c) construção de interpretações ficcionais pós-composicionais, imaginando as luas de Júpiter como ímpeto composicional e interpretativo. O terceiro estágio é realizado na perspectiva da teoria contemporânea das metáforas, tal qual proposta por George Lakoff e Mark Johnson e, posteriormente, por Mark Turner e Gilles Falconnier. Através da apresentação das categorias de metáforas, cruzamentos de mapeamento de domínios, esquemas de imagens, princípio de invariância, espaços conceptuais e mesclagem conceptual, se estabelecem, neste trabalho, conexões entre os conceitos metafóricos e a conceptualização metafórica da música. Isso contribui para a aproximação entre as características marcantes das peças e as cenas/ações propostas como primeira etapa das interpretações pós-composicionais, construídas pelo compositor. O trabalho propõe-se a pensar sobre a atribuição de significados da composição musical em uma perspectiva global, em que elementos extramusicais podem expandir a assimilação do fenômeno musical, bem como contribuir para a pedagogia da composição musical e para a produção de trabalhos colaborativos.
This thesis presents technical elucidations and post-compositional interpretations of four pieces composed during my doctorate degree: "Io" and "Calisto", for solo piano, "Ganimedes" and "Europa" for two pianos. The music composition is approached in three steps: a) description of the musical and extra musical aspects of the first stages of the composition; b) investigation of the sonorous characteristics of the pieces; c) construction of fictional postcompositional interpretations, imagining Jupiter's moons as compositional and interpretative impetus. The third stage is achieved under the perspective of the contemporary theory of metaphor proposed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, and posteriorly developed by Mark Turner and Gilles Falconnier. Through the introduction of metaphor categories, the cross-domain mapping, the image schema, the invariance principle, the mental spaces and the conceptual blending, some connections are established between the metaphoric concepts and the metaphoric conceptualization of music. This contributes to the approximation between the main characteristics of the pieces and the scenes/actions proposed in the first step of the post-compositional interpretations. This work proposes a reflection about the attribution of meanings on the musical composition in a global perspective, where extra musical elements can expand the assimilation of the musical phenomenon, as well as to contribute to the pedagogy of musical composition and the production of collaborative works.

Although there are units larger than the word in language, linguists have not been able to agree on a definition of these units. This study examines a variety of notions, relevant in the study of ”fixed” or ”frozen” expressions in contemporary French. Criteria such as memorization, unique context, non-compositionality, marked syntax, lexical blocking and grammatical blocking are analyzed in detail. A closer look at them reveals that in fact only one of them, lexical blocking, is both necessary and sufficient in the description of a fixed expression. The other criteria are, however, also important to the notion of ”fixedness”. It may well be that the criteria that have often been proposed in linguistic literature would benefit from being organized in a family resemblance rather than being used as necessary and sufficient conditions.

The concept of "family" has undergone major changes over the past 50 years. This thesis examines changes in attitudes and values that can be detected in German and Swedish during this time. In order to investigate these changes in the concept of "family" I have analyzed how the German focus word Familie and the Swedish focus word familj are used in newspaper articles from the 1960s, 1980s and early 2000s. The empirical data consists of German and Swedish newspaper corpora from the three different periods. The theoretical point of departure is a social constructionist perspective, where family is considered to be something constructed and negotiated in language use. The method is corpus linguistic discourse analysis: compound words, collocations and multi-word patterns that include the focus words are analyzed using large text corpora. The study is both about changes in HOW the words familj and Familie are used and WHAT is said about the family in public language use. The thesis shows changes in both Swedish and German language use. I conclude that two different sub-concepts are being constructed and negotiated: the family as a GROUP OF PERSONS and family as a WAY OF LIVING TOGETHER. As regards the family as a group of persons this sub-concept has undergone major changes during the period studied. Differences in Swedish and German language use indicate more and sometimes earlier changes in the Swedish concept of family. The sub-concept of family as a way of living together is more constant. The observed changes can also be seen against a background of Swedish and German conceptual norms of family that do not change to the same extent. New family structures such as nätverksfamiljer (reconstituted families) and regnbågsfamiljer (rainbow families) are partly constructed as deviations from these conceptual norms. The thesis also shows that the sub-concept of family as a group of persons has become even more complex, especially in Swedish language use and particularly in so-called bio boxes, where pets are mentioned as family members and couples without children label themselves as familj.
Begreppet ”familj” har genomgått stora förändringar de senaste 50 åren. I den här avhandlingen studeras vilka förändringar i synsätt och värderingar som kan upptäckas i det tyska och det svenska språkbruket under denna tid. För att undersöka dessa förändringar i begreppet ”familj” analyseras hur det tyska fokusordet Familie och det svenska fokusordet familj används i tidningstext från 1960-talet, 1980-talet och början av 2000-talet. Det empiriska materialet består av tyska och svenska tidningskorpusar från de tre olika perioderna. Den teoretiska utgångspunkten är ett socialkonstruktivistiskt perspektiv, där familj betraktas som någonting som konstrueras och förhandlas i språkanvändning. Metoden är korpuslingvistisk diskursanalys: med hjälp av stora textkorpusar analyseras sammansatta ord, kollokationer och flerordsmönster där fokusorden ingår. Det handlar här både om förändringar i HUR orden familj och Familie används och i VAD som sägs om familj i offentligt språkbruk. Avhandlingen visar på förändringar i både den svenska och den tyska språkanvändningen. Jag kommer fram till att två olika delbegrepp konstrueras och förhandlas: familj som PERSONGRUPP och familj som SAMLEVNADSFORM. När det gäller familj som persongrupp genomgår det delbegreppet stora förändringar under den studerade tidsperioden. Förändringarna visar sig vara större och ibland tidigare i det svenska materialet än i det tyska materialet. Delbegreppet familj som samlevnadsform är mer konstant. De förändringar som kan observeras sker också mot en bakgrund av svenska och tyska normbilder av familj, som inte förändras i samma grad. Nya familjebildningar som nätverksfamiljer och regnbågsfamiljer konstrueras delvis som avvikelser från dessa normbilder. Avhandlingen visar också att delbegreppet familj som persongrupp blir allt mer mångfacetterat, särskilt i svenskt språkbruk och i synnerhet i s.k. faktarutor, där även husdjur nämns som familjemedlemmar och par utan barn får etiketten familj.

碩士
國立臺灣科技大學
設計研究所
94
Metaphor is a common operational technique in print advertising, which conveys the information and creative ideas hidden in the advertisement to the audience more quickly and easily. Related literature on metaphoric print advertising shows that not all metaphors operate in the same way. The difficulity in processing different metaphoric operations will affect their persuasive power and the consumers’ of comprehension. It is also established that the consumers’ ability to absorb the metaphoric meanings develops in time, adjusting to the changing market environment. This project deals with the meaning and the expressional levels of the metaphoric print advertising separately by analyzing the contents of metaphoric print advertisements in the past 30 years. The research finding shows that the appearance frequency has increased. In terms of expressive modes, it frequently adopts the methods of “literal similarity with design appearance,” “pictorical metaphor,” and “fusion.” In addition, the phnomenon of “visual dissonance” appear more and more frequently, which cannot be converted to verbal expression adequately. In conclusion, both the meaning level and expression levels of the metaphoric print advertising becomes more complex over time, which demands more efforts from the consumers to read into the advertisement.

碩士
國立臺灣科技大學
設計研究所
95
Metaphor is an interesting manner of language expression. It is even more interesting and effective when metaphors are turned into advertisements, especially in the society of nowadays that is flooded with advertisements. The purpose of this study is to investigate metaphoric advertisements in the last two years by content analysis. Based on several researchers’ classifications, this study probe into whether the use of the meaning operation and visual structure in metaphoric ads differ according to product/service, types of products, types of selling point, product categories, media, and target audience.（1）The results reveal that credence selling point uses metaphor more often than other selling points.（2）Metaphor appears more often in advertising targeted at experts than general public.（3）In addition, most of the expert-targeted ads used the technique of Fusion, and most of the general-public-targeted ads used the technique of Juxtaposition.（4）Regardless of what the dependent variables are, metaphor ads mainly translate the concrete to the abstract, Mere Appearance is the least used style, and Pictorial Metaphor is the most used one.（5）In terms of whether metaphors can be converted to language, services, credence products, searching selling points, financial services, and expert-targeted ads are more “inconvertible” than their counterparts.（6）In terms of product categories, most of the real estate and cosmetic use “Literal Similarity with Original Appearance”, while the rest use mainly “Literal Similarity with Design Appearance.”

La génération automatique de texte (GAT) produit du texte en langue naturelle destiné aux humains à partir de données non langagières. L’objectif de la GAT est de concevoir des générateurs réutilisables d’une langue à l’autre et d’une application à l’autre. Pour ce faire, l’architecture des générateurs automatiques de texte est modulaire : on distingue entre la génération profonde qui détermine le contenu du message à exprimer et la réalisation linguistique qui génère les unités et structures linguistiques exprimant le message. La réalisation linguistique multilingue nécessite de modéliser les principaux phénomènes linguistiques de la manière la plus générique possible. Or, les collocations représentent un de ces principaux phénomènes linguistiques et demeurent problématiques en GAT, mais aussi pour le Traitement Automatique des Langues en général. La Théorie Sens-Texte analyse les collocations comme des contraintes de sélection lexicale. Autrement dit, une collocation est composée de trois éléments : (i) la base, (ii) le collocatif, choisi en fonction de la base et (iii) d’une relation sémantico-lexicale. Il existe des relations sémantico-lexicales récurrentes et systématiques. Les fonctions lexicales modélisent ces relations. En effet, des collocations telles que peur bleue ou pluie torrentielle instancient une même relation, l’intensification, que l’on peut décrire au moyen de la fonction lexicale Magn : Magn(PEUR) = BLEUE, Magn(PLUIE) = TORRENTIELLE, etc. Il existe des centaines de fonctions lexicales. Ce mémoire présente la méthodologie d’implémentation des collocations dans un réalisateur de texte multilingue, GÉCO, à l’aide des fonctions lexicales standard syntagmatiques simples et complexes. Le cœur de la méthodologie repose sur le regroupement des fonctions lexicales ayant un fonctionnement similaire dans des patrons génériques. Au total, plus de 26 000 fonctions lexicales ont été implémentées, représentant de ce fait une avancée considérable pour le traitement des collocations en réalisation de texte multilingue.
Natural Language Generation (NLG) produces text in natural language from non-linguistic content. NLG aims at developing generators that are reusable across languages and applications. In order to do so, these systems’ architecture is modular: while the deep generation module determines the content of the message to be expressed, the text realization module maps the message into its most appropriate linguistic form. Multilingual text realization requires to model the core linguistic phenomena that one finds in language. Collocations represent one of the core linguistic phenomena that remain problematic not only in NLG, but also in Natural Language Processing in general. The Meaning-Text theory analyses collocations as constraints on lexical selection. In other words, a collocation is made up of three constituents: (i) the base, (ii) the collocate, chosen according to (iii) a semantico-lexical relation. Some of these semantico-lexical relations are systematic and shared by many collocations. Lexical functions are a system for modeling these relations. In fact, collocations such as heavy rain or strong preference instantiate the same relation, intensity, can be described with the lexical function Magn: Magn(RAIN) = HEAVY, Magn(PREFERENCE) = STRONG, etc. There are hundreds of lexical functions. Our work presents a methodology for the implementation of collocations in a multilingual text realization engine, GÉCO, that relies on simple and complex syntagmatic standard lexical functions. The principal aspect of the methodology consists of regrouping lexical functions that show a similar behavior into generic patterns. As a result, 26 000 lexical functions have been implemented, which is a considerable progress in the treatment of collocations in multilingual text realization.

This chapter considers how a modern reader can make sense of a medieval text, but also to have an aesthetic and emotional reaction to the text. It deploys insights from neuroscientific work on emotion in mental processing, the psychology and history of emotions, and cognitive poetic approaches to the aesthetics of reading, to consider how poetic language use interacts with cognitive structures and processes. By using a new diachronic perspective, this chapter explores the shared cognitive basis of meaning and feeling in short (translated) elegiac poems written over 1,000 years ago in Old English. It demonstrates that readerly emotional investment arises from linguistic features, including metaphoric language and affective triggers, to produce a literary effect. By tracing the interaction of affective and interpretive processes, this chapter considers the shared cognitive/emotional basis of meaning-making in both proximate and distant literary responses and broadens the scope of inquiries into cognition and poetics.

Dissection Might Be Thought Of As A Self-Explanatory Term.’ So Begins Jonathan Sawday’s The Body Emblazoned: Dissection And The Human Body In Renaissance Culture (1995), One Of The Earliest Cultural Histories To Contribute To The Burgeoning Field Of Medical Humanities In The 1990s. ‘In Its Medical Sense’, He Explains, ‘A Dissection Suggests The Methodical Division Of An Animal Body For The Purposes Of “Critical Examination”.’ But The Term Can Be Used In A ‘Metaphoric Sense’ Too, And When It Is We Are Led ‘To An Historical Field Rich In Cognate Meanings’ In A Period When A ‘ “Science” Of The Body Had Not Yet Emerged’. These Rich Meanings Are The Focus Of His Study, Which Aims To Recover The ‘Violent, Darker Side Of Dissection And Anatomization’ Before Its Meaning Became Fixed As ‘A Seemingly Discrete Way Of Ordering The Observation Of The Natural World’. This Darker Side Includes The Partitioning Of Knowledge, Surveillance Of The Body, Eroticism And A Deep-Rooted Fear Of Interiority. Rereading Sawday’s Pioneering

In this paper, the authors discuss the findings of a study carried out to examine good lexical collocation in classical Malay texts. For the study, two corpora were used, namely Petua Membina Rumah and Korpus Rujukan Berita Harian. The former had 14,644 tokens and 2,080 types while the latter had 1,058,722 tokens and 39,632 types. Only 100 distributions of lexical collocations of the word ‘baik’ were chosen, given that such a word was most widely used in adjectival sentences. Collocation analysis was carried out using MI (Mutual Information), T score, and logDice. The findings showed such lexical collocations had metaphorical meanings based on two main categories of intensifiers, namely amplifier and downtoner. The former was made up of booster and maximizer while the latter consisted of approximator, compromisers, diminisher, and minimizer. Such findings indicate that the Malay society has a unique linguistic identity in that they converse with a good lexicon of intensifying words or intensifiers whose function is to amplify the meanings of sentences. Each variant of intensifiers of the Malay language occurs in various adverbial characters. Such a phenomenon shows that the unique adverbial intensifier of the Malay language plays an important role as an indicator to identify metaphors.

Languages do not always use specific perception words to refer to specific senses. A word from one sense can metaphorically express another physical perception meaning. For Kirundi, findings from a corpus-based analysis revealed a cross-modal polysemy and a bidirectional hierarchy between higher and lower senses. The attested multisensory expression of auditory verb kwûmva ‘hear’ allows us to reduce sense modalities to two –vision and audition. Moreover, the auditory experience verb kwûmva ‘hear’ shows that lower senses can extend to higher senses through the use of synaesthetic metaphor (e.g. kwûmva akamōto ‘lit:hear a smell’/ururírīmbo ruryōshé ‘lit: a tasty song’/ururirimbo ruhimbâye ‘lit: a pleasant song). However, in collocations involving emotion words, it connects perception to emotion (e.g.; kwûmva inzara ‘lit: hear hunger’, kwûmva umunêzēro ‘lit: hear happiness’). This association indicates that perception in Kirundi gets information from both internal and external stimuli. Thus, considering feelings as part of the perception system.

The noun “gas” is the object of this paper. The authors analyze and compare the meanings of the word “gas” and its functions using English-English and English-Russian dictionaries. Also “gas” collocations are presented in the article. The results given in the paper will be useful for the English Integrated Learning process.

On the level of language, multiculturalism is manifested in various and numerous ways: from proper names and different names for concepts, to linguistic creations/word collocations with universal meaning. Speakers often use fixed word structures that contain proper names (Romanian coinages or borrowings from other languages) as discursive embellishment or due to the multiple meanings that these linguistic creations gain in different communicative contexts.

In this time of supercomplexity as a consequence of the technological development the computer is perceived as way, tool, and facilitator of diffusing knowledge. It is no doubt about the importance of the metaphor in contemporary fields: philosophy of language, philosophy of minds, philosophy of science, epistemology, learning, poetics, aesthetics, in psychology, in media, and so on. From rhetoric considerations we specify that this study does not intend to offer a semiotics of art because we use the metaphor as a vehicle of communication. Beyond its literal and aesthetic content the metaphor has a cognitive meaning and we substantiate this by claiming the metaphor's content from the vantage point of epistemology. It is most plausible that the symbolic interpretations reveals the connections between what is taught in Romanian schools and extending the use of the computers to teacher's or student's home day by day. The task formulated -identifying one metaphor for the computer functioning- refers to a problem solving because the problem here is to recognize, to define, and to represent the computer. Because of the perspectives irreconcilables between electronic pattern of the computer and its metaphoric thinking the target population was invited to clearly explain in words the meaning of their metaphor. In terms of research methodology these requirement is elicited for the argument that the comprehention of metaphor is not an universally generalizable process and the cognitive representations of the computer are variables by individual metaphoric thinking. This paper investigates the cognitive reorientation about the computer of teachers using key epistemological metaphors.The qualitative analysis shows that there clearly are differences between the functions of the computer from the vantage point of standardized view and the practical' interpretation of the target population. As result of analising the computers' functions relating day by day use the images of working the computer (computer as metaphor) delineated are following: the informational metaphor, the educational metaphor, the psychological metaphor, the effect metaphor, the visual metaphor.