Academic literature on the topic 'Merino sheep Animal nutrition'

Merino sheep developed in Mediterranean regions so are well adapted to acute changes in food availability. However, restricted intake during pregnancy, especially in animals that are pregnant over the dry summer, could limit the positive effects of a winter rainy season on fetal development. In this study, we tested whether the level of nutrition during pregnancy and during pre-pubertal development affected blood concentrations of insulin and leptin, scrotal circumference and age of puberty in male Merino lambs fed with pasture. During dry weather, pregnant sheep were supplemented ad libitum with hay and lupin grain (Lupinus angustifolius) to compensate for decreases in pasture supply. Puberty was detected using a standardised behavioural test with oestrous ewes. Lambs were considered pubertal if they displayed mounting in two successive weekly tests. There were no differences in plasma concentrations of insulin or leptin. The values for both hormones simply displayed the same pattern, with a rise after feeding and a fall during non-feeding periods. There was no difference among treatments in either scrotal growth or age to puberty (Table 1). This might be because the dietary treatments, being administered by food restriction under field conditions, would not have the same effects as severe undernutrition that has been used in laboratory studies. Alternatively, Merino sheep may have a greater capacity to cope with mild nutritional stress.

In mediterranean environments, pastures are very poor during the autumn and consequently small ruminants, such as sheep, would have been losing body mass for many months so, during mating, gamete production would be depressed in both sexes. Effectively, the nutritive requirements for a photo-period-driven, annual reproductive cycle are out of phase with seasonal changes in food availability. The problem could be overcome through more flexible timing of reproduction, perhaps explaining variations in seasonality between breeds that originate from differing latitudes. To study these concepts and the mechanisms involved, the endogenous rhythms and responses to photoperiod were compared in rams of ‘mediterranean origin’ (Merino) and ‘temperate origin’ (Suffolk). Groups of 16 rams of each breed were given a constant food supply and subjected to 16 months of constant equinoctial photoperiod (12L : 12D) or simulated ‘mediterranean’ changes in daylength (from 14L : 10D to 14D : 10L). With nutritional and photoperiodic inputs held constant, Merino and Suffolk rams showed similar endogenous rhythms in reproductive activity. Under constant nutritional inputs and a mediterranean photoperiodic cycle, the endogenous rhythms were modified differently in the two breeds, with the Merinos starting and finishing their seasons about 2 months earlier than the Suffolks. These observations partially explain the patterns observed in rams kept under field conditions. It is now necessary to test whether the rhythms of reproduction in these breeds are also modified by changes in nutrition and social cues.

The combined effects of age and genetics and Poll Dorset sire and growth path were studied in two separate experiments (n = 595 and 627, respectively). In the first experiment, containing genotype crosses typically used in Australia (Merino, Poll Dorset, Border Leicester) and sires selected for growth or muscling, sheep were slaughtered at 4, 8, 14 and 22 months. The second experiment used Poll Dorset sires selected for high muscling, fat or growth with progeny having two levels of nutrition postweaning. Border Leicesters expressed higher levels of carcass fat percentage and intramuscular fat and produced the heaviest carcass. Merinos had the lowest subcutaneous fat depth and highest carcass lean percentage when compared at the same age. The progeny of Poll Dorset sires selected for high muscling (PDm) expressed a shift toward glycolytic fibres relative to those from Merino sires, and PDm sires produced progeny with reduced spine and limb length and higher carcass muscle : mineral ratios, suggesting skeletal stunting. Genotype meat quality differences were minimal except that PDm sire topsides were tougher and Merinos produced higher pH meat. With age (4–22 months), lambs became heavier and fatter, fibres shifted towards oxidative and away from glycolytic, muscle myoglobin increased, the meat became darker and redder and tenderness declined. Early weaning had no effect on the time to reach slaughter weight, provided nutrition was not restricted. The sire genetics influence on the carcass composition far outweighed the effect of nutrition postweaning. Lambs on a restricted diet tended to have less acceptable meat quality but this was not evident in lambs from sires selected for high fatness. Sensory tenderness was improved and intramuscular fat was higher in lamb progeny from sires selected for high fatness.

The effect of maintenance v, submaintenance diets of pregnant ewes in 1991 and 1992 on establishment of the wool follicle population in their progeny, and its effect on the progeny's wool production (quantity, quality and variation across the body of the animal) to 1.4 years of age was examined. The experimental protocol used cloned animals created by bisecting embryos at day 6 of pregnancy. Each clone was placed in a ewe, which was subsequently fed from about day 50 to 140 of pregnancy at maintenance or submaintenance. Ewes on maintenance nutrition maintained liveweight throughout pregnancy, while submaintenance ewes were 12.1 kg lighter (P<0.001) 10 days before lambing. In 1991, a total of 74 lambs were born, including 17 sets of surviving clones. In 1992, 102 lambs were born, including 18 sets of surviving clones. Only data for the 35 sets of genetically identical 'twin' progeny and their dams are reported. Birth weights of lambs born to ewes fed at the submaintenance rate were 0.5 kg lighter (P<0.01) than their 'twins' born to ewes fed at maintenance. Midside secondary:primary (Sf: Pf) ratios for mature wool follicles were less (P<0.01) at birth, lamb and hogget shearing (1.4, 1.5 and 2.1 units respectively) for the progeny born to ewes fed at submaintenance. Progeny from ewes on the submaintenance treatment produced less clean wool, 0.1 kg to 0.4 years of age (P<0.01) and 0.14 kg between 0.4 and 1.4 years of age (P = 0.10), than their maintenance counterparts. Hogget wool was 0.1 pm broader (P<0.05), with a 0.5% units lower coefficient of variation of fibre diameter (P<0.01), and a position of break closer to the staple tip (P<0.001) for progeny of submaintenance ewes than their maintenance counterparts. There were no significant differences in yield, staple length, staple strength and percentage of fibres greater than 30 pm in diameter. Differences in mean fibre diameter arose between 1 and 1.4 years of age, coinciding with the period that the animals were grazing high quality pasture. Effects of maternal undernutrition on mean fibre diameter and Sf: Pf follicle ratios of progeny were most pronounced on the hind leg (P<0.01), and not significant on the front leg. However, variations in other wool quality traits across the body of the hoggets, expressed as a percentage of the midside value, were not significantly affected by maternal undernutrition. Clearly when evaluating management strategies for the pregnant ewe, the effect on lifetime production and quality of wool of their progeny needs to be considered. Merino hoggets that produce an extra 0.14 kg clean wool that is 0.1 pm finer will compensate for some extra management and feeding of their dams during pregnancy to prevent weight loss. If these effects continue throughout the life of the animal, then it will increase the cost effectiveness of feeding to maintain maternal weight over pregnancy.

SummaryThe dry-matter digestibilities of 13 important herbaceous and browse forages from an arid rangeland in north-western Kenya were evaluated in a comparative in vitro trial using rumen fluid from indigenous sheep, goats, a camel, and Merino sheep kept at an agricultural laboratory. All inoculum donors had varied diets preceding the experiment, but little substantial difference was observed in the ability of each fluid to digest test materials. Tt was concluded that the Merino sheep inoculum provided an adequate substitute for inocula from indigenous animals for studies of the nutritional ecology of free-ranging livestock.

The hypothesis tested in this experiment was that Merino lambs with lower birthweights, due to poor ewe nutrition during pregnancy, would have more fat and less muscle than Merino lambs with higher birthweights. At two sites (Victoria and Western Australia) in each of 2 years, a wide range in the liveweight profiles of ewes was generated during pregnancy and lactation by varying the amount of supplements fed and feed on offer grazed. Progeny had fat and muscle depth at the C-site measured at various ages from 8 to 28 months of age. Across the four experiments, there were differences of 0.5 kg in birthweights and 8 kg in weaning weights between extreme treatments. The effects on the depth of fat and muscle were very small with fat depth increasing by 0.1–0.2 mm (5–7%) and muscle depth increasing by 0.2–0.7 mm (1–3%) when birthweights decreased by 1 kg. The effects of birthweight on fat depth are consistent with our hypothesis whereas the effects of birthweight on muscle depth are in contrast to our hypothesis. Nevertheless, the impacts of birthweight on the depth of fat and muscle measured at the C-site of progeny from Merino ewes, is unlikely to be of any commercial significance within the range of nutritional scenarios during pregnancy and lactation that are likely to be experienced within the Australian sheep industry.

AbstractThe faecal egg count (FEC) and total egg output is reduced in parasite-resistant sheep and breeding sheep for resistance should reduce infective larval contamination of pastures. This research compares lambs and rams from the parasite-resistant flock, Rylington Merinos, with unselected controls at the same level of larval challenge and the same level of food supply in an animal-house environment. The sheep were penned individually. The parasite resistant sheep excreted 0·85-fold less eggs than the control animals after infection with Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Ostertagia circumcincta for 12 or 18 weeks. During the infection period the parasite resistant lambs had higher plasma immunoglobulin concentration and higher ratio of globulin to albumin than the control animals. In the mature rams these genotype differences diminished. They also had lighter mass of the small intestine with a higher proportion of mucosa, but heavier mass of the large intestine. Parasite infection caused a depletion of blood glutathione in the lambs given food at maintenance or 1·5 × maintenance, and the parasite-resistant sheep (both lambs and rams) also had lower glutathione concentration. Maintaining good body nutrient reserve before the infection reduced the egg output in the early stage of the infection. Food intake had little effect on worm egg production in young sheep given food at maintenance or above. It is suggested that an improvement of nutrition, sulphur-containing amino acids in particular, is required to recover the loss of productive performance caused by the infection.

SummaryMeasurements of skeletal size were made at 2–3-month intervals on 30 Border Leicester × Merino castrate male (wether) sheep between 2 and 27 months of age. Fifteen sheep were fed ad libitum on a high-quality diet and the other 15 half the average amount consumed by the first group, age for age. The ad libitum group grew faster and were larger in all body dimensions on each occasion, except for leg length at 27 months which showed no statistical difference between groups. When the groups were compared over the live-weight range common to both (16–44 kg) the unrationed animals were consistently wider at the shoulders but smaller in leg and chest dimensions.The relationship between each body component and age is described by a Mitscherlich equation and the relationship with live weight by a linear equation in which both variables are log transformed. Separate relationships were determined for each sheep and tested for differences within and between groups.

Using performance from progeny born in 2007 and 2008 generated by the Information Nucleus program of the Cooperative Research Centre for Sheep Industry Innovation, preliminary estimates of heritability were obtained for a range of novel carcass and meat attributes of lamb relevant to consumers, including carcass characteristics, meat quality and nutritional value of lamb. Phenotypic and genetic correlations of live animal traits with carcass composition and meat quality traits were also estimated. The data were from progeny located at eight sites, sired by 183 rams from Merino, maternal and terminal meat breeds and were representative of the Merino, Border Leicester × Merino, Terminal × Merino and Terminal × Border Leicester-Merino production types of the Australian sheep industry. Data were available from 7176 lambs for weaning weight, 6771 lambs for ultrasound scanning and 4110 lambs for slaughter traits. For the novel meat quality traits, generally moderate to high heritability estimates were obtained for meat quality measures of shear force (0.27 aged 1 day, 0.38 aged 5 days), intramuscular fat (0.39), retail meat colour (range of 0.09 to 0.44) and myoglobin content (0.22). The nutritional value traits of omega-3 fatty acids and iron and zinc contents tended to have low to moderate heritabilities (0.11–0.37), although these were based on fewer records. Fresh meat colour traits were of low to moderate heritability (0.06–0.21) whereas measures of meat pH were of low heritability (~0.10). For the carcass traits, estimates of heritability were moderate to high for the various measures of carcass fat (0.18–0.50), muscle weight (0.22–0.35), meat yield (0.24–0.35), carcass muscle dimensions (0.25–0.34) and bone weight (0.27). Results indicate that for most lamb carcass and meat quality traits there is sufficient genetic variation for selection to alter successfully these characteristics. Additionally, most genetic correlations of live animal assessments of bodyweight, muscle and subcutaneous fat with the carcass and meat quality traits were favourable. Appropriate definition of breeding objectives and design of selection indexes should be able to account for the small unfavourable relationships that exist and achieve the desired outcomes from breeding programs.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to evaluate Dohne Merino sheep and Boer goats in terms of the degradable parameters of a high-fibre diet, a low-fibre diet and two vegetable protein sources commonly used in South Africa. Differences between species were evaluated following the potential differences within species. The feedstuffs used were those for the following diets: low-fibre diet (LF); high-fibre diet (HF); sunflower meal (SFM) oilcake; and soybean meal (SBM) oilcake. In the first trial, the digestible characteristics of the HF and LF diets were determined by means of a digestibility study. A 6 × 6 Latin square design was used to determine whether Dohne Merino sheep or Boer goat wethers differ regarding the digestibility characteristics of low- and high-fibre diets. The diets were fed once daily at 1.24 kg to all the wethers, which had ad libitum access to fresh water. Each period consisted of 10 days of adaptation and seven days of faecal and urinary sampling. The results indicated that the intake and digestibility characteristics of nutrients did not differ between sheep and goats. However, the different diets differed in terms of the nutrient intake and digestibility range of sheep and goats. The second trial was an in sacco degradability trial to determine the dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) degradability of the LF, HF, SBM and SFM diets. Six Dohne Merino and six Boer goat wethers were fitted with rumen cannulae so that they could be used in the trial. All wethers received the same basal diet. The samples were incubated in the rumen in polyester Dacron bags, with the bags being removed at intervals of 0h, 3h, 9h, 12h, 24h, 48h, 72h, and 96h for the LF and HF diets. All the oilcake was removed at intervals of 0h, 2h, 4h, 8h, 12h, 16h, 24h, 36h and 48h. The sheep and goats were found not to differ from one another in terms of effective degradability of any of the feedstuffs concerned. However, within species differences were observed. To establish a fully integrated outcome of degradability, the study described in the current thesis was structured in such a way that the in vitro trial ran parallel with the in sacco trial, being performed with the aid of a Daisy Incubator (ANKOM Technology Corp., Fairport, NY). Such a procedure was only adopted in relation to the SFM and SBM diets in order to evaluate their in vitro data in relation to the in sacco data. The same oilcake was tested in the case of both trials, with the composite sample of rumen liquid of four sheep or goats, which was used in the in sacco trial, also being used in the in vitro study. In the study, DM disappearance values were determined and fitted to a single-compartment model by means of an iterative least-square procedure in order to determine the DM and CP degradability parameters. The DM used in vitro or in sacco was compared, using the actual values obtained after 8h incubation, due to only a limited amount of residue being left after incubation. In the study, the in vitro method overestimated the digestibility of SBM by 37% to 39% and the digestibility of SFM by 17% to 20% compared with that found to occur in the in sacco method. In vitro DM disappearance values for all SBM samples were found to be higher than those that were detected in the SFM samples. The percentage of in vitro true digestibility parameters was also calculated. No significant differences were found between species for effective degradability, though differences were observed within species between the two substrates concerned. In conclusion, the sheep and goats used in the study were not found to differ in terms of digestion parameters when they were compared on different types of roughage or protein sources. However, within species differences were, indeed, found to occur. Sheep and goats digested the SBM better than they did the SFM.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal of Dohne Merino skape verskil van Boerbokke in terme van degradeerbaarheidsparameters van ‘n hoë vesel-, ‘n lae veseldieët en twee plantaardige proteïenbronne wat algemeen in Suid-Afrika gebruik word. Die verskille tussen spesies is ge-evalueer en daarna die potensiële verskille binne spesies. Die volgende grondstowwe is geëvalueer: ‘n laevesel-dieët (LF), ‘n hoëvesel-dieët (HF), sonneblom-oliekoekmeel (SFM) en sojaboon-oliekoekmeel (SBM). In die eerste proef is die degradeerbaarheidsparameters van die HF dieët en die LF dieët met behulp van ‘n verteerbaarheidstudie bepaal. Dohne Merino hamels of Boerbok kapaters was gebruik om te bepaal of skape en bokke verskil in terme van inname en degradeerbaarheid van voedingstowwe wanneer hul hoë- en lae vesel voere gevoer word. Al die hamels en kapaters het ad libitum toegang tot vars water gehad en hul was een keer per dag (1.24 kg) gevoer. Elke periode het bestaan uit ‘n 10 dag aanpassingsperiode en ‘n toegelate 7 dae vir mis- en urienmonster versameling. Die resultate het aangedui dat die inname- en degradeerbaarheidsparameters van nutriënte beinvloed word deur verskillende diëte binne spesies. Geen verskille is gevind tussen spesies wanneer daar hoë- en lae kwaliteit voere gevoer is nie. Die tweede proef was ‘n in sacco-degradeerbaarheidsstudie om te bepaal wat die droë materiaal (DM) en ruproteïen (RP) verteerbaarheidsparameters van die HF dieët, die LF dieët, die SBM en die SFM is. Ses Dohne Merino’s en ses Boer bokke met rumen kanullas is in die studie gebruik en al die diere het dieselfde basale dieët ontvang. Die monsters is in die rumen geïnkubeer in poliester dakronsakkies en die sakkies is verwyder na onderskeidelik 0 uur, 3 uur, 9 uur, 12 uur, 24 uur, 48 uur, 72 uur en 96 uur intervalle. Laasgenoemde intervalle was geldig vir die lae vesel- en hoëveseldieët. Die oliekoeke se intervalle het verskil en is verwyder na 0 uur, 2 uur, 4 uur, 8 uur, 12 uur, 16 uur, 24 uur, 36 uur en 48 uur. Daar was geen verskille tussen spesies in effektiewe degradeerbaarheid nie, alhoewel verskille voorgekom het binne spesies. Skape verteer veselagtige grondstowwe meer effektief terwyl bokke weer hoë proteïn bevattende grondstowwe beter verteer. Om ‘n volkome geïntegreede uitkoms van degradeerbaarheid te bewerkstellig is die in vitro proef en die in sacco proef gelyktydig gedoen. Die in vitro-degradeerbareheidstudie is met behulp van ‘n ANKOM Daisy Inkubeerder uitgevoer (ANKOM Tegnologie Korp., Fairport, NY) vir net die oliekoek behandelings. Gedurende die studie is dieselfde oliekoeke gebruik. ‘n Saamgestelde monster van die rumenvloeistof van vier van die skape of bokke wat vir die in sacco-studie gebruik was, is gebruik vir die in vitro-inkubasie van die monsters. DM verdwyningparameters is bereken en dan met ‘n interaktiewe kleinste kwadraat prosedure op ‘n een-kompartement model gepas om die in sacco DMdegradeerbaarheidsparameters te bepaal. Die DM verdwyning, na 8h inkubasie, was gebruik om die in vitro en die in sacco metodes met mekaar te vergelyk, weens ‘n beperkte residu na die afloop van die elke inkubasiestudie. Tydens die studie het die in vitro metode degradering oorskat in vergelyking met die in sacco metode. DM verdwyningswaardes vir al die SBM monsters was hoër in vitro as die SFM monsters. In die studie is die persentasie in vitro ware degradeerbaarheidswaardes bereken. Geen verskille is opgemerk tussen spesies vir effektiewe degradeerbaarheid nie. Daar was wel verskille binne spesies. Om af te sluit het dit voorgekom dat skape en bokke nie verskil aan degradeerbaarheidswaardes wanneer daar ‘n vergelyking was tussen verskillende vesels- en proteϊenbronne nie, alhoewel verskille voorgekom het binne spesies. Skape en bokke het SBM effektief beter verteer as SFM.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of feedlot production on the growth and carcass characteristics, as well as the distribution of the main tissues (muscle, fat and bone) and meat quality of Merino, South African Mutton Merino (SAMM) and Dorper lambs. The Merino and SAMM 2008 outperformed (P<0.05) the 2007 SAMM and both Dorper production groups in terms of average daily gain, while the Merino and both SAMM production groups achieved the best feed conversion ratio (P<0.05). The highest percentage A2 graded carcasses was achieved after 42 days under feedlot conditions by the Merino and both Dorper production groups, but it took only 21 days in the feedlot for the SAMM lambs to achieve the same result. Slaughter weight, carcass weight and dressing percentage all increased significantly with an increase in the number of days under feedlot conditions for all three breeds, while a decrease in the percentage head, trotters and red offal was also documented. The fatter retail cuts (thick rib, flank, prime rib and loin) increased (P<0.05) in percentage with an increase in the number of days under feedlot conditions. A significant decrease in the percentage leaner retail cuts (raised shoulder and hind-quarters) was found when the amount of days under feedlot conditions increased. The highest profit is obtained by the prime rib, loin and hind-quarters in a lamb carcass. For the Merino and Dorper lambs these three cuts, or a combination of the three showed the highest combined percentages after 42 and 63 days under feedlot conditions, respectively. The late maturing SAMM lambs achieved the highest percentages for these three cuts after 63 and 84 days under feedlot conditions in 2007 and 2008 respectively. Visceral and renal fat deposition increased throughout the production period for all breeds. The Dorper lambs attained the highest subcutaneous fat depth, and also produced the heaviest, but fattest carcasses. For A2-graded carcasses, Dorper lambs had the highest dressing percentage and lowest subcutaneous fat depth, followed by the SAMM and then Merino breed. A decrease in the percentage muscle and bone was found with an increase in the number of days under feedlot conditions, whilst an increase in the percentage fat was found under the same conditions. Meat quality was mostly affected by the 48h post mortem pH. This pH value is affected by the cooling rate of the carcasses, which in turn is affected by the level of carcass fatness. Carcass fatness increased with an increase in the number of days under feedlot conditions, resulting in a low 48h post mortem pH. A low 48h post mortem pH is accompanied by higher percentages of cooking and drip loss, as well as a high a*-colour reading for all three breeds.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die effek van voerkraalproduksie op die groeivermoë, karkaseienskappe, verspreiding van spier, been en vet, en vleiskwaliteit van Merino, Suid-Afrikaanse Vleismerino (SAVM) en Dorperlammers te bepaal. Die Merino en SAVM 2008 produksiegroepe het hoër (P<0.05) gemiddelde daaglikse toenames getoon as die SAVM 2007 en beide Dorper groepe, terwyl die Merino en beide SAVM produksiegroepe die beste voeromset verhoudings bereik het (P<0.05). Die hoogste persentasie A2 gegradeerde karkasse is na 42 dae in die voerkraal deur die Merino en beide Dorper produksiegroepe geproduseer, terwyl dit slegs 21 dae onder dieselfde toestande vir die SAVM groepe geneem het om dieselfde resultaat te lewer. Daar is ‘n betekenisvolle verhoging in slagmassa, karkasmassa en uitslagpersentasie vir al drie die rasse gevind met ‘n toename in die aantal dae in die voerkraal, terwyl ‘n afname in die persentasie kop, pote en haarslag gevind was. Die persentasie vetter groothandelsnitte (dikrib, dunrib, ribtjop en lendesnit) het toegeneem (P<0.05) met ‘n toename in die aantal dae in die voerkraal. ‘n Betekenisvolle afname in die persentasie van die maerder groothandelsnitte (blad en boude) is gevind met ‘n toename in die aantal produksie dae in die voerkraal. Die hoogste inkomste van ‘n lamkarkas is afkomstige van die ribtjop, lende snit en boude. ‘n Kombinasie van hierdie drie snitte was die hoogste vir die lammers van die Merino en beide Dorper groepe na 42 en 63 dae in die voerkraal onderskeidelik. Die laat volwasse SAVM lammers het die hoogste persentasie van hierdie drie snitte bereik na 63 en 84 dae in die voerkraal vir die SAVM 2007 en SAVM 2008 onderskeidelik. Die neerlegging van pensvet en niervet het voortdurend toegeneem deur die produksieperiode vir al drie rasse. Die Dorperlammers het die hoogste onderhuidse vetneerlegging getoon, maar het ook die swaarste en vetste karkasse geproduseer. Dorperlammers het die hoogste uitslagpersentasie en laagste onderhuidse vetneerlegging vir A2 gegradeerde karkasse gehad, gevolg deur die SAVM en Merino. ‘n Afname in die persentasie spier en been in karkasse is waargeneem namate die lammers langer in die voerkraal was, terwyl ‘n toename in die persentasie vet onder dieselfde omstandighede waargeneem is. Die 48h post mortem karkas pH affekteer die meeste vleiskwaliteit eienskappe. Hierdie pH waarde word weer deur die tempo van karkasafkoeling beϊnvloed, wat op sy beurt deur die vetheidsgraad van die karkas bepaal word. Die vetheid van karkasse het toegeneem met ‘n toename in die aantal dae in die voerkraal, wat ‘n lae pH waarde 48h post mortem tot gevolg gehad het. ‘n Lae 48h post mortem pH waarde het gelei tot hoër persentasies kook- en dripverliese en hoë a* kleurlesings vir al drie rasse.

Bibliography : leaves 120-133. Defines the sources of reproductive wastage in FecB FecÊ Booroola Merino x South Australian Merino ewes and examines factors associated with the survival of embryos, fetuses and lambs with the aim of improving net reproduction efficiency. Experiments were conducted to define the problem; to examine factors affecting embryonic and fetal loss; and, to investigate factors influencing wastage at lambing.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: One of the reasons why meat supply does not meet human demand is that man has concentrated on utilising relatively few animal species as a source of meat. Development of unconventional livestock, such as goats, is advocated as a means of increasing global meat production and consumption. Although South Africa possesses large numbers of domestic ruminants, meat consumption has been limited mainly to sheep and cattle. Goats are used to a lesser extent. This is partly attributed to a general belief that goat meat is inferior to mutton and beef. Numerous contradictions regarding comparative goat and sheep growth, carcass characteristics and meat composition exist in literature. Concepts involved with most of the contradictions includes average daHy gain (ADG), dressing percentage, carcass weight distribution and organoleptic characteristics, especially tenderness, juiciness and flavour, particularly as pertaining to animals reared/grown under intensive/feedlot conditions. Therefore this project was undertaken to obtain more information on the growth, carcass and organoleptic characteristics, as well as meat chemical compositions of Boer goat (BG) kids in comparison with South African Mutton merino (MM) lambs, reared under feedlot conditions. Thirty-two BG kids and 32 MM lambs were used for this investigation. All the animals were castrated and weaned before entering the feedlot. Two pelleted diets (fed to 16 animals/species) with either a low (LE; 8.9 MJ/kg OM) or a high (HE, 10.9 MJ/kg OM) metabolisabie energy level were fed individually, ad lib for either 28 or 56 days. Feed and water intake, ADG and feed conversion efficiencies (FCE) were monitored. During the last week of the feeding trial, 12 BG kids and 12 MM lambs were used to evaluate the digestibility of the two diets. After either 28 or 56 days, the animals were slaughtered and the carcasses dissected into South African commercial cuts. The m. semimembranosus and 8-9-10-rib cut of each carcass was dissected for determination of chemical composition, drip loss, cooking loss, shear force values and colour measurement. The m. gracilis was dissected from the hind leg of the carcass and used for sensory evaluation. MM's had significantly higher AOG's than BG's (e.g. MMHE56: 0.281; BGHE56: 0.162 kg/day). Within a diet there was no difference (P>0.05) in FCE between BG's and MM's and only the MM's FCE differed between the LE and HE diet (e.g. BGLE28: 7.65; BGHE28: 6.37; MMLE28: 8.73; MMHE28: 5.56 kg feed/kg weight gain). BGLE digested dry matter (OM), crude protein (CP) and energy more efficiently and had a higher energy retention than MMLE. The two diets had the same ME-value for the goats, which confirms that goats perform equally well on a lower quality feed as their contemporaries on a higher quality feed. Neither species, nor diet affected nitrogen retention. The BG had a 49 % lower (P<0.01) water intake per kg weight gain than the MM on both the high and low energy diets. Both species had a lower (P<0.01) water intake on the high than on the low energy diet. Furthermore, the BG had a daily water intake of only 171 ml/kgo.75 compared to the 302 ml/kgo.75 of the MM. The weight of the liver, empty stomach, head and feet (as a percentage of empty body weight) were higher in goats than in sheep. The MM's had significantly heavier skins, probably due to wool growth. Both kidney fat and gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) fat increased with age. The animals slaughtered after 56 days in the feedlot had significantly longer and deeper carcasses than their contemporaries slaughtered after 28 days. Within a diet and slaughter age, the MM had significantly broader and deeper carcasses than the BG's. BG's had significantly less weight per unit carcass length, and thus more slender carcasses than MM's. Diet had no significant influence on the carcass weight distribution of the goats. However, MM's had heavier carcasses (LE: 19.87 vs. 15.28 kg; HE: 24.01 vs. 17.05 kg) and proportionally heavier ribs and buttocks than BG's. Neither diet nor slaughter age influenced the proximate analysis of the m. semimembranosus, but MM's had significantly lower moisture values than BG's. In the 8-9-10-rib cuts BG's had significantly more moisture and protein and lower fat and energy values than MM's. OM, fat and energy values increased with an increase in slaughter age in both species. BG's had significantly higher concentrations of 11 of the 18 measured essential amino acids in their 8-9- 10-rib cuts than the MM's. Gaat carcasses had higher Ca, K, Mg, Na and P-Ievels than sheep carcasses, regardless of the diet fed. There was a tendency for goat's m. semimembranosus to have a lower Fe-content than that of sheep. BG carcasses had a lower carcass cholesterol content than that of lamb (66.77 vs. 99.28 mg/100g, respectively). Palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0) and oleic (C18:1 n9) acid comprised the greatest proportions of fatty acids in both the m. semimembranosus and 8-9-10-rib cut for both species. On a LE-diet there was no significant difference between the saturated fatty acid (SFA) to unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) ratio of goat meat and lamb. However, on the HEdiet, lamb had a significantly higher SFA:UFA ratio than chevon (m. semimembranosus: 0.842 vs. 0.689; 8-9-10-rib cut: 1.407 vs. 0.892). Organoleptically, a difference was noted between chevon and lamb. Each has a specific species flavour, which was not influenced by energy level of the diet. BG meat was perceived to be stringier than that of the MM, but there was no significant difference in Warner-Bratzler shear force values. Tenderness declined with age in both species and there was also a tendency for goat meat to be less juicy than lamb. Chevon had a more pronounced aftertaste than lamb. No objective differences could be distinguished between the colour of the cooked chevon and lamb. There was a tendency for fresh lamb to have a higher a*-value (redness) than chevon. Although diet did not influence drip loss, drip loss increased with an increase in slaughter age. Only after 56 days did the MM's m. semimembranosus have a significantly higher drip loss than the BG's (LE: 4.84 vs. 3.43%; HE: 4.72 vs. 3.32%). In the m. semimembranosus of both species, cooking loss increased with an increase in slaughter age. Since diet did not influence the growth, carcass weight distribution, water holding capacity, colour, shear force values or organoleptic qualities of chevon, BG's may be finished on a diet with a lower ME-value than that usually formulated for sheep, without a reduction in performance. This may render a direct economic advantage for BG feedlot finishing. Meat from young feedlot goats is not inferior to that of lamb and it has a higher protein percentage and lower fat percentage. Therefore, it can be considered as a healthy food commodity, especially among low-income groups or people wishing to consume a low calorie diet.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Vergelykende analise van nutriëntverbruik en vleiskwaliteisparameters van Boerbokke en Suid-Afrikaanse Vleismerino's: Een van die hoofredes waarom die vraag na vleis die aanbod oorskrei, is die feit dat die mens tot op hede net op 'n paar dierspesies as bron van vleis gekonsentreer het. Benutting van niekonvensionele spesies, soos bokke, kan aanbeveel word ten einde die globale vleisproduksie en -verbruik te verhoog. Ten spyte van die feit dat Suid-Afrika oor baie gedomestikeerde herkouerspesies beskik, is vleisverbruik in die verlede tot hoofsaaklik skape en beeste beperk. Bokke is tot 'n mindere mate gebruik. Dit kan gedeeltelik toegeskryf word aan die algemene siening dat bokvleis ondergeskik aan skaap- en beesvleis is. Verskeie teenstrydighede ten opsigte van vergelykings tussen bokke en skape se groei, karkaseienskappe en vleissamestelling bestaan in die literatuur. Teenstrydige resultate ten bpsigte van gemiddelde daaglikse toename (GOT), uitslagpersentasie, karkasgewigverspreiding en organoleptiese eienskappe (veral taaiheid, sappigheid en geur) van diere afgerond onder intensiewe/voerkraal-toestande, kom veral voor. Hierdie projek is vervolgens uitgevoer ten einde meer inligting ten opsigte van die groei, karkas- en organoleptiese eienskappe, sowel as die chemiese samestelling van die vleis van Boerbok (BB) lammers in vergelyking met Suid-Afrikaanse Vleismerino (VM) lammers, onder voerkraal-toestande grootgemaak, te verkry. Twee-en-dertig BB lammers en 32 VM lammers is vir hierdie studie gebruik. AI die diere is gekastreer en gespeen voor hulle in die voerkraal geplaas is. Twee verpilde diëte (gevoer aan 16 diere/spesie) met óf 'n lae (LE, 8.9 MJ/kg DM) óf 'n hoë (HE, 10.9 MJ/kg DM) metaboliseerbare energievlak is individueel, ad lib, vir óf 28 óf 56 dae aan die diere gevoer. Voer- en waterinname, GOT en voeromsettingsdoeltreffendheid (VOD) is gemonitor. Gedurende die laaste week van die voedingsproef is 12 BB'e en 12 VM's gebruik ten einde die verteerbaarheid van die twee diëte te bepaal. Na 28 of 56 dae is die diere geslag en die karkasse in Suid-Afrikaanse kommersiële snitte verdeel. Die m. semimembranosus en 8-9-10-rib snit van elke karkas is verwyder vir bepaling van chemiese samestelling, drupverlies, kookverlies, skeurwaardes en kleurbepaling. Die m. gracilis is uit die agterbeen uitgehaal en vir sensoriese evaluering gebruik. VM's het betekenisvolle hoër GOT's as BB'e (bv. VMHE56: 0.281; BBHE56: 0.162 kg/dag) gehad. Binne 'n dieet was daar geen verskille (P>0.05) in VOD tussen BB'e en VM's nie en net die VM's se VOD het tussen die LE- en HE-dieet verskil (bv. BBLE28: 7.65; BBHE28: 6.37; VMLE28: 8.73; VMHE28: 5.56 kg voer/kg gewigstoename). BBLE het die droë materiaal (DM), ruproteïen (RP) en energie meer effektief verteer en het 'n hoër energieretensie as VMLE gehad. Die twee diëte het dieselfde ME-waarde vir die bokke gehad, wat bevestig dat bokke net so goed op 'n laer kwaliteit voer presteer as op 'n dieet van 'n hoër kwaliteit. Stikstofretensie is nie deur spesie of dieet beïnvloed nie. Die BB het 'n 49% laer (P<0.01) waterinname per kg massatoename op beide die HE- en LE-dieet gehad. Beide spesies het 'n laer (P<0.01) waterinname op die hoë as die lae energie dieet gehad. Verder het die BB ook 'n daaglikse waterinname van slegs 171 ml/kg075 gehad in vergelyking met die 302 ml/kgO.75van die VM. Die gewig van die lewer, leë pens, kop en pote (as persentasie van leë liggaamsgewig) was hoër vir bokke as vir skape. Die VM's se velle was betekenisvol swaarder, waarskynlik as gevolg van wolgroei. Beide niervet en kanaalvet het toegeneem met 'n toename in slagouderdom. Die diere wat na 56 dae in die voerkraal geslag is, het betekensivol langer en dieper karkasse gehad as dié na 28 dae. Binne 'n dieet en slagouderdom, het die skape breër en dieper (P<0.05) karkasse as die bokke gehad. BB'e het betekenisvol minder gewig per eenheid karkaslengte en dus maerder karkasse as VM's gehad. Dieet-energievlak het geen betekenisvolle effek op die verspreiding van karkasgewig by bokke gehad nie. VM's het egter swaarder karkasse (LE: 19.87 vs. 15.28 kg; HE: 24.01 vs. 17.05 kg) en proporsioneel swaarder ribbes en boude as BB'e gehad. Dieet of slagouderdom het nie 'n betekenisvolle effek op die chemiese samestelling (vog, vet, proteïen en as) van die m. semimembransous gehad nie, maar VM's het laer (P<0.05) vogwaardes as BB'e gehad. In die 8-9-10-rib snit het BB'e betekenisvolle hoër vog en proteïen, maar laer vet- en energiewaardes as VM's gehad. In beide spesies het DM, vet en energiewaardes toegeneem met 'n toename in slagouderdom. BG'e het 'n betekenisvolle hoër konsentrasie in 11 van die 18 gemete essensiële aminosure in hul 8-9-10-rib snitte gehad in vergelyking met VM's. Bokkarkasse het ook hoër Ca, K, Mg, N en P-vlakke as skaapkarkasse gehad, ongeag die dieet. Daar was 'n neiging vir die bok m. semimembranosus om 'n laer Fe-inhoud as dié van die skaap te hê. BB-karkasse het 'n laer cholesterol-inhoud as skaapkarkasse (66.77 vs. 99.28 mg/100g, onderskeidelik) gehad. Palmitiensuur (C16:0), steariensuur (C18:0) en oleïensuur (C18:1n9) het die grootste proporsies van die vetsure in beide die m. semimembranosus en 8-9-10-rib snit van beide spesies uitgemaak. Op 'n LE-dieet was daar geen verskil tussen die versadigde (SFA) tot onversadigde (UFA) vetsuur-verhouding van bok- en skaapvleis nie. Op 'n HE-dieet het skaapvleis egter 'n betekenisvol hoër SFA:UFA-verhouding as bokvleis gehad (m. semimembranosus: 0.842 vs. 0.689; 8-9-10-rib snit: 1.40 vs. 0.892, onderskeidelik). Organolepties is 'n verskil tussen bok- en skaapvleis gevind. Elkeen het 'n spesifieke spesiegeur, wat onafhanklik van die dieet was. Bokvleis is waargeneem as meer veselrig as skaapvleis, maar daar was geen verskil in Warner-Bratzler skeurwaardes nie. In beide spesies het sagtheid afgeneem met 'n toename in ouderdom en daar was 'n neiging vir bokvleis om minder sappig as lamsvleis te wees. Bokvleis het ook 'n meer pertinente nasmaak as lam gehad. Geen objektiewe verskil kon tussen die kleur van gekookte skaapen bokvleis onderskei word nie. Daar was egter 'n tendens vir vars lamsvleis om 'n hoër a*- waarde (rooiheid) as bokvleis te hê. Alhoewel dieet nie 'n invloed op drupverlies gehad het nie, het drupverlies toegeneem met 'n toename in slagouderdom. Slegs na 56 dae het die VM se m. semimembranosus 'n hoër (P>0.05) drupverlies as dié van die BB getoon (LE: 4.84 vs. 3.43%; HE: 4.72 vs. 3.32%, onderskeidelik). In die m. semimembranosus van beide spesies het kookverlies toegeneem met 'n toename in slagouderdom. Aangesien dieet nie 'n effek op die groei, karkasgewig-verspreiding, waterhouvermoë, kleur, skeurwaardes of organoleptiese eienskappe van bokvleis gehad het nie, kan BB'e op 'n dieet met 'n laer ME-waarde as wat normaalweg vir skape geformuleer word, afgerond word, sonder om 'n verlaging in produksie te verwag. Dit mag 'n direkte ekonomiese voordeel vir afronding van BB'e in die voerkraal inhou. Vleis van jong voerkraalbokke is nie minderwaardig teenoor die van skape nie e-n dit het 'n hoër proteren- en laer vetpersentasie. Dus kan bokvleis as 'n gesonde voedselbron gesien word, veralonder lae-inkomste groepe of mense wat 'n lae kalorie-dieet wil inneem.

Reproductive neuroendocrine activity and appetite are modulated at the hypothalamus by both nutritional status and photoperiod in the seasonal animal. The objectives of this work were (1) to measure circulating hormones and/or metabolites that relay information about peripheral nutritional status to the hypothalamus, (2) to identify which hypothalamic neuropeptides and receptors that are responsive to photoperiodic and nutritional feedback and (3) to establish which changes in peripheral signals and/or hypothalamic neuropeptides are associated with alterations in the activity of the reproductive neuroendocrine axis. Three main experiments were carried out. The first experiment (Chapter 1) utilised a 2 x 2 design to examine the separate and interactive effects of photoperiod and food restriction on hypothalamic neuropeptide and receptor mRNA expression and on GnRH/LH secretion. In the second experiment (Chapter 2), two components of nutritional status, BC and increased food intake were investigated since both are positively related to reproductive performance in sheep. In the final experiment (Chapter 3) the approach was to use an exogenous treatment to artificially raise plasma insulin in an attempt to "drive" some of the foregoing effects. Collectively these studies have lead to the first localisation AgRp, MCH, orexin, Mc3R, Mc4R gene expression in the ovine hypothalamus. They indicate that circulating insulin and leptin are major factors relaying information about nutritional status to the hypothalamus. In addition, they have dissociated BC and food intake as signals to the hypothalamus. Moreover these studies have provided no evidence that NPY, AgRp, POMC, MCH and ObRb play a role in driving seasonal changes in appetite and gonadotrophin secretion. However they do suggest NPY-ergic and melanocortin pathways are important in maintaining appetite/bodyweight/energy homeostasis or restoring energy balance following perturbation. Furthermore the results show that changes in nutrient-sensitive hypothalamic neuropeptide and receptor gene expression may not necessarily lead to alterations in the activity of the reproductive neuroendocrine axis. However, they do indicate that increased NPY biosynthesis during food restriction may be involved in the inhibition of pulsatile GnRH/LH release.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of the frequency of supplementary feeding on the production of South African Mutton Merino (SAMM) ewes grazing wheat stubble. One hundred and sixty ewes were randomly divided into two groups that consisted of four groups each. Eight camps were grazed for 138 days during which lambing occurred. Four groups of 25 ewes each grazed a 17 ha camp at a stocking density of 5.8 ewes/ha and four groups of 15 ewes each grazed a 12 ha camp at a stocking density of 5.0 ewes/ha. A combination energy/protein supplement was made available to the ewes as a lick. Two of the groups received no supplementary feed (control), two groups received 200 g/ewe/day, two groups received 400 g/ewe every second day and two groups received 600 g/ewe every third day. The smallest decrease in weight during the feeding period was observed in the ewe group that received supplementation every day as well as the ewe group that received supplementation every second day, but no significant differences were observed between these two groups. The smallest decrease in weight over the total feeding period was observed in the three ewe groups that received supplementation (P < 0.1), while the ewes that received none (control groups) lost the most weight during the same period. All supplemented groups performed significantly better than the unsupplemented control group in terms of the liveweight change over the feeding as well as the total period. No significant differences occurred in the lambing percentage, weaning percentage, birthweight, 42-day weight and survival rate of the lambs due to the different feeding regimes. It was concluded that supplementation to ewes every third day or every second day is an economically feasible option and will reduce labour and transport costs. In the second study the effect of stocking density on canola stubble composition and subsequently the production of SAMM ewes on this type of stubble was investigated. Forty-eight ewes were randomly divided into four groups that grazed canola stubble at a stocking density of approximately 1.5, 3.5, 5.5 and 7.5 ewes/ha for 152 days. The ewes did not receive any supplementation and were weighed every 14 days. Parturition occurred during the last week in March 1997 until the first week in May 1997, and the lambs were weighed at birth, and every 14 days thereafter. Stubble samples were collected from the paddocks during the first part of the trial (January and February) and at the end of the trial (April and May) by cutting ten replicate quadrates per paddock and were analysed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and in vitro digestibility of organic matter (IVDOM). The live weight of the ewes at a stocking density of 5.5 ewes/ha decreased significantly, while the ewes at a stocking density of 1.5 ewes/ha gained weight. The ewes at a stocking density of 3.5 ewes/ha had the lowest weight loss (P = 0.01). Stocking density did not affect the birthweight of the lambs significantly. The CP concentration of the stubble decreased with an increase in stocking density, while the ADF and NDF concentration of samples were significantly higher at the higher stocking density. In the third study the supplementation of rumen inert fat or starch on the production of ewes grazing wheat stubble, was investigated. Fifty-six SAMM ewes were randomly divided into four groups of 14 ewes each, grazing the wheat stubble at a stocking density of 4.6 ewes/ha. Each group was supplemented with 250 gJewe daily for the last six weeks of pregnancy, which was increased to 360 gJewe during the first four weeks of lactation. Supplementation was supplied on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays for a 70-day period. The CP concentration of the supplement varied between 16.7 % and 19.6 %, while the total digestible nutrient (TDN) content varied between 52.0 % and 76.7 %. No significant difference (P > 0.05) occurred between the live weights of ewes during the last six weeks of pregnancy, the first four weeks of lactation, or the total feeding period. The ewes in the 50 % fat plus 50 % maizemeal group lost less weight (P :s; 0.08) during lactation than the ewes that received maizemeal as their main energy source. The study indicated that there was no significant advantage in the live weight change of the ewes during the experimental period, when compared to the group that received wheat bran (control group). In the fourth study the economic advantage of supplementation to SAMM ewes grazing wheat- or oat stubble were studied. Three hundred and sixteen ewes were divided into four flocks, of which two grazed oat stubble and two wheat stubble. Each of these four flocks was again subdivided into four subdivisions of which two subdivisions received supplementation and two none. Four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 83 days, and the other four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 44 days after which it was increased to 300 g/d for 37 days (81 days in total). The ewes were weighed monthly. The final bodyweight of the ewes that received supplementation was significantly higher than those that received none. Over the feeding period, the ewes that received supplementation had a significant lower weight loss in comparison to the ewes that did not receive supplementation. The 42-day weight of the lambs improved significantly due to supplementation, but no significant increase was indicated in the birthweight, weaning weight and survival rate of the lambs whose mothers received supplementation. In the fifth study the influence of supplementary feeding to ewes and creep feeding of their lambs on the production of both the ewes and lambs were studied. One hundred and sixty eight ewes were divided into two groups of 68 and 100 ewes that grazed a 12.9 and 18 ha camp respectively. Each of these ewe groups was subdivided into four groups of which two ewe groups received supplementation and two none. Within each ewe group two groups of lambs received creep feeding and two received none. A two (supplementation of ewes) by two (creep feeding of lambs) factorial design was used. Supplementation was supplied at 200 g/d for the first 69 days and 300 g/d for the next 120 days to ewes. Lambs received an average ofO.58 kg creep feed per day for 96 days. It was concluded that the live weight change (LWC) of the ewes during the experimental period was not affected significantly by creep feeding of their lambs. Ewes that received supplementation maintained higher live weights than their counterparts for most of the feeding period, although final weights at the end of the experimental period did not differ significantly. The average daily gain (ADG) of the lambs whose mothers received supplementation tended to be higher than that of mothers that received no supplementation, while the ADG of the lambs that received creep feeding was significantly higher than the lambs that received none. In the sixth study the carry-over effect of supplementation in the previous year on the production of the ewes in the following year was studied. Three hundred and sixteen ewes were divided into four flocks, of which two grazed oat stubble and two wheat stubble. Each of these four flocks was again subdivided into four subdivisions of which two subdivisions received supplementation and two none. Four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 83 days, and the other four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 44 days after which it was increased to 300 g/d for 37 days (81 days in total). The ewes were weighed monthly. Results indicated that birth status (lambs born per ewes mated) of lambs showed a tendency to increase in 1999 due to supplementation in 1998, while weaning status was not significantly affected. Due to multiple births in the supplemented groups, the birthweight and weaning weight of lambs was negatively affected by supplementation. The study concluded that supplementary feeding in the previous year did not have significant carry-over effects in the following year. However, the effect may have been influenced by the fact that mature animals were used in the study, while the pasture availability during the non-productive stage will also affect possible carry-over effects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Eksperiment is uitgevoer om te bepaal wat die invloed van die frekwensie van byvoeding op die produksie van Suid-Afrikaanse Vleismerino (SAVM) ooie wat koringstoppel bewei, sal wees. Eenhonderd-en-sestig ooie is ewekansig in twee groepe verdeel wat bestaan het uit vier groepe elk. Die agt kampe is vir 138 dae bewei waartydens die ooie ook gelam het. Vier groepe bestaande uit 25 ooie het 'n 17 ha kamp teen 'n weidigtheid van 5.8 ooie/ha bewei en die ander vier groepe bestaande uit 15 ooie het 'n 12 ha kamp teen 'n weidigtheid van 5.0 ooie/ha bewei. 'n Kombinasie energie/proteïen aanvulling in die vorm van 'n lek is aan die ooie beskikbaar gestel. Twee van die groepe het geen aanvullende voeding ontvang nie (kontrole), twee groepe het 200 g/dag/ooi ontvang, twee groepe het 400 glooi elke tweede dag ontvang en twee groepe het 600 glooi elke derde dag ontvang. Die kleinste daling in liggaamsgewig tydens die voerperiode is waargeneem in die ooie wat elke dag sowel as elke tweede dag byvoeding ontvang het, alhoewel geen betekenisvolle verskille tussen dié twee groepe waargeneem is nie. Die kleinste daling in gewig tydens die totale voerperiode is waargeneem in die drie groepe wat byvoeding ontvang het (P < 0.1) terwyl die groepe wat geen byvoeding ontvang het nie (kontrole) die meeste gewig tydens dieselfde periode verloor het. Al die groepe wat byvoeding ontvang het, se liggaamsmassa verandering oor die voerperiode asook die totale periode was betekenisvol beter as die kontrole groep Geen betekenisvolle verskille is gevind by lampersentasie, speenpersentasie, geboortegewig, 42-dae gewig en oorlewing van lammers nie. Daar is bevind dat die byvoeding aan ooie elke derde of elke tweede dag ekonomies geregverdig is en 'n moontlike afname in arbeid- en vervoerkostes mag meebring. In die tweede studie is die invloed van weidigtheid op die samestelling van kanolastoppel en die produksie van SAVM-ooie op hierdie tipe stoppelondersoek. Agt-en-veertig ooie is ewekansig in vier groepe verdeel en het kanolastoppel teen 'n weidigtheid van ongeveer 1.5, 3.5, 5.5 en 7.5 ooie/ha vir 152 dae bewei. Die ooie het geen byvoeding ontvang nie en is elke 14 dae geweeg. Die ooie het gelam vanaf die laaste week in Maart 1997 tot die eerste week in Mei 1997. Die lammers is met geboorte geweeg en daarna elke 14 dae. Stoppelmonsters van die kampe is versamel gedurende die eerste deel van die studie (Januarie en Februarie) asook aan die einde van die studie (April en Mei) deur tien kwadrate per kamp te sny en is daarna ontleed vir droë materiaal (DM), ruproteïen (RP), suur bestande vesel (SBV), neutraal bestande vesel (NBV) en in vitro verteerbaarheid van organiese materiaal (lVVOM). Die liggaamsgewig van die ooie teen 'n weidigtheid van 5.5 ooie/ha het betekenisvol afgeneem, terwyl die ooie teen die weidigtheid van 1.5 ooie/ha toegeneem het in massa. Die ooie teen 'n weidigtheid van 3.5 ooie/ha het die kleinste gewigsverlies getoon (P = 0.01). Die geboortegewig van die lammers is nie betekenisvol deur weidigtheid beïnvloed nie. Die RP-konsentrasie van die stoppel het afgeneem met 'n toename in weidigtheid, terwyl die SBV en NBV -konsentrasie van die monsters betekenisvol hoër was by die hoër weidigtheid. In die derde studie is die byvoeding van rumen inerte vet of stysel aan ome wat koringstoppel bewei ondersoek. Ses-en-vyftig SAVM ooie is ewekansig in vier groepe van 14 elk verdeel en het koringstoppel teen 'n weidigtheid van 4.6 ooielha bewei. Elke groep het daagliks byvoeding teen 250 glooi tydens die laaste ses weke van dragtigheid ontvang, waarna dit vermeerder is tot 360 glooi tydens die eerste vier weke van laktasie. Byvoeding is op Maandae, Woensdae en Vrydae vir 70 dae voorsien. Die RP-konsentrasie van die byvoeding het gevarieer tussen 16.7 % en 19.6 % terwyl die totale verteerbare voedingstof (TVV) konsentrasie gevarieer het tussen 52.0 % en 76.7 %. Daar was geen betekenisvolle verskille (P > 0.05) tussen die liggaamsmassa van die ooie gedurende die laaste ses weke van dragtigheid, die eerste vier weke van laktasie, of die totale voerperiode nie. Die ooie in die 50 % vet plus 50 % mieliemeel groep het minder gewig (P ~ 0.08) gedurende laktasie verloor as die ooie wat mieliemeel as hulle hoof energiebron ontvang het. Die studie het getoon dat daar geen betekenisvolle toename in die liggaamsgewig van die ooie tydens die eksperimentele periode was in vergelyking met die groep wat koringsemels (kontrole) ontvang het nie. In die vierde studie is die ekonomiese voordeel van byvoeding vir SAVM ooie wat koringof hawerstoppel bewei het ondersoek. Driehonderd-en-sestien ooie is in vier groepe verdeel,waarvan twee hawerstoppel en twee koringstoppel bewei het. Elk van hierdie vier groepe is herverdeel in vier subdivisies waarvan twee byvoeding ontvang het en twee geen. Vier subdivisies het 200 gld vir 83 dae ontvang, terwyl die ander vier subdivisies 200 gld vir 44 dae ontvang het, waarna dit verhoog is na 300 gld vir 37 dae ('n totaal van 81 dae). Die ooie is maandeliks geweeg. Die finale liggaamsgewig van die ooie wat byvoeding ontvang het betekenisvol hoër was as die ooie wat geen byvoeding ontvang het nie. Tydens die voerperiode het die ooie wat byvoeding ontvang het 'n betekenisvolle laer gewigsverlies getoon in vergelyking met die ooie wat geen byvoeding ontvang het nie. Die 42-dae gewig van die lammers het ook betekenisvol toegeneem, maar geen verskil is waargeneem in die geboortegewig, speengewig en oorlewingstempo van lammers wie se moeders byvoeding ontvang het nie. In die vyfde studie is die invloed van byvoeding aan ooie en kruipvoeding aan hulle lammers op die produksie van beide die ooie en lammers bestudeer. Eenhonderd-agt-en-sestig ooie is onderskeidelik in twee groepe van 68 en 100 verdeel wat twee kampe van 12.9 en 18 ha respektiewelik bewei het. Elkeen van hierdie groepe is onderverdeel in vier groepe waarvan twee groepe byvoeding ontvang het en twee groepe geen. Binne elke ooi groep het twee groepe lammers kruipvoeding ontvang en twee geen. 'n Twee (byvoeding aan ooie) by twee (kruipvoeding aan lammers) faktoriaal ontwerp is gebruik. Byvoeding aan die ooie is verskaf teen 200 gld vir die eerste 69 dae en 300 gld vir die volgende 120 dae. Lammers het 0.58 kg kruipvoer per dag vir 96 dae ontvang. Daar is bepaal dat die liggaamsgewig-verandering van die ooie gedurende die eksperimentele periode nie betekenisvol beïnvloed is deur kruipvoeding van die lammers nie. Ooie wat byvoeding ontvang het het 'n hoer liggaamsgewig vir die grootste deel van die voerperiode gehandhaaf, alhoewel die finale gewigte aan die einde van die eksperimentele periode nie betekenisvol verskil het nie. Die gemiddelde daaglikse toename (GDT) van die lammers wie se moeders byvoeding ontvang het, het geneig om hoër te wees as die lammers wie se moeders geen byvoeding ontvang het nie, terwyl die GDT van die lammers wat kruipvoeding ontvang het was betekenisvol hoër as die lammers wat geen kruipvoeding ontvang het nie. In die sesde studie is die oordrageffek van byvoeding in die vorige jaar op ooie se produksie in die opvolgende jaar ondersoek. Driehonderd-en-sestien ooie is in vier groepe verdeel,waarvan twee hawerstoppel en twee koringstoppel bewei het. Elk van hierdie vier groepe is herverdeel in vier subdivisies waarvan twee byvoeding ontvang het en twee geen. Vier subdivisies het 200 gld vir 83 dae ontvang, terwyl die ander vier subdivisies 200 gld vir 44 dae ontvang het, waarna dit verhoog is na 300 gld vir 37 dae ('n totaal van 81 dae). Die ooie is maandeliks geweeg. Resultate het aangedui dat die geboortestatus (lammers gebore/ ooie gepaar) van lammers 'n tendens getoon het om toe te neem in 1999 as gevolg van byvoeding in 1998, terwyl speenstatus nie betekenisvol beïnvloed is nie. Byvoeding in 1998 het die geboortegewig en speengewig van lammers verlaag omdat dit 'n groter aantal meerlinggeboortes veroorsaak het. Die studie het bevind dat byvoeding in die vorige jaar nie 'n betekenisvolle oordrageffek in die volgende jaar teweeg gebring het nie. Die resultate mag egter beïnvloed gewees het deurdat volwasse diere in die studie gebruik is, terwyl die beskikbaarheid van weiding tydens die stadium wanneer die ooie nie gereproduseer het nie ook die moontlike oordrageffek kon beïnvloed het.

Sheep Farming for Meat and Wool contains practical, up-to-date information on sheep production and management for producers throughout temperate Australia. It is based on research and extension projects conducted over many years by the Department of Primary Industries and its predecessors and the University of Melbourne. The book covers business management, pasture growth and management, nutrition and feed management, drought management, reproductive management, disease management, genetic improvement, animal welfare and working dog health. It also gives seasonal reminders for a spring lambing wool-producing flock, for autumn lambing Merino ewes joined to Border Leicester rams, and for winter lambing crossbred ewes joined to terminal sires. It will guide new and established farmers, students of agriculture and service providers with detailed information on the why and how of sheep production, and will assist farmer groups to initiate activities aimed at increasing their efficiency in specific areas of sheep production.

In tropical regions with warm and temperate climates, gastrointestinal nematode infections (GIN) are the main problems affecting the health and welfare of sheep. One of the strategies to control these infections is the selection of individuals genetically resistant to GIN. Such resistance implies the optimal development of the immune response, where animal nutrition plays an essential role. The objective is to describe the immune response, the development of resistance against GIN in sheep, and the use of nutrigenomics as a tool to evaluate the effect of dietary nutrients on the expression of genes involved in the immune response using a literature review. The conclusion is that for the proper functioning of the immune system, it is essential that animals have energy, protein, and micronutrients for cellular synthesis and other functions that demand a lot of energy during an infectious event.

Objectives The original project had 2 major objectives: (1) To determine the effects of centrally administered leptin antagonist on appetite and adaptive metabolism in the sheep; (2) To develop and prepare second-generation leptin antagonists combining high binding affinity and prolonged in vivo half-life. Background Periods of suboptimal nutrition or exaggerated metabolic activity demands lead to a state of chronic energy insufficiency. Ruminants remain productive for a surprisingly long period of time under these circumstances by evoking adaptations sparing available energy and nutrients. The mechanism driving these adaptations in ruminant remains unknown, but could involve a reduction in plasma leptin, a hormone acting predominantly in the brain. In laboratory animals, reduced leptin signaling promotes survival during nutritional insufficiency by triggering energy sparing adaptations such as reduced thyroid hormone production and insulin resistance. Our overall hypothesis is that similar adaptations are triggered by reduced leptin signaling in the brain of ruminants. Testing of this hypothesis in ruminants has not been possible due to inability to block the actions of endogenous leptin and access to ruminant models where leptin antagonistic therapy is feasible and effective. Major achievements and conclusions The Israeli team had previously mutated 3 residues in ovine leptin, with no effect on receptor binding. This mutant was renamed ovine leptin antagonist (OLA) because it cannot activate signaling and therefore antagonizes the ability of wild type leptin to activate its receptor. To transform OLA into an effective in vivo antagonist, the Israeli made 2 important technical advances. First, it incorporated an additional mutation into OLA, increasing its binding affinity and thus transforming it into a super ovine leptin antagonist (SOLA). Second, the Israeli team developed a method whereby polyethylene glycol is covalently attached to SOLA (PEG-SOLA) with the goal of extending its half-life in vivo. The US team used OLA and PEG-SOLA in 2 separate animal models. First, OLA was chronically administered directly into the brain of mature sheep via a cannula implanted into the 3rdcerebroventricule. Unexpectedly, OLA had no effect of voluntary feed intake or various indicators of peripheral insulin action but reduced the plasma concentration of thyroid hormones. Second, the US team tested the effect of peripheral PEG-SOLA administration in an energy sensitive, rapidly growing lamb model. PEG-SOLA was administered for 14 consecutive days after birth or for 5 consecutive days before sacrifice on day 40 of life. Plasma PEG-SOLA had a half-life of over 16 h and circulated in 225- to 288-fold excess over endogenous leptin. PEG-SOLA administration reduced plasma thyroid hormones and resulted in a higher fat content in the carcass at slaughter, but had no effects on feed intake, body weight, plasma glucose or insulin. These results show that the team succeeded in developing a leptin antagonist with a long in vivo half-life. Moreover, in vivo results show that reduced leptin signaling promotes energy sparing in ruminants by repressing thyroid hormone production. Scientific and agricultural implications The physiological role of leptin in ruminants has been difficult to resolve because peripheral administration of wild type leptin causes little effects. Our work with leptin antagonists show for the first time in ruminants that reduced leptin signaling induces energy sparing mechanisms involving thyroid hormone production with little effect on peripheral insulin action. Additional work is needed to develop even more potent leptin antagonists, to establish optimal administration protocols and to narrow down phases of the ruminant life cycle when their use will improve productivity.