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1
Casteels, Isabel. "Haringhandel en heiligenverering : Het toenemend belang van religieuze praktijken binnen het Haarlems Schonenvaardersgilde in de zestiende eeuw." Tijdschrift voor geschiedenis 132, no. 4 (February 1, 2020): 559–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/tvgesch2019.4.003.cast.
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Abstract Herring trade and holy feast. The growing importance of religious practices in the Schonenvaarders guild in sixteenth-century HaarlemThis article examines the importance of religious and social practices for a sixteenth-century guild of herring merchants in Haarlem. Although recent historiography on medieval and early modern corporations has shown the importance of these practices for guild life in general, not much is known regarding merchant guilds specifically. Using practice-oriented sources such as the administration and memberships lists in guild books, and religious artefacts such as the guild’s altar, this article maps the religious and social practices of the guild members. It argues that although in the sixteenth century the guild still presented itself as a guild of herring traders, these economic activities of the guild declined in importance in this period compared with its pre-existing social and religious activities. Thus, the function and practices of the guild changed over time, showing the flexibility of these dynamic institutions. The Schonenvaarders guild shows also the importance of these religious practices for both community cohesion within the guild and corporation-based lay piety in sixteenth-century Haarlem.
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Lamikiz, Xabier. "Transatlantic Networks and Merchant Guild Rivalry in Colonial Trade with Peru, 1729 – 1780: A New Interpretation." Hispanic American Historical Review 91, no. 2 (May 1, 2011): 299–331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00182168-1165226.
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Abstract This article takes a fresh look at merchant networks that linked Spain and colonial Peru in the central decades of the eighteenth century. Spain’s trade with its American colonies has been studied primarily in the light of mercantilistic policies design to revive the exchanges. Much attention has been paid to the fierce rivalry between the merchant guilds of both sides of the Atlantic (those of Cádiz, Mexico City, and Lima), and their efforts to exert control over the trade, suggesting that transoceanic networks had a minor impact. In contrast, this article stresses the role of collaboration and mutual understanding between American and Iberian merchants. The adoption of a direct route linking Cádiz and Lima via Cape Horn in the 1740s, and the subsequent rise of a new, more competitive pattern of trade compelled merchants to build up sustained transatlantic networks that required a high level of personal trust. By using a previously unstudied cache of confiscated letters, this article shows that transatlantic travel, friendship, common regional and ethnic origin, and the increasing flow of information played a far more important part in the articulation of Spanish colonial trade than any merchant guild rivalry. These networks helped bring both sides of the Atlantic closer than they had ever been.
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GODDARD, RICHARD. "Medieval business networks: St Mary's guild and the borough court in later medieval Nottingham." Urban History 40, no. 1 (December 19, 2012): 3–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0963926812000600.
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ABSTRACT:Historians have suggested that medieval urban guilds played a role in political and commercial networking. Guilds’ commercial protectionism was designed to benefit their membership and close ties have been discovered between merchant guilds and urban oligarchies. This article asks if all guilds should be viewed as commercial networking hubs. It uses evidence from a later fourteenth-century membership roll of St Mary's guild in Nottingham in conjunction with Nottingham's borough court rolls to analyse the commercial connections between members and non-members in that period. It concludes that the guild did not function as a networking hub.
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Zadorozhnyaya, Olga A. "The trends in the formation of the elite of the merchant class of tobolsk province (the last quarter of the XVIII – first quarter of the XIX centuries)." Bulletin of Nizhnevartovsk State University 55, no. 3 (September 27, 2021): 96–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.36906/2311-4444/21-3/09.
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Merchants as the main subject of the business world of the Russian state in the last quarter of the 18th first part of the 19th centuries. was distinguished by ambiguity: on the one hand, its social status corresponded to national legislation, on the other hand, it was distinguished by regional characteristics. The subject of the research is the social gradation and the identification of the leading group of the merchant class of the Tobolsk province in the last quarter of the 18th first part of the 19th centuries: determining the principles of its separation and existence. The purpose of the article is to highlight the features of the group of hereditary merchants as the leading sub-class of the Tobolsk province (last quarter of the 18th first quarter of the 19th centuries) Methods. In preparing this work, we developed a research algorithm, which consisted in determining the total number of the merchant class of the Tobolsk province (610 separate surnames), which were divided using the historical-comparative method and the modeling method into separate social subgroups. Results: the research illustrates the heterogeneity of the guild merchants of the cities of the Tobolsk province in the last quarter of the 18th first part of the 19th centuries. as a participant in the business world of Western Siberia. Conclusions: There is traced the dependence of the social status of the merchant not so much on the size of the capital, but on the length of stay in the hereditary merchant. The Siberian merchant was distinguished in many ways by his isolation and practicality during his stay in the guild organization. At the same time, representatives of the leading sub-class preferred transit trade on the border with China or at all-Russian fairs. In this case, the merchant must be known both in his hometown and abroad for his commercial and social activities. Considering that the capital belonged to a merchant family, therefore, its members were distributed among various fields of activity. Thus, the trading class of the Tobolsk province had many common features, but due to internal gradation it was distinguished by fluidity, a clear division of responsibilities, and capital differentiation. Hereditary merchants represented a separate social subgroup, in which the title of merchant ... was preferred to everything in the world.
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Zhang, Meng. "TIMBER TRADE ORGANIZATIONS IN SHANGHAI: INSTITUTIONS, ENFORCEMENT, AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION, 1880–1930." International Journal of Asian Studies 14, no. 2 (July 2017): 143–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1479591417000043.
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This study focuses on the mechanisms of contract enforcement and dispute resolution in the trade of timber in Shanghai from the 1880s to the 1930s. It shows that merchant guilds, chambers of commerce, and the court system constituted complementary institutions of contract enforcement. Timber trade guilds relied on reputation mechanisms and information sharing to maintain intra-group solidarity and monitor outside trading partners. Horizontal communications among timber guilds in different localities further enhanced their capability to respond promptly to cross-regional cases. When disputes escalated beyond the scope of a single merchant guild, chambers of commerce (after 1904) and the court system became involved. Vertical communications among these organizations strengthened the continuity from informal norms of business practices to guild regulations, and thence to adjudications in court. Whereas the typical story, drawn from European history, was one of transition toward more formal institutions, this case study shows that formal and informal institutions could complement each other and that they existed along a continuum rather than in separated spheres. The convergence of the expected outcomes as a result of resorting to different platforms of dispute resolution reinforced the consistency and credibility of the cost of defaulting.
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YONEYAMA, MASARU. "The decline of guilds and their monopoly in English provincial towns, with particular reference to Exeter." Urban History 46, no. 3 (July 25, 2018): 443–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0963926818000408.
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ABSTRACTThis article examines the decline of the craft guilds in early modern England by way of a case-study of the Tuckers’ Company in Exeter. From the 1980s, this case figured prominently in the historiographical debate concerning guild decline; however, it has not been examined recently. The current study reveals the Tuckers’ Company is not a case of decline in guild membership so much as a case of the loss of guild monopoly and a concomitant transition to charitable functions. On the basis of empirical sources, this study also reveals the mechanisms and context of this transformation in the post-Civil War politics of the city of Exeter. Specific attention is given to first, the decline of royal authority bolstering the guild against the city government and secondly, the shift of power in the guild with the ascendance of the merchant fullers. Finally, the historiographical implications of the article's findings are discussed.
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Kumar, Ashok. "Financial Deepening and its Impact on the Credit Culture in Bihar." Think India 22, no. 2 (October 25, 2019): 363–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.26643/think-india.v22i2.8738.
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Ancient India (especially during the Maurya and the Gupta empires) had an organized private credit dispensation system. Although there were no banks in the modern sense of the word, but the merchant guilds did have systematic procedure of evaluating, vetting and sanctioning of credit to its members. The system was not open to the general public but then, the membership of the guild could be acquired quite easily by anyone desirous and serious enough to do business in the specific area that a particular guild promoted. This system of credit dispensation remained in India till the advent of the British East India Company.
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Sleigh-Johnson, Nigel. "The Merchant Taylors' Company of London under Elizabeth I: Tailors' Guild or Company of Merchants?" Costume 41, no. 1 (June 1, 2007): 45–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/174963007x182327.
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Probably the most neglected aspect of the history of the guilds and livery companies of early modern London is the ubiquitous subordinate organisation known as the 'yeomanry' or 'bachelors' company'. Many narrative histories of individual companies make only passing reference to the existence of a yeomanry, and dismiss the organisations as generally transient and insignificant. Per contra, the yeomanry of at least one of the major City livery companies represented to an extraordinary degree a company within a company in the later sixteenth century. By the time Elizabeth ascended the throne, the yeomanry body of the Merchant Taylors' Company had acquired effective responsibility for the vast majority of the Company's membership. To most contemporary and modern observers, the dazzling wealth, magnificent ceremonies and eminent members — entitled to wear the prestigious livery gown of the Company, and generally drawn from the mercantile and civic élite — were the most intriguing aspects of the history of the Merchant Taylors' Company. To the poor freemen below the livery these matters were of less significance. Part I of this article examines briefly the origins, nature and functions of the sub-company. Part II explores the degree to which this body represented the continuation of the traditions of the medieval guild of London tailors and continued to embody the aspirations and interests of its artisan members.
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Cooney, Jerry W. "Oceanic Commerce and Platine Merchants, 1796-1806: The Challenge of War." Americas 45, no. 4 (April 1989): 509–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1007310.
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The creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 by Charles III of Spain and his Edict of Free Commerce two years later brought unprecedented commercial prosperity to the port cities of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Unlimited trade was now allowed between this region of South America and Spain. Exports—mainly silver from Alto Perú and pastoral products from the pampas—flowed in ever greater volume to the Iberian Peninsula. In return, merchants of the estuary received from Spanish commercial houses European manufactures and luxury items. This trade which spanned the South Atlantic depended upon a complex web of credit and merchant associations between the Old World and the New, and also upon the unobstructed traffic of Spain's merchant marine. In the 1780s and early 1790s with the Empire at peace Platine commerce contributed to both government revenues and the growth of a dynamic immigrant merchant community recently arrived from northern Spain. By 1794 the booming trade of the new viceroyalty justified the creation of the Real Consulado de Buenos Aires, essentially an official merchants guild to regulate the business affairs of this region.
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Connolly (book editor), Philomena, Geoffrey Martin (book editor), and Steven J. Killings (review author). "The Dublin Guild Merchant Roll, c.1190-1265." Confraternitas 4, no. 1 (January 1, 1993): 25–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.33137/confrat.v4i1.13503.
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Carpinelli, Francis. "Merchant Neighbors of the More Family on Milk Street." Moreana 50 (Number 193-, no. 3-4 (December 2013): 229–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/more.2013.50.3-4.12.
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This paper provides basic research on eleven individuals who were neighbors of the More family living on Milk Street in London from roughly the 1490s into the 1530s. All but one were Mercers and all belonged to the Merchant Adventurers, who dealt in overseas trade. The most famous were Sir Thomas Kitson, Sir James Yarford, and Sir Richard Gresham. They, and some of the other neighbors, can be tied in various ways with Thomas More. This is especially true from about 1509, after More himself was admitted to the guild. The paper argues that More’s service began even earlier, back to at least 1505, when he helped the Mercers with land transactions, as they planned to build their new hall and chapel. For almost all of his adult life – right up to when he resigned from the Lord Chancellorship in 1532 – Thomas More was involved in the affairs of his fellow guild members and his very rich neighbors.
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Greif, Avner, Paul Milgrom, and Barry R. Weingast. "Coordination, Commitment, and Enforcement: The Case of the Merchant Guild." Journal of Political Economy 102, no. 4 (August 1994): 745–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/261953.
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Margarita D., Kushnareva. "Historical Portrait of the Yakut Merchant of the 1-st Guild P. A. Kushnarev." Humanitarian Vector 15, no. 3 (June 2020): 91–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.21209/1996-7853-2020-15-3-91-99.
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Kushnareva, M. D. "Historical Portrait of the Yakut Merchant of the 1-st Guild A. M. Kushnarev." Bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series History 32 (2020): 4–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2222-9124.2020.32.4.
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Sutton, Anne F. "The Silent Years of London Guild History before 1300: the Case of the Mercers." Historical Research 71, no. 175 (June 1, 1998): 121–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2281.00057.
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Abstract The first surviving mention, in 1304, of the Mercers’ Company of London acting as a body, shows it already fully conscious of its rights and the value of the freedom of the city, and this article discusses how the mistery had arrived at this point. It is suggested that the earliest mistery of mercers received their first regulations as artisans, and that it was the need to protect the privileges of the city's freedom, so important to itinerant mercers, which may have combined the great merchant and the lesser dealer-artisan into one mistery of mercers.
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Du, Xingqiang, Jianying Weng, Quan Zeng, and Hongmei Pei. "Culture, Marketization, and Owner-Manager Agency Costs: A Case of Merchant Guild Culture in China." Journal of Business Ethics 143, no. 2 (July 28, 2015): 353–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2765-3.
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Iakerson, Shimon M. "Who was collecting Hebrew books in the capital of Russian Empire and why." Письменные памятники Востока 18, no. 1 (April 14, 2021): 74–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/wmo63141.
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By the beginning of the 20th century a unique collection of Hebrew manuscripts (more than 20000 units) and first printed books was formed in the capital of the Russian Empire. These books ended up in St.Petersburg as part of several private collections, such as the collection of a Protestant paleographer and Biblical scholar Konstantin von Tischendorf, of the Karaite leader Avraam Firkovich, of the Archimandrite Antonin Kapustin, of the Barons Gnzburg, of a First Guild merchant Moses Aryeh Leib Friedland and of an Orientalist Professor Daniel Chwolson. The history of these collections and the motives of the collecting activity of their owners are the subject of this article.
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Cho, Young-Jun. "Organization and Transaction of the Hemp Merchant Guild (p’ojŏn) in Seoul during the Late Chosŏn Dynasty." Journal of Seoul studies 62 (February 29, 2016): 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.17647/jss.2016.02.62.151.
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정승모, Young-Hoon Rhee, and Young Jun Cho. "Documents and Scraps Written by the Hemp Merchant Guild (p’ojŏn) in Seoul during the Late Chosŏn Dynasty." 古文書硏究 48, no. ll (February 2016): 227–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.21027/manusc.2016.48..008.
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Põder, Kaire. "Credible commitment and cartel: the case of the Hansa merchant in the guild of late medieval Tallinn." Baltic Journal of Economics 10, no. 1 (March 2010): 43–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1406099x.2010.10840470.
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Gusenova, Dzhamilya. "Why is trade the most favored business in Islam?" KANT 36, no. 3 (September 2020): 125–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.24923/2222-243x.2020-36.24.
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The article analyzes the main dogmatic origins of the definition of trade as the most favored economic activity, and an element in the general concept of travel in Islam. The author focuses on: belonging to the merchant guild of the Prophet Muhammad himself, which was reflected in the active use of commercial slang in the Quran, the passage of trade routes through the Arabian Peninsula and the natural-geographical environment that was not conducive to the development of agriculture and, consequently, handicrafts. The analysis of the content of the Koran showed a reflection of the social structure of society, with a pronounced social and professional stratification, characteristic of that period. The highlighted social and professional statuses are conventionally divided into those related to state power, trade, occult and spiritual activities, etc.
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Jäschke, Julia, Maria Seier, and Sabrina Stockhusen. "Makler im Hansisch-Niederdeutschen Handelsgebiet." Hansische Geschichtsblätter 133 (May 30, 2020): 183–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.21248/hgbll.2015.78.
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Brokers in the Hanseatic - Low-German Trading WorldThe modern scholarly world has not been kind to medieval brokers. Investigations of their activities are few and far between and, for the most part, outdated. The one exception, Anke Greve’s analysis of brokers in Bruges, skews the picture, since they were - viewed from the perspective of the Hanseatic trading world - something of a one-off. In Bruges, innkeepers, who provided lodging, and brokers, who enabled trade between natives and foreigners, belonged to the same guild (from 1303) and customarily combined both activities. Generalizing from the Bruges example is, therefore, fraught with danger.This scholarly neglect is entirely unwarranted, and it is high time that we broadened our perspective to include brokers in other towns in the Hanseatic trading world. This article begins with a survey of the literature, spotlighting the various theories on the origins of brokerage and the explanations offered for the terms used to designate theni (mekeler, underkoper or sensal). The article then turns to a comparative analysis of brokerage in Lübeck and Brunswick. In both towns, brokerage arose in order to facilitate trade between Hanseatic and non-Hanseatic merchants (the latter being called ’guests’). Common to both towns, too. was the brokers’ status as urban office-holders. In contrast to Bruges, the Lübeck and Brunswick brokers never organized themselves as a guild, nor is there any evidence that they had any connection with the innkeepers whatsoever.Our first (indirect) evidence of brokerage comes from a Lübeck regulation of the early 14Ih Century requiring foreign traders to display their merchandise for sale on the quay for three days. This regulation feil into disuse because of the intensification of trade between natives and foreigners on the cusp of the 16lh Century, while direct trade between ’guests’ continued to be prohibited throughout the 15,h Century. While Brunswick also generally prohibited direct trade between ’guests', it did provide for one exception, namely if the brokers had been unable to midwife the sale of the goods in question to a native merchant. Here, too, we find a curious bifurcation of the designations for brokers, the terms mekeler and underkoper appearing simultaneously. Both in Lübeck and Brunswick, there is ample evidence of brokers who specialized in the grain trade. In the case of Lübeck, it is apparent that the brokers played a major role in inspecting imported goods (especially herring) and certifying their quality. Goods which had passed inspection were designated as Ventegüter (’vendible goods’), which meant that they could be sold elsewhere without further ado.This initial investigation of brokerage in Lübeck and Brunswick opens the field to new questions, in particular regarding the interrelation of brokers and merchant networks and their role in direct trade between ’guests’.
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Miller, Owen. "Ties of Labour and Ties of Commerce: Corvée among Seoul Merchants in the Late 19th Century." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 50, no. 1 (2007): 41–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156852007780323896.
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AbstractThe wealthiest guilds of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) capital, Seoul, formed part of the government's provisioning system, providing mainly luxury goods for royal palaces, government offices and tribute gifts to China and Japan. The guild merchants were also expected to provide corvée labour to the government on a regular basis, although by the late nineteenth century much of this labour was commuted to cash payments. Using a collection of surviving documents from the guildhall of the Myonjujon (Guild of Domestic Silk Merchants), this paper looks in detail at the burden of corvée labour, particularly during the politically and economically tumultuous years between 1884 and 1894. It finds that the merchants' corvée reflected the close relationship between guilds and government and also the two-sided nature of this relationship for the merchants. Thus, while they received certain protections and privileges from the government, the guild merchants were also particularly vulnerable to official corruption, which found a damaging outlet in the corvée system. Les guildes les plus riches de la dynastie de Chosaon (1392-1910) Séoul ont fait partie du système de l'approvisionnement du gouvernement, fournissant principalement des marchandises de luxe pour les palais royaux, les bureaux du gouvernement et les cadeaux d'hommage pour la Chine et le Japon. Les guildes était aussi obligés à fournir au gouvernement la corvée régulière, bien que par la fin du dix-neuvième siècle beaucoup de ce travail ait été commuté aux paiements en espèces. En utilisant une collection de documents extant dansla maison de la guilde des marchands en soie domestiques (Myaonjujaon), cet article regarde en détail le fardeau de la corvée, en particulier pendant des années tumultueuses, politiquement et économiquement, entre 1884 et 1894. Il constate que la corvée des marchands reflétait la relation étroite entre les guildes et le gouvernement et également le caractère double de cette relation pour les marchands. Ainsi, alors qu'ils recevaient de certains protections et privilèges du gouvernement, les marchands de guilde étaient particulièrement vulnérables à la corruption officielle qui menait à l'abus du système de la corvée.
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Kharus, Olga Anatolyevna. "The merchant guild of Siberia: the diversity of life and history. A foreword to the issue's special theme." Sibirskie istoricheskie issledovaniya, no. 2 (June 1, 2016): 6–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/2312461x/12/1.
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Clark, Oswald. "The Ancient Office of Parish Clerk and the Parish Clerks Company of London." Ecclesiastical Law Journal 8, no. 38 (January 2006): 307–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956618x00006451.
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Attempt is made to trace the work and role of the parish clerk from menial monastic beginnings to its emergence in the thirteenth century as a canonically recognised office–probably the oldest unordained office at the parochial level in the English church and the last vestigial survival of Minor Orders. In parallel is developed the story of the coming together of London parish clerks as a guild or fraternity, radically distinguished from the merchant, craft and service guilds, and of the grant to that fraternity of ‘clerici et literati’– with its unique livery and ethos–of the first of its six Royal Charters. The duties and activities of mediaeval parish clerks and the constitution of their Company are considered along with its possessions, especially its Bede Roll. Attention is paid to the understanding of Purgatory and the devastating effects of the Chantries Act 1548. The parish clerk's changing role following the Reformation is examined within the prevailing continuities and discontinuities. New duties in relation to Registration and Bills of Mortality are marked in addition to the parish clerk's increasing social involvement in the civil affairs of the parish. The decline in the parish clerk's duties from the nineteenth century is studied and its effect on the office, the London Company and the ancient parishes of old London, from which the Company is exclusively recruited.
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Sammut, Adam. "With a little help from his friends." Netherlands Yearbook for History of Art / Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek Online 70, no. 1 (November 16, 2020): 118–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22145966-07001007.
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Around 1617, Caravaggio’s Rosary Madonna (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) was gifted to the Dominican church in Antwerp by a quadrumvirate of art-lovers – Rubens, Jan Brueghel I, Hendrick van Balen and the merchant Jan Cooymans – who were joined together by the love that is friendship (amor amicitiæ). By enacting the virtues of friendship within Antwerp’s elite circles, the art-lovers could persuade wealthy burghers to sponsor the Rosary Madonna as a civic investment. This process is examined through Rubens’ relationship with Brueghel, the election of Cooymans as ‘prince of the Violieren’ chamber of rhetoric, the artists’ deanships of the Romanists’ guild and their personal acquaintance with Hendrick Goltzius. In the Dominican church, the Rosary Madonna became part of the early modern political economy like few other artworks. As the author demonstrates, the altarpiece indexed the cultural capital of the quadrumvirate, but also their amor amicitiæ, to which it stood as an enduring testament.
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Marks, Patricia H. "Confronting a Mercantile Elite: Bourbon Reformers and the Merchants of Lima, 1765–1796." Americas 60, no. 04 (April 2004): 519–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003161500070607.
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After Spain’s defeat in the Seven Years’ War (1757-1763), when the British had occupied Havana and Manila, a series of territorial, commercial, and tax reforms brought significant change to the viceroyalty of Peru. Their economic effects have been matters for debate ever since. Some historians have emphasized their positive effects. Following promulgation of the Reglamento de comercio libre of 1778, the volume and value of European manufactures exported to the Pacific coast of Spanish South America increased. Lima and its port city, Callao, remained important as commercial centers of Spanish South America. But others suggest that the viceregal capital—home to a powerful mercantile elite, the magnates of the consulado (merchant guild) of Lima—suffered a decline in its economic fortunes, as did the entire viceroyalty. Support for this point of view was widespread in late colonial Peru. In spite of the evidence for growth, a rising chorus of complaint bemoaned the increasing poverty of the viceroyalty in general and Lima in particular. How can we account for this discrepancy?
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Marks, Patricia H. "Confronting a Mercantile Elite: Bourbon Reformers and the Merchants of Lima, 1765–1796." Americas 60, no. 4 (April 2004): 519–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/tam.2004.0061.
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After Spain’s defeat in the Seven Years’ War (1757-1763), when the British had occupied Havana and Manila, a series of territorial, commercial, and tax reforms brought significant change to the viceroyalty of Peru. Their economic effects have been matters for debate ever since. Some historians have emphasized their positive effects. Following promulgation of theReglamento de comercio libreof 1778, the volume and value of European manufactures exported to the Pacific coast of Spanish South America increased. Lima and its port city, Callao, remained important as commercial centers of Spanish South America. But others suggest that the viceregal capital—home to a powerful mercantile elite, the magnates of theconsulado(merchant guild) of Lima—suffered a decline in its economic fortunes, as did the entire viceroyalty. Support for this point of view was widespread in late colonial Peru. In spite of the evidence for growth, a rising chorus of complaint bemoaned the increasing poverty of the viceroyalty in general and Lima in particular. How can we account for this discrepancy?
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Kushnareva, Margarita. "The Contribution of A.E. Nadeina, Ayan Merchant of the Second Guild, to the Economic Development and Social Life of North-Eastern Siberia at the Beginning of the 20th Century." Journal of Economic History and History of Economics 20, no. 2 (June 14, 2019): 201–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2308-2488.2019.20(2).201-214.
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There is a growing interest among scientists and general public to the historical experience of the functioning of merchant enterprises on the eastern borders of the Russian Empire. The article analyzes the contribution of A.E. Nadeina, the Ayan merchant of the Second guild, to the economic development and social life on the eastern outskirts of Siberia at the beginning of the 20-th century. The key issue of the article is interdisciplinary and it combines the knowledge of history and economics. The study used method of content analysis, which involves the quantitative and qualitative analysis of statistical data sources, using mathematical modeling. The primary method is the analysis of memoirs and epistolary. The research identified main types of activity of A.E. Nadeina’s enterprise, determined economic indicators and evaluated the firm’s contribution to the economic development of coastal areas of North-Eastern Siberia by industry. The study found that the main contribution of A.E. Nadeina to the economic development of North-Eastern Siberia was the creation of transport infrastructure along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, and cargo transportation between the ports of Ayan and Nelkan. The annual profit of the transport enterprise of A.E. Nadeina was 20 thousand rubles. Gold exploration and development of forest resources, organized by A.E. Nadeina, were of strategic importance to the economic development of the region. Exploration and registration of new gold reserves, sale of timber forest annually contributed more than 5 thousand rubles to local economy providing means for its diversification. Fur trade of A.E. Nadeina was organized according to the classical scheme of loan on goods. The annual turnover of the enterprise reached 100–150 thousand rubles. To boost fur trade A.E. Nadeina created business ties with large firms, established a group of fur suppliers, provided transport service for commercial operations and developed fur resources of the region. In conclusion, it is necessary to note her contribution to social life of North-Eastern Siberia. A.E. Nadeina supported local education initiatives, commissioned the construction of a new school, and organized public events for the residents of Ayan and Nelkan.
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Rudnytska, Liudmyla. "Creation of the glass factory on the base of the village of Rokitne of Ovruch district of Volyn province." Kyiv Historical Studies, no. 2 (2018): 47–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.28925/2524-0757.2018.2.4753.
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The article highlights the history of the village of Rokytne of Ovruch district in Volyn, which was founded in the 16th century. The rapid development of the village is associated with the change of owner at the end of the 19th century, the Russian nobleman V. M. Okhotnikov and the emergence of merchant of the first guild of St. Petersburg Yu. M. Rozenberg. The Belgian fund was involved with the participation of which it was built an glass enterprise the outskirt of Rokytne village. The factory worked to satisfy needs of the government and produce glass bottle of different capacity. Construction of the Rokytnе glass factory was possible in the presence of a raw material base — quartz sand and forests, which were used as fuel and as building material. Intensive development coincides with the reconstruction of the glass factory in 1900–1902 years. At the same time, a working settlement arose, whose infrastructure was constantly expanding, especially with the construction of railway connection. The number of population has also increased at the expense of employees who came to work from different parts of the Russian Empire. The administration of Rokytne glass factory provided dwelling for all workers and the representatives of small and midsize businesses and they rented the apartments for organization establishments of trade.
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Kushnareva, M. D. "The Role of Religious Education in the Fate, Social and Educational Activities of the Yakutsk Merchant of the Second Guild P.I. Kushnarev (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)." Historical Courier, no. 1 (February 28, 2021): 21–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.31518/2618-9100-2021-1-2.
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Sutyagina, Ol'ga Aleksandrovna. "Size and composition of Siberian merchantry in the early XIX century." Genesis: исторические исследования, no. 4 (April 2020): 32–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-868x.2020.4.32703.
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The object of this research is the different merchant classes of Siberian cities. The subjects is the size and composition of Siberian merchantry of the early XIX century. The goal of this work consists in tracing the process of establishment of Siberian merchantry in the conditions of economic and estate policy of the empire. The author highlights and analyzes the three stages in the process of formation of Siberian merchantry in the early XIX century, which reflects the socio-legal transformations in functionality of merchantry, as well as the changes in economic life of the Siberian region. The scientific novelty lies in the fact that by generalization of previous experience and attraction of other materials, including archival that have not been considered before by the experts, the author explores the dynamic pattern of size and density of merchantry in the Siberian cities throughout half of a century, as well as traces the influence of various factors upon its formation. The conclusion is made that throughout the period in question the size of merchantry has undergone significant changes associated with the government policy, namely raise of property requirements for enrollment into merchant guilds, tax rates for merchantry, economic development of the region and its separate cities.
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Xu, Jingyin. "Chaozhou Guild Hall’s Social Functions and Cohesiveness." Journal of Innovation and Social Science Research 8, no. 9 (September 30, 2021): 34–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.53469/jissr.2021.08(09).05.
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As one of the most eminent business groups in Chinese history, Chaoshan merchants have left footprints in a great many of places throughout the world and built up world-wide Chaozhou guild halls, sites with multiple functions range from supporting their countrymen, worshiping the gods in Chaoshan culture, dealing with commercial issues to holding many other activities that strengthen the cultural identity of the Chaoshan people. The historical sites can still be seen in Beijing, Shanghai, Suzhou, Guangzhou, Shantou, Hongkong and other cities in China as well as quantities of overseas districts. This essay will take some of the Chaozhou guild halls as research subject to examine how the buildings serve as social bond and how the social functions of the architectures are related to the cohesiveness. This essay argues that the construction of the Chaozhou guild halls root in Chaoshan people’s idea of solidarity, but the power of intensifying Chanshan people’s cultural identity lies heavily on the constructions’ social functions, in that the daily life, decision, and action of Chaoshan merchants are made to associate with the place closely. Numerous historical events took place in the guild halls engage into historical progression, and the guilds halls evolved into the chamber of commerce after establishment of the People’s Republic of China, which indicates the significance of looking at the historical architectures from the perspective of cultural studies.
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Gelderblom, Oscar, and Regina Grafe. "The Rise and Fall of the Merchant Guilds: Re-thinking the Comparative Study of Commercial Institutions in Premodern Europe." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 40, no. 4 (April 2010): 477–511. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jinh.2010.40.4.477.
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Although the importance of merchant guilds for the commercial development of Europe is beyond doubt, scholars do not agree about why they emerged, persisted, and ultimately declined between the eleventh and eighteenth centuries. Historical studies usually focus on individual cases and idiosyncratic circumstances that restrict comparisons, whereas economic approaches based on game or contract theory often impose narrow assumptions on their models that tend to neglect two key features of these institutions: In imperfect markets, merchants used more than one institution to solve a given problem, and individual institutions often addressed more than one problem. However, a new methodological approach (maximum likelihood estimation) permits rigorous comparative analysis of the probability that merchants, under a given set of market and political circumstances, will delegate control of their dealings. This model requires only one assumption—that merchants relinquished such control only when they expected a positive return.
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Vladimirsky, Irena, and Mariia V. Krotova. ""Pious Jew" Yakov Frizer and the Status of Jews in Siberia in the Early 20th Century." RUDN Journal of Russian History 19, no. 4 (December 15, 2020): 824–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8674-2020-19-4-824-837.
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The present article analyses some documents concerning the legal and social status of Yakov D. Frizer (1869-1932), who was a Jew, a resident of Irkutsk, a merchant of the First Guild and one of the biggest gold miners of East Siberia. The story of his life in East Siberia describes religious tolerance along with manifestations of nationalism and antisemitism. On the threshold of the 20th century, Siberia was a colorful mosaic of numerous religious groups and confessions existing in the Russian Empire. Jewish communities of Siberia were characterized by openness and heterogeneity. In contras-distinction to the Jews from the Pale of Settlement, Jews of Siberia were successfully integrated into Siberian society. Being a son of a criminal exile, Yakov Frizer in a course of time became one of the biggest Siberian entrepreneurs. Diaries from Frizers private archive sometimes pointed out to the cases of religious and ethnic disaffection, thereby demonstrating the complexity and versatility of interfaith relations in East Siberia. Using the definition of Pierre Bourdieu, several generations of Siberian Jews succeeded to build a symbolic capital that became a part of their social status, ensured their social respect, and business connections built on mutual trust, making Jews as useful society members. East Siberia in general was tolerant to questions of religious faith. The so-called Jewish question in East Siberia did not have the same sharpness as it had in Western provinces of the Russian Empire. The Jewish question in Siberia was rather an echo of anti-Semitic stereotypes that traditionally have deep roots in the Russian society, and common people consciousness. The article is based on unpublished sources and diaries from Frizers private archive, as well as on archival sources from the Russian State Historical Archive and the State Archive of the Russian Federation.
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Borsay, Peter, Callum Brown, and Anngret Simms. "Philomena Connolly and Geoffrey Martin (eds), The Dublin Guild Merchant Roll c. 1190-1265. Dublin: Dublin Corporation, 1992. xxiv + 159pp. 5 plates. £ IR/Stg 19.95 + £IR/Stg 2.00 p. & p." Urban History 22, no. 1 (May 1995): 145–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0963926800011469.
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Willard, Thomas. "Richard Mackenney, Venice as the Polity of Mercy: Guilds, Confraternities, and the Social Order, c. 1250–c. 1650. Toronto Italian Studies. Toronto, Buffalo, and London: University of Toronto Press, 2019, xiii, 471." Mediaevistik 32, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 551–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/med.2019.01.167.
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Shakespeare is well known to have set two of his plays in and around Venice: The Merchant of Venice (1596) and The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice (1603). The first is often remembered for its famous speech about “the quality of mercy,” delivered by the female lead Portia in the disguise of a legal scholar from the university town of Padua. The speech helps to spare the life of her new husband’s friend and financial backer against the claims of the Jewish moneylender Shylock. The play has raised questions for Shakespearean scholars about the choice of Venice as an open city where merchants of all nations and faiths would meet on the Rialto while the city’s Senate, composed of leading merchants, worked hard to keep it open to all and especially profitable for its merchants. Those who would like to learn more about the city’s development as a center of trade can learn much from Richard Mackenney’s new book.
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M, Kayalvizhi. "Tamil and European Merchant Guilds." International Research Journal of Tamil 1, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.34256/irjt1941.
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“Thirai kadal oodium thiraviyam thedu” are the words by the Avvaiyar and our ancestors were the people who lived in the way. Tamils have always admired the plow and the business. All three hairdressers gave their business a boost. Sustainable business is seen as the backbone of the economy. The lows of a country can be determined by the economy of the country. From time to time, the rulers protected the business. Merchants who do business are like the eyes of a country. Although society provides the merchants with convenience, specialty, superiority, prominence and importance, they also have many difficulties. Traders were greatly affected by natural disasters, alien invasions, unrelenting wars, and negative regime changes. Merchants were plagued by domestic thieves and wayward robbers. Unrelenting nuisance of pirates
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Miedema, Hessel. "Philips Angels Lof der schilder-konst." Oud Holland - Quarterly for Dutch Art History 103, no. 4 (1989): 181–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187501789x00167.
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AbstractPhilips Angel's Lof der schilder-const (In Praise of Painting, 1642) is one of the few pieces of writing we have as a source of notions on the theory of painting in the Netherlands. Yet it was not intended as an art-theoretical treatise: Angel read the text at a St. Luke's feast as part of the activities that were being undertaken to acquire guild rights for Leiden painters. In order to assess the value of the theoretical notions on which the paper is based, it is therefore necessary to analyse as far as possible the circumstances of its writing. First the Angel family is examined. Orginally from Antwerp, the Angels moved north in the 1590s, probably because of the Eighty Years' War, settling in Middelburg and Leiden. They were fairly prosperous middle-class citizens, mostly schoolteachers, painters and small shopkeepers. Both the Middelburg and Leiden branches produced painters called Philips Angel. The Middelburg Philips, almost certainly identical with a painter called Philips Angel who was active in Haarlem, is known to have produced quite a lot of paitings. Only one small etching by the Leiden Philips has survived; nothing is known of any paintings by him. The Leiden Philips, the author of Lof der schilder-const, had a turbulent career. He joined the painters who pressed for guild rights in Leiden, to which end he held his speech in 1641. As early as 1645, though, he gave up painting and travelled as an employee of the United East-Indian Compary to Indonesia. From there, promoted to the high rank of chief merchant, he was sent to Persia. He was dismissed on grounds of embezzlement, but managed to procure the post of court painter to the Shah. By 1656, however, he was back in Batavia (Jakarta), where he again obtained a number of highly regarded positions. Fired again for mismanagement and defalcation, his end was inglorious. The Lof der Schilder-const shows evident signs of a general tendency among Dutch painters of the mid-seventeenth century to claim a higher status for their profession. The text is duly meant less as a theoretical treatise than as a rhetorical amplificatio of the painter's profession. The author seems to have been reasonably well-read, although by no means scholarly; nor was he very conversant with the Italian art theory of his day. Scrutiny of the text reveals his superficial and undiscerning paraphrases of the few sources at his disposal (mainly Karel van Mander's Schilder-boeck and the Dutch translation of Franciscus Junius' De pictura veterum). Much of his eulogy is a summing-up of the distinguished characteristics a painter ought to have. The remarkable thing is that not one of those characteristics provides specific insight into the professional practise of the Leiden painters around 1641. As far as they are at all relevant to what was being painted in Leiden at that time - take the Leiden 'Precise School' of Gerard Dou's circle -, his remarks provide little more insight than a superficial consideration of the paintings would arouse in any layman.
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Liu, Kwang-Ching. "Chinese Merchant Guilds: An Historical Inquiry." Pacific Historical Review 57, no. 1 (February 1, 1988): 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3639672.
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Dessí, Roberta, and Salvatore Piccolo. "Merchant guilds, taxation and social capital." European Economic Review 83 (April 2016): 90–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2015.12.005.
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Nicholas, David. "Sheilagh Ogilvie, The European Guilds. An Economic Analysis. Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2019, 7 figures, 20 color plates, 102 tables, 30 black-and-white maps and drawings in text, 20 color plates, xviii, 645 pp." Mediaevistik 32, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 524–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/med.2019.01.151.
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This is the second volume of the author’s comparative study of guilds in Europe. The first, Institutions and European Trade. Merchant Guilds, 1000–1800 (Cambridge 2011) was discussed by this reviewer in Mediaevistik 25 (2012), 544‐46. This book deals with craft organizations, which Ogilvie defines (p. 10) as involving anyone but merchant wholesalers. The first chapter is historiographical, the last a conclusion, and eight substantive chapters deal with specific topics.
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Mahmoodabad, Sayed Saeed Mazloomy, Iraj Zareban, Mohammad Hossein Fallah Zadeh, and Mohammad Saeed Jadgal. "Classification and analysis of guild merchants using smokeless tobacco in Chabahar, Iran, based on the transtheoretical model." Update Dental College Journal 9, no. 1 (April 27, 2019): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/updcj.v9i1.41201.
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Introduction: The use of all types of smokeless tobacco poses a serious risk to the health of community members. The present study was conducted to classify the guild merchants using smokeless tobacco in Chabahar, Iran, based on the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) and then analyze the relationships between the examined variables based on the constructs of this model.
Materials and Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on 320 merchants working in different guilds in Chabahar in 2018, who were selected through simple random sampling. The data collection tool was a researcher-made questionnaire with a demographic and background information section, behavioral items and items on the constructs of the transtheoretical model, and was used after its validity and reliability were confirmed. Data were analyzed in SPSS software using statistical tests such as mean and SD, the Chi-square test, the ANOVA and Tukey’s test.
Findings: Most of the participants in the study were in the age group of 20-30 years (69%). Hairdressers and textile stores (19%) were the largest and hotel and restaurant businesses (2%) the smallest trade guilds in this study. Most people in the study consumed Gutkha (24%). A total of 85% of the subjects were in the precontemplation stage, 12.5% in the contemplation stage and 2.5% in the preparation stage, and the stages of change had a significant difference with constructs including counter-conditioning, self-liberation, decisional balance and temptation to use tobacco (P<0.05).
Conclusion: Since most merchants were in the precontemplation stage, and given their age and the proven harms of smokeless tobacco, interventions to encourage these people to quit tobacco consumption using the TTM constructs are necessary.
Update Dent. Coll. j: 2019; 9 (1): 16-22
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Mastboom, Joyce M. "Guild or Union? A Case Study of Rural Dutch Weavers, 1682–1750." International Review of Social History 39, no. 1 (April 1994): 57–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859000112416.
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SummaryThis article discusses the defensive actions taken by a group of weavers in the rural eastern Netherlands in response to changing economic conditions; in particular, how they successfully re-established their weavers' guild to protect them against aggressive local merchants who were out to lower payments for woven cloth. A guild, by organizing many individuals into a group, could wield much more power than separate weavers on their own. But that was not all. Local weavers were aware that economic circumstances had changed, and that a new charter would have to be adapted so that it addressed the problems they faced. Hence, the charter they drafted provided for a guild that had the outward appearance of the old form of craft organization. However, in addition to the usual regulations it contains clauses that are more reminiscent of a trade union than a guild. The result was an organization that the weavers could use effectively to fend off their growing dependence on and subordination to merchants.
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Duda, Zenon, and Katarzyna Kryzia. "THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HISTORICAL BUILDING OF THE LATIN SCHOOL IN MALBORK." Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica 35, no. 1 (March 1, 2013): 85–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/sgem-2013-0007.
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Abstract The paper summarizes the reconstruction of the historical building erected in the 14th century, during the times of the residence of Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Winrich von Kniprode, currently referred to as the Latin School. It characterizes the location of the Latin School in the urban conservation area of the town of Malbork. The building is situated in the stretch of the buttressed brick escarpment on the Nogat River in the line of the historic defensive walls of Malbork. The paper also outlines the history of this building, constructed and managed by the municipal authorities of Malbork, which for a long time was a seat of a Patronage of Saint George and the Merchant Guild, and next, from the 16th century until 1864, the building housed a school where basic Latin was taught. Next, the situation of this historical monument in the 20th century is discussed. In the next part of the paper, the geological conditions of the site where the building was erected are discussed. The conducted archeological and architectural exploratory research related to the historical building with a particular emphasis on historic preservation and restoration works focusing on the building and its surroundings is presented and analyzed. Currently carried out design, construction and adaptation works allowing new functions to be embedded into this building are also discussed. The paper shows the benefits due to the realization of the reconstruction program of the degraded building of the Latin school in the historic quarter of the town. These activities are aimed at the conversion of the currently derelict building by means of embedding new functions into it. There are being designed, among others, an interactive educational center modern library, astronomical observatory, craft museum and multifunctional hall, allowing proper conditions to be created for the development of educational, artistic and tourism related activities in the reconstructed building. The reconstruction of the historical building is a positive response to its deterioration resulting from former activities and it will contribute to the improvement of the quality of cultural life of both local inhabitants and visitors.
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Vladimirsky, Irena, and Maria V. Krotova. "Private Initiative as a creative factor in transformation of Siberian gold industry: the example of Siberian gold mining entrepreneur Yakov Frizer." Historia provinciae – the journal of regional history 5, no. 1 (2021): 64–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.23859/2587-8344-2021-5-1-2.
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The article examines one of the aspects of life and activities of a prominent Siberian gold miner Yakov D. Frizer (1869–1932), Barguzin merchant of the 1st guild, the owner of the majority of private gold mines in Transbaikalia. Yakov Frizer belonged to a special type of Siberian entrepreneurs who had extensive practical experience, understood the needs of the region, implemented various projects for its study, provision of necessary facilities, and economic development, and represented the interests of gold mining both on the regional and on the national level. Frizer’s distinctive features were the spirit of constant innovation and experimentation, proactive attitude to life, desire for professional self-education, and ability to see new opportunities for investing his capital in opposition to the policy of the state authorities who did not know the potential of Siberia well and did not trust the initiatives of Siberian people. Frizer viewed the gold mining in Eastern Siberia not as an independent branch but as a complex industry interconnected with the development of the system of communications, scientific study of gold mining business, and the solution of the issues of legislation, customs policy, planning, technical innovations, the necessary professional training of workers and middle management personnel, the development of domestic Russian mechanical engineering and the related infrastructure. He was not afraid to take risks, investing his funds in the prospecting for new deposits. Through trial and error, he determined the best way of managing and became a pioneer in many endeavors, most of which were crowned with success. The article analyzes Yakov Frizer’s activities on the development of the Barguzin taiga through the prism of private vs. national perception. The emphasis is placed on the transformative role of private initiative in the development of the natural resources of Eastern Siberia, when without any assistance of the state, exemplary enterprises were founded, roads were laid, schools and churches were built, and the foundations for the scientific study of the region’s resources were established. The article is based on the personal archive of Yakov Frizer kept by his descendants in Israel, his articles and books, and the materials from the Russian State Historical Archive.
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Vladimirsky, Irena, and Maria Krotova. "A Familiar Stranger Yakov Frizer: A Portrait of a Siberian Jew." Judaic-Slavic Journal, no. 1 (5) (2021): 101–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.31168/2658-3364.2021.1.05.
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Yakov Frizer (1869–1932) was a grandson of a Jewish criminal from the Western provinces of the Russian Empire, who was exiled to Siberia for smuggling for Polish rebels during the Polish Revolt of 1830. He was born in Barguzin and in a course of time turned into one of the biggest gold miners of the East Siberia, a first guild merchant, an outstanding entrepreneur and philanthropist. In 1918, similarly to many others, he immigrated to Harbin, Manchuria, where he lived until his tragic death in 1932. Since young age, Frizer used to keep a diary that usually became his only companion in his long journeys in Olekminsk-Vitim taiga. Main part of Yakov Frizer personal archive found its way to Israel in 1948 and is kept by his family. Frizer’s personal archive, as well as documents from Russian archives, articles from local Siberian and Harbin press provide additional evidence to the breadth and diversity of his talents. It is difficult to find a sphere of social or economic activity that missed his attention. Frizer established one of the first public libraries in his native Barguzin and was a chairperson of a Finance commission on establishment of the Irkutsk university. He was a lifelong active member of the East Siberian branch of the Russian Imperial Geographic Society, the chairperson and the sponsor of the local branch of the Society for Spreading of Education among the Jews of Russia, a permanent treasurer of the Jewish community of Irkutsk and an active member of Irkutsk Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Circles of Frizer’s various connections and acquaintances included famous political exiles such as P. A. Kropotkin and E. K. Breshko-Breshkovskaya, baron G. E. Gunzbourg and members of his family, Siberian regionalists N. M. Yadrintsev and G. N. Potanin, mining engineers and technicians, businessmen and officials, including the all-powerful Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte. The present article is devoted mainly to the Siberian period in Yakov Frizer life, his economic and social activity in Saint Petersburg, Barguzin and Irkutsk, arrangement and management of his family gold mines, support of different educational and research beginnings.
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Clarke, H. B. "The Dublin Guild Merchant roll, c. 1190-1265. Edited by Philomena Connolly and Geoffrey Martin. Pp xxiv, 159, illus. Dublin: Dublin Corporation. 1992. IR£19.95. (First supplement to Calendar of ancient records of Dublin, ed. Mary Clark)." Irish Historical Studies 28, no. 112 (November 1993): 444. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021121400011408.
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Woodward, Ralph Lee. "Merchant Guilds (Consulados de Comercio) in the Spanish World." History Compass 5, no. 5 (August 2007): 1576–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00463.x.
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Usher, Brett. "The Jew that Shakespeare Drew." Studies in Church History 29 (1992): 279–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424208400011359.
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How far is it legitimate for a director to correct Shakespeare’s antisemitism in The Merchant of Venice?SO, begging a question or two, wrote the theatre critic Benedict Nightingale in a review of a recent London production of the play in which the Christians were portrayed as rabid Nazis. Almost fifty years after the Holocaust, it appears, it is still difficult for directors and critics alike to approach The Merchant without a feeling of unease. Current wisdom—or lingering guilt—insists that the play is, in a real and unacceptable sense, racist.