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Journal articles on the topic 'Mercenarie'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2023

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1

Петров, Владислав, and Vladislav Petrov. "Psychological characteristics of the activities of private military companies." Applied psychology and pedagogy 3, no. 3 (July 2, 2018): 28–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/article_5b1ee0e6b670a3.92123818.

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The article is devoted to the analysis of psychological characteristics of private military companies. The phenomena "private military company" and "mercenary" are considered. The Genesis of mercenary activity in the military sphere is investigated. Systematized main modern function of hired troops, as well as the psychological characteristics of mercenarism. The limitations of scientific researches in the field of psychology of activity of private military companies are shown. The author substantiates the thesis that the mercenary is permeated with psychological problems. To improve the military-professional activity of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation the author substantiates the need to develop a wide range of scientific and applied issues, such as the personality of mercenaries, the system of motivating the activities of mercenaries, the specifics of interpersonal relations among mercenaries, etc. the Study of psychological aspects of mercenaries will create additional advantages of domestic military psychology, as well as improve psychological work with the military.

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2

Hovhannisyan, Davit, and Shushan Kyureghyan. "The Transformation of Mercenarism From its Origin to the Present." Analytical Bulletin 15 (December 27, 2022): 31–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.56673/18294502-22.15-31.

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The article aims to present the phenomenon of "mercenarism" in the context of historical developments and to show how the essence of mercenarism and its perception has been changing since its emergence. The article specifically mentions that mercenary activities started in ancient times and have reached our days with certain transformations. For centuries, it served to solve specific problems and was considered not only a natural but often an honorable activity. The article discusses the specifics of mercenarism in different periods of history, changes in recruitment methods and the legality of mercenaries’ and employers’ actions. The research also examines the scope of international laws condemning the phenomenon of mercenarism and the need for their revision.

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3

Chesterman, Simon. "Dogs of War or Jackals of Terror? Foreign Fighters and Mercenaries in International Law." International Community Law Review 18, no. 5 (December 8, 2016): 389–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341338.

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The threat of “blowback” from foreign fighters, unaffiliated volunteers who join an insurgency in a distant land, has led states to explore a variety of normative mechanisms. Among these is the international legal regime applicable to mercenaries. This short paper considers the evolution of mercenarism and the efforts to regulate it. Attempts to fit foreign fighters into that normative category are unlikely to succeed. In part this is due to the question of motivation, which is central to most definitions of mercenary and focuses on private gain. But it is also linked to the reasons for regulation in the first place: mercenaries are seen as threats in the states to which they travel, while foreign fighters are primarily deemed threats by the states to which they might return.

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4

Nebolsina, M. A. "Mercenaries as a political Tool of World Powers in the Congo Сrisis of 1960–1967." Journal of International Analytics, no. 1 (March 28, 2018): 52–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.46272/2587-8476-2018-0-1-52-64.

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The period of national liberation movements was marked by a struggle for political influence between world powers in the rich newly independent countries. The Congo crisis was the first to witness such an intense use of mercenaries by world powers in modern history. Policies differed – several western countries hired mercenaries to help suppress secessionist insurgencies, while others used them to support the secession of some regions in the Congo (now – Democratic Republic of Congo). Mercenaries were used to suppress Simba rebellion, to help in release of hostages, as well as in training the Congolese National Army. There was much to gain from the use of mercenary forces by the former colonizing nations. While formally they set the colonies free, informally they continued influencing politics in these countries using clandestine forces – the phenomenon which later becomes known as an essential component of “neocolonialism”. The use of numerous “soldiers of fortune” in the Congo will launch a process of corporate mercenarism, leading to the participation of mercenaries and private military contractors in a higher number of conflicts. In a short period of time contractors will become an integral part of military missions worldwide.

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5

Virágh, Ágnes. "A nápolyi hadjáratok ismeretlen epizódja." Belvedere Meridionale 32, no. 2 (2020): 119–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.14232/belv.2020.2.6.

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Humanist authors regarded mercenaries with contempt, and in their works they gladly referred to those ancient writers who also condemned the utilization of mercenary armies. Mercenaries are mentioned in the Italian chronicles of the 14th century as well, and the author of the Cronaca senese recorded the brutal attack of John Hawkwood’s company on Faenza. The notary of Apulia, Domenico da Gravina frequently reproved in his chronicle the German mercenaries on account of their excesses. In this paper I examine the passage that presents the mercenary revolt of Aversa, in which the Voivode of Transylvania, István Lackfi conducted a dialogue with the rebelling mercenary captains in order to reach an agreement with them.

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6

Karska, Elżbieta, and Karol Karski. "Introduction: The Phenomenon of Foreign Fighters and Foreign Terrorist Fighters." International Community Law Review 18, no. 5 (December 8, 2016): 377–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341337.

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Modern international law defines a very narrow definition of mercenarism. It does not include all aspects of this phenomenon as it was known and understood for centuries. At the same time the emergence of new forms of mercenary-related activities is observed. The terms ‘foreign fighters’ and ‘foreign terrorist fighters’ should be analysed in this context inter alia from a legal perspective. A question needs to be answered if those existing regulations relating to mercenaries can apply to these terms. It is also important to note how both mercenaries and their activities are perceived under international law. The international legal analysis of factual and legal measures undertaken by states towards foreign fighters and foreign terrorist fighters is also interesting. Frequently these activities concern not just the fighters alone but apply also to all of us. This requires us to look at them in the context of international human rights law. These issues are the subject of current works undertaken within the scope of international organisations. un Security Council adopted resolution 2170 (2014) and 2178 (2014) regarding foreign terrorist fighters. The un General Assembly and un Human Rights Council also tackle these issues. The activity of foreign fighters and foreign terrorist fighters on one side and the activities of the states in reaction to this activity on the other side are also monitored inter alia by the un Working Group on the use of mercenaries.

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7

Shubin, Vladimir Il'ich. "Greek mercenaries in Sais Egypt." Genesis: исторические исследования, no. 4 (April 2020): 12–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-868x.2020.4.32577.

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This article is dedicated to examination of the history of emergence of Greek mercenaries during the riling time of XXVI Sais Dynasty. The author reviews the status and role of Greek mercenaries in the armed forced of Sais rulers, organization of their service and living conditions. Considering the fact that the use of Greek mercenaries in Egypt army was a part of the traditional policy of Sais rulers and carried mass character, the author refers to the problem  of social origin of the phenomenon of mercenarism in the Greek society of Archaic era. The research applies comparative-historical method that allows viewing the phenomenon of mercenarism in the historical context – based on the comparative data analysis of ancient written tradition. By the time of Sais Dynasty, control over regions that traditionally provided mercenaries to the Egypt army was lost. Under the circumstances, in order to compensate such losses, Egypt conscripted into military service the hailed from the Greek world. Mercenaries became the first Greeks settled on the Egyptian land. The conclusion is made that the Greek colonization, in absence of other ways to enter the formerly closed to the Greeks Egypt, at its initial stage manifested in such distinct form.

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8

Fallah, Katherine. "Corporate actors: the legal status of mercenaries in armed conflict." International Review of the Red Cross 88, no. 863 (September 2006): 599–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1816383106000695.

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AbstractCorporate actors are taking on an increasingly significant role in the prosecution of modern warfare. Traditionally, an analysis of the law applicable to corporate actors in armed conflict commences with inquiry into the law as it applies to mercenaries. As such, the rise of the private military industry invites a reconsideration of the conventional approach to mercenaries under international law. This article critically surveys the conventional law as it applies to mercenaries, and considers the extent to which corporate actors might meet the legal definitions of a “mercenary”. It demonstrates that even mercenaries receive protection under international humanitarian law.

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9

Kolarov, Igor, Juvenal Soto, and Mark Aldrich. "Frolic of Mercenaries / Jolgorio de mercenarios." Sirena: poesia, arte y critica 2006, no. 1 (2006): 44–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sir.2006.0073.

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10

Pederzani, Ivana. "Parrocchie povere della Bergamasca tra antico regime e Restaurazione. Aspetti economici e disciplinari." STORIA IN LOMBARDIA, no. 1 (July 2021): 44–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3280/sil2020-001002.

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Attraverso l'analisi della struttura beneficiale della diocesi l'autrice ricostruisce i nessi tra vita religiosa e debolezza economica nella Bergamasca tra Sette e Ottocento in una varietà di situa-zioni locali. Ad eccezione di qualche rara zona o di importanti centri borghigiani, non manca-vano nella pianura, dominata da salariati agricoli poveri e analfabeti, cure mercenarie.- cioè con parroco salariato e senza un'adeguata dotazione beneficiale - di elezione popolare e con qual-che centinaia di fedeli o poco più. Esse erano più numerose in montagna e nelle valli quale esi-to della tendenza della popolazione locale a rendere capillare il servizio religioso costruendo luoghi di culto anche nelle frazioni più isolate. In queste parrocchie le comunità, che detenevano antichi diritti di patronato, per la nomina del pastore si erano viste spesso costrette a stipula-re contratti "a termine" con sacerdoti senza regolare investitura ecclesiastica. La debolezza eco-nomica rese difficile in età napoleonica applicare la riforma parrocchiale nei suoi aspetti eco-nomici e disciplinari e cioè in materia di dotazioni beneficiali, ordinazioni sacerdotali, concorsi vescovili.

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11

Gómez del Prado, José L. "Whether the Criteria Contained in the 1989 International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries Notably Motivation Apply to Today’s Foreign Fighters?" International Community Law Review 18, no. 5 (December 8, 2016): 400–417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341339.

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To protect the right of peoples to self-determination enshrined in its Charter, the United Nations adopted instruments to fight against mercenary activities and the crime of mercenarism. These actions were developed within the context of Jus ad bellum or the prerequisites, established in the un Charter, under which States may resort to the use of armed force. In 1991, un abandoned the recommendation made by the International Law Commission to maintain the crime of mercenarism in the code of crimes against the peace and the security of mankind. Instead, un adopted the 1989 Convention which definition of mercenary based on Article 47 of Additional Protocol i under jus in bello, sets out a number of prerequisites revolving around the foreign character of the mercenary and his motivation. Such conditions are at the origin of the difficulties to apply the 1989 Convention that has proved unworkable to deal with the phenomenon of mercenarism.

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12

Grabarczyk, Tadeusz. "Hand Firearms in 15th-Century Poland. Why Did the Breakthrough Happen?" Fasciculi Archaeologiae Historicae 34 (December 13, 2021): 107–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.23858/fah34.2021.008.

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The first mention of the use of artillery in Poland comes from 1383. Information on hand firearms is slightly later. In 1410, the use of one handbuchse by municipal guards in Kraków was recorded. However, over the next decades, hand firearms in Poland did not play a significant role. According to the records of mercenary infantry from the 1470s, less than 1% of soldiers owned firearms (simple handgonnes and hackbuts). Small arms started to play a bigger role only in the 1490s. According to the lists of mercenary infantry from 1496, 27% of shooters had firearms, while the rest still used crossbows. In the following years, the percentage of soldiers with firearms increased, exceeding 80% in 1500. It should be noted that in the late 15th century in mercenary censuses there is a new type of weapon called rusznica, a term that should be associated with matchlock handgonnes. The weapon quickly gained recognition from mercenaries. After 1498, matchlock handgonnes also appeared in the equipment of mounted mercenaries and members of the court banner. Matchlock handgonnes almost completely replaced crossbows in the armament of mercenary infantry. The author tries to present these changes in a European context, and explain how such changes in the armament of foot soldiers were possible in such a short time.

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13

Dalby, Andrew. "Greeks abroad: social organisation and food among the ten thousand." Journal of Hellenic Studies 112 (November 1992): 16–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/632150.

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This study of the Ten Thousand on their way home will consider, with regard to some important aspects of their social behaviour, whether they were adopting and adapting the Greek city way of life, or that of a mercenary army, and whether other possible models may help us to understand their problems and their success.The Ten Thousand had been part of an army and many of them would form part of one again. The assumption that in the meanwhile they were really just like an army justifies the space given to them by Parke, by Marinovich and by Griffith in books which are studies of Greek mercenary warfare. Of course the men's aim when they were Cyrus's mercenaries (like the aims of other mercenaries) had been to follow what instructions had come to them from above and to take home, individually, what pay and profit they could. But once Cyrus was killed they were no longer mercenaries nor employed by any authority, and their aim, decided by themselves, was to find a way home. Their entirely different status, and their ability to succeed in these new circumstances, mean that it is unwise in investigating the patterns of behaviour either of mercenaries or of the Ten Thousand to assume without question that the two patterns will be the same.

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14

Kraeuter, John N., and Michael Castagna. "DISEASE TREATMENT IN HARD CLAMS, Mercenaria mercenaria1." Journal of the World Mariculture Society 15, no. 1-4 (March 12, 2009): 310–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1984.tb00165.x.

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15

Fabre, Cécile. "In Defence of Mercenarism." British Journal of Political Science 40, no. 3 (June 23, 2010): 539–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007123409990196.

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The recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have been characterized by the deployment of large private military forces, under contract with the US administration. The use of so-called private military corporations (PMCs) and, more generally, of mercenaries, has long attracted criticisms. This article argues that under certain conditions (drawn from the Just War tradition), there is nothing inherently objectionable about mercenarism. It begins by exposing a weakness in the most obvious justification for mercenarism, to wit, the justification from freedom of occupational choice. It then deploys a less obvious, but stronger, argument – one that appeals to the importance of enabling just defensive killings. Finally, it rebuts five moral objections to mercenarism.

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16

Parent, G. J., F. Pernet, and R. Tremblay. "25.P2. Thermal adaptation in hard clam Mercenaria mercenari." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 148 (August 2007): S115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.06.403.

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17

Leverchy, Christian. "Définir le mercenaire puis lutter contre le mercenariat." Cultures & conflits, no. 52 (December 1, 2003): 67–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/conflits.979.

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18

Pere-Nogues, Sandra. "Mercenaires et mercenariat d'Occident : réflexions sur le développement du mercenariat en Sicile." Pallas 51, no. 1 (1999): 105–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/palla.1999.1577.

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19

Richemond-Barak, Daphné. "Rethinking Private Warfare." Law & Ethics of Human Rights 5, no. 1 (May 1, 2011): 160–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1938-2545.1056.

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Waging war for money has been frowned upon since the Peace of Westphalia and the rise of the modern nation-state. The stigma associated with private warfare translates, in legal terms, into a prohibition on mercenary activity and denying mercenaries the protection afforded to regular combatants (in particular, prisoner of war status). Noting the apparent similarities between mercenaries and private military contractors, some have sought to extend to the latter the restrictive regime applicable to the former. But the resemblance between these two types of actors should not imply that private warfare, in its modern form, is condemnable outright. This Article argues that an inclusive approach to military outsourcingdrawing upon historical, legal and moral perspectivesis necessary to contend with the challenges raised by the growth of the private military industry. I examine the connection between history (highlighting the shared roots of private military contractors and mercenaries), morality (through which the stigma against private warfare developed), and law (the formal vehicle of such stigma), to show that private warfare deserves a more nuanced and pragmatic treatment under international law.

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20

Rusakovskiy, Oleg. "Foreign Military Law and Mercenary Contract in Seventeenth-Century Russia: The Сase of the Smolensk War, 1632–1634." Russian History 48, no. 2 (March 22, 2022): 187–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.30965/18763316-12340029.

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Abstract The article aims to discuss how the Russian government dealt with foreign military law based on mercenary contracts while recruiting troops in Germany and Britain for the Smolensk campaign of 1632 to 1634. In the agreements made with foreign colonels that survive in contemporary Russian translations, the Tsar’s officials granted an almost unlimited legal and administrative autonomy to foreign military commanders in order to make service in Russia more attractive for Western mercenaries. While doing so, the Russian government believed that a unified military law and an effective court and administration system existed among the European military communities. However, some essential terms of military service remained unspecified in the documentation, depriving the Russian army commanders of any legal recourse to prevent conflicts within foreign regiments, which ultimately contributed to an administrative disaster at the end of the Smolensk campaign. The article analyzes both the Russian attitudes towards foreign military law and mercenary contracts and how this might have affected European mercenary units in Russian service.

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21

Soroceanu, Igor. "Combating the Antisocial Scourge of Mercenary Activity – Case Study. Part I." Intellectus, no. 2 (December 2022): 143–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.56329/1810-7087.22.2.15.

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The activity of mercenaries is a dangerous act that is part of the category of war crimes. Despite the fact that this crime is a new type of crime encountered in objective reality, it is still noted that more and more citizens of the Republic of Moldova are becoming subjects of this lawlessness. For this reason, in the present study we propose to analyze the information, respecting personal data, from some real cases of mercenary activity, published in the online environment.

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22

Bosch, Shannon, and Marelie Maritz. "South African Private Security Contractors Active in Armed Conflicts: Citizenship, Prosecution and the Right to Work." Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal/Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad 14, no. 7 (June 9, 2017): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2011/v14i7a2618.

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South Africa has adopted two pieces of legislation since 1998 aimed at restricting one of the fastest growing sectors of the global economy: the private security industry. Not only is this legislation completely unique, but it appears wholly at odds with international opinion. In this article we place private security contractors (PSCs) under the microscope of international law, exploring the role they play in armed conflicts, and the status afforded them by international humanitarian law (IHL). We address the issue of prohibited mercenarism, questioning whether PSCs should be categorised as mercenaries. We then shift our focus to the South African legislation and discuss the ambit of its application as compared with international law obligations to outlaw mercenaries. We discuss the likelihood of successful prosecution of PSCs, and the potential penalties that PSCs might face in terms of the South African legislation. Lastly we consider the constitutional challenges which might emerge as this legislation, and a proposed amendment to the South African Citizenship Act threaten the constitutionally protected rights of South African PSCs to practise a profession and enjoy citizenship.

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23

Sekunda, N. V. "Lysimachos and Gazaios of Oloosson." Annual of the British School at Athens 93 (November 1998): 449–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068245400003567.

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An aristocratic individual called Lysimachos son of Gazaios is recorded in inscriptions from the city of Oloosson in Perrhaiban Thessaly dating to the 20s BC. The personal name Gazaios, derived from the ethnic of the Palestinian city of Gaza, is extremely rare and cannot be explained in any conventional way. The author suggests that this individual's grandfather or greatgrandfather may have served as a mercenary officer in Gaza between 102 and 96 BC, when one Lysimachos of Gaza seized power with the aid of mercenaries. He may have subsequently named his sons after Lysimachos and the city of Gaza.

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24

THEOTOKIS, Georgios. "Rus, Varangian and Frankish mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine Emperors (9th-11th c.): Numbers, Organisation and Battle Tactics in the operational theatres of Asia Minor and the Balkans." BYZANTINA SYMMEIKTA 22 (December 18, 2012): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/byzsym.1039.

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<span style="line-height: 200%; font-size: 11pt"><font face="Times New Roman">This study will attempt to examine two significantly different types of mercenaries serving the Byzantine Emperors - the Varangians and the Franks - from the mid-10th to the mid-11th centuries. Not structuring my analysis on a chronological basis but rather on the different enemies that these mercenaries were facing in different geographical conditions, the main objective of my research is to give answers to a series of questions; what evidence do we have about the organisation of the mercenary units of the Rus, the Varangians and the Franks and in what numbers were they descending at Constantinople? What were the political circumstances that led to their employment by the Emperors throughout our period of study? What was their standing in the Byzantine military establishment? Did they pose any threat to the central government? What evidence do we have about their battle and siege tactics and their overall role in each operational theatre?</font></span>

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25

Riemann, Malte. "Mercenaries in/and history: the problem of ahistoricism and contextualism in mercenary scholarship." Small Wars & Insurgencies 33, no. 1-2 (November 10, 2021): 22–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2021.1999679.

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26

Petersohn, Ulrich. "Reframing the anti-mercenary norm: Private military and security companies and mercenarism." International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis 69, no. 4 (August 21, 2014): 475–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020702014544915.

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27

Cameron, Lindsey. "Private military companies: their status under international humanitarian law and its impact on their regulation." International Review of the Red Cross 88, no. 863 (September 2006): 573–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1816383106000683.

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AbstractStates are increasingly hiring private military companies to act in zones where armed conflicts are occurring. The predominant feeling in the international community is that it would be best to regulate such companies. Cognizant of much confusion as to the status of the employees of private military companies under international humanitarian law, this article explains the laws on mercenaries, combatants and civilians and explores how private military companies' employees may fall into any of those categories. It demonstrates that the concept of mercenarism is unhelpful for regulating these companies and that it is unlikely that many of the employees of these companies can be considered to have combatant status. The article considers possible consequences of private military companies' employees having the status of civilians under international humanitarian law and their potential impact on regulating these companies effectively.

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28

Mark Charles Fissel. "Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages (review)." Journal of Military History 73, no. 1 (2008): 260–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jmh.0.0197.

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29

Lynch, Christopher. "War and Foreign Affairs in Machiavelli'sFlorentine Histories." Review of Politics 74, no. 1 (2012): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0034670512000034.

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AbstractThis article argues that issues of war and foreign affairs predominate in Machiavelli'sFlorentine Histories, a work generally taken to be devoted to the internal politics of Florence. The well-known narrative of the rise and fall of Medici rule is in fact driven by a counternarrative of the rise of mercenaries such as Francesco Sforza to the point of becoming the true arbiters of Italian affairs. TheFlorentine Historieslays out the progressive disarming of Italian powers, details the rise of a corrupt system of foreign affairs dominated by mercenary arms and their attendant papal meddling, and urgently counsels statesmen to arm their cities with arms of their own. Seeking to reframe interpretive approaches in this manner, the article sheds new light on Machiavelli's teaching on the desirability of well-managed domestic discords as they relate to military preparedness.

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30

Mahfoudh, Haykel Ben. "Protect, Respect and Remedy: A Framework for Accountability for Human Rights Violations Committed by Foreign Fighters." International Community Law Review 18, no. 5 (December 8, 2016): 418–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341340.

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As the phenomenon of foreign fighters is taking new dimensions by the rise of autonomous terrorist groups, mainly the group calling itself ‘Islamic state’ (also known as Daesh or isil), most of these individuals are perceived as a serious security threat to the peace and justice in the world. Such security perception made current efforts to deal effectively with this complex problem confined within the existing counter-terrorism fora including the United Nations (un). The u.n. framework of Mercenaries does not seem the right venue for an effective accountability framework. Beyond the conceptual debate – whether Foreign Fighters is a new form of mercenarism – the regulatory framework offer various venues for the protection of human rights. Instead of constructing an accountability mechanism from scratch, this paper calls for the application of the dual obligation to protect and respect, which focuses on victims rights, regardless the nature, the type of the author of the crime.

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31

Reinberger, Katherine L., Laurie J. Reitsema, Britney Kyle, Stefano Vassallo, George Kamenov, and John Krigbaum. "Isotopic evidence for geographic heterogeneity in Ancient Greek military forces." PLOS ONE 16, no. 5 (May 12, 2021): e0248803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248803.

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Increased mobility and human interactions in the Mediterranean region during the eighth through fifth centuries BCE resulted in heterogeneous communities held together by political and cultural affiliations, periodically engaged in military conflict. Ancient historians write of alliances that aided the Greek Sicilian colony Himera in victory against a Carthaginian army of hired foreign mercenaries in 480 BCE, and the demise of Himera when it fought Carthage again in 409 BCE, this time unaided. Archaeological human remains from the Battles of Himera provide unique opportunities to test early written history by geochemically assessing the geographic origins of ancient Greek fighting forces. We report strontium and oxygen isotope ratios of tooth enamel from 62 Greek soldiers to evaluate the historically-based hypothesis that a coalition of Greek allies saved Himera in 480 BCE, but not in 409 BCE. Among the burials of 480 BCE, approximately two-thirds of the individuals are non-local, whereas among the burials of 409 BCE, only one-quarter are non-local, in support of historical accounts. Although historical accounts specifically mention Sicilian Greek allies aiding Himera, isotopic values of many of the 480 BCE non-locals are consistent with geographic regions beyond Sicily, suggesting Greek tyrants hired foreign mercenaries from more distant places. We describe how the presence of mercenary soldiers confronts prevailing interpretations of traditional Greek values and society. Greek fighting forces reflect the interconnectedness and heterogeneity of communities of the time, rather than culturally similar groups of neighbors fighting for a common cause, unified by “Greekness,” as promoted in ancient texts.

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32

Craig, M. Alison, Thomas J. Bright, and Stephen R. Gittings. "Growth of Mercenaria mercenaria and Mercenaria mercenaria texana seed clams planted in two Texas bays." Aquaculture 71, no. 3 (July 1988): 193–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(88)90259-1.

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Avant, Deborah. "Mercenaries." Foreign Policy, no. 143 (July 2004): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4152906.

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Shakirov, M. "Mercenaries." Russian Politics & Law 34, no. 4 (July 1996): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2753/rup1061-1940340423.

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Barrett. "Regulating the Modern Mercenary: the Normative Bias against Mercenarism and Its Impact on Industry Regulation." Irish Studies in International Affairs 32, no. 1 (2021): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.3318/isia.2021.32.06.

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Barrett, Ross. "Regulating the Modern Mercenary: the Normative Bias against Mercenarism and Its Impact on Industry Regulation." Irish Studies in International Affairs 32, no. 1 (2021): 213–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/isia.2021.0058.

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Jordan, Robert E., and James A. Marcum. "Anticoagulantly active heparin from clam (Mercenaria mercenaria)." Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 248, no. 2 (August 1986): 690–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(86)90524-2.

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Tikhanychev, Oleg Vasilyevich. "Hybrid warfare: a new word in military art or the well forgotten new?" Вопросы безопасности, no. 1 (January 2020): 30–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-7543.2020.1.30256.

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The author examines the aspect of one of the military strategies – the so-called “hybrid warfare”. Analysis is conducted on the key components of “hybrid” actions. Examination of historical allows concluding that these approaches have deep historical roots. This refers not to the classical mercenary, but namely to “hybrid” actions, when the contractor and purpose of mercenaries are hidden, and military actions are accompanied by economic confrontation and mass cyber-attacks. The author carries out component-wise analysis for understanding the nature of emergence and waging of “hybrid” warfare at different historical stages. Based on the experience of conducting warfare and armed conflicts, the conclusion is made that the threat of “hybrid” actions is extremely relevant currently and in the foreseeable future. Moreover, the author determines that other previously existing but modified with consideration of new factors of civilizational development “hybrid” approaches towards organization of inter-state confrontation may be implemented. The need to ensure readiness of the Russian Federation to parrying such threats is underlined.

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Elder, Donald C. "Lincoln's Mercenaries." Annals of Iowa 78, no. 3 (July 2019): 300–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.17077/0003-4827.12594.

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Zhi-Hua, Lin, Lu Zhen-Ming, Chai Xue-Liang, Fang Jun, and Zhang Jiong-Ming. "Karyotypes of Diploid and Triploid Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus)." Journal of Shellfish Research 27, no. 2 (April 2008): 297–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.2983/0730-8000(2008)27[297:kodatm]2.0.co;2.

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LaBreche, Timothy M. C., Andrea M. Dietrich, Daniel L. Gallagher, and Natalie Shepherd. "COPPER TOXICITY TO LARVAL MERCENARIA MERCENARIA (HARD CLAM)." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 21, no. 4 (2002): 760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1897/1551-5028(2002)021<0760:cttlmm>2.0.co;2.

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Buggé, Deenie M., Hélène Hégaret, Gary H. Wikfors, and Bassem Allam. "Oxidative burst in hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) haemocytes." Fish & Shellfish Immunology 23, no. 1 (July 2007): 188–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2006.10.006.

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Shishmonin, Sergey Vladimirovich. "EVOLUTION OF PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES IN THE WORLD." Current Issues of the State and Law, no. 9 (2019): 107–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.20310/2587-9340-2019-3-9-107-113.

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In a rapidly changing and unstable situation on the world stage, private military companies are present and developing very effectively in the military sphere. Relation to private military companies is a relatively new actors in the military sphere, is not clear. The history of formation and development of these organizations is short, but very bright. Mercenarism and prototypes of private military companies were known in ancient times. We show the evolution of private military companies from mercenaries to modern companies. In the modern sense of the term private military companies began to be actively created only in the middle of the 20th century. European states, in particular, the United States, played an active role in these processes. This state also went down in history as the first legally regulate the activities of military companies. In just over half a century, private military companies have been involved in many military conflicts and have proven to be a highly mobile and versatile tool for addressing geopolitical and state tasks. Since the early of 21th century, international private corporations and enterprises have become interested in the services of these organizations. The private-military segment of the market is developing very actively and steadily in the conditions of the modern world situation.

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McCormack, Tim. "The ‘Sandline Affair’: Papua New Guinea Resorts to Mercenarism to End the Bougainville Conflict." Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 1 (December 1998): 292–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1389135900000167.

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For at least a decade, die Government of Papua New Guinea (PNG) has been engaged in armed efforts to terminate a secessionist movement on the island of Bougainville off the South East coast of the PNG mainland. In late 1996, the government agreed to hire the firm of Sandline International to provide mercenary assistance, in a desperate bid to regain effective control of Bougainville. In an ironical twist to the cycle of violence and missed opportunities for peaceful resolution of the conflict, the controversial decision to engage Sandline proved to be the very catalyst to facilitate a process which appears to offer a real prospect for a negotiated settlement to the dispute.The public disclosure of the decision of the then-Prime Minister, Sir Julius Chan, to resort to mercenarism was condemned by regional governments and resulted in widespread civil disturbance in PNG. Ultimately, the Chan Government was overthrown in a general election and the new government of Prime Minister Bill Skate has participated in the negotiation of an agreement to establish an independent Truce Monitoring Group and an end to me Bougainville conflict.

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Pandey Sharma, Jyoti. "Architectural Adventurism in Nineteenth-Century Colonial India: Begum Samru and Her Sardhana Church." International Journal of Islamic Architecture 9, no. 1 (March 1, 2020): 61–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/ijia_00004_1.

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Abstract This article explores the politically fluid and culturally hybrid environment of the Indian subcontinent during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Interaction between European mercenaries and their Indian patrons led to acculturation of both sides. This cultural affinity also extended into the realm of architecture and building patronage, resulting in a stylistic hybridity that drew upon both Indian and European traditions. This article examines the building projects of Begum Samru, bibi (consort) of a German mercenary and ruler of Sardhana near Delhi. The Begum, born a Muslim, converted to Christianity, but nonetheless still valued her roots, creating a syncretic identity that was reflected in her architectural patronage. The scope of her patronage went beyond domestic architecture to serve the cause of her adopted religion as well. While she donated generously to Catholic institutions, it was in the building of churches that the Begum resorted to what one may call architectural adventurism to mark her identity as a devout Catholic. Transcending the prevalent notions of space and aesthetics, the Begum's architectural trajectory was unconventional due to her gender, social status, faith, and patronage of churches. Commissioned in 1821, Sardhana's Catholic Church became a symbol of her architectural adventurism: it epitomized Begum Samru's feisty spirit and her quest to champion Catholicism in the subcontinent.

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Mears, John A. "The Thirty Years' War, the “General Crisis,” and the Origins of a Standing Professional Army in the Habsburg Monarchy." Central European History 21, no. 2 (June 1988): 122–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900012711.

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One of the most striking features of seventeenth-century state building was the formation of standing armies. Kings and princes throughout Europe, responding to conditions of almost constant strife, were compelled to transform ineffective feudal levies and unruly bands of mercenaries into regularized bodies of professional troops, making ever larger and more costly military establishments instruments of rational foreign policy rather than the preserves of the old nobility or freebootingcondottieri. In building armies of the new type, European monarchs had to surmount determined opposition from two sources: the local representative bodies (estates) which were reluctant to grant rulers the powers of taxation necessary for the maintenance of permanent troops, and the mercenary colonels who were expected to relinquish their rights as independent recruiting masters and subordinate themselves to the state. By the middle decades of the seventeenth century, various territorial sovereigns were successfully mastering this opposition to their political authority and were able to take an essential step in the direction of true standing armies by routinely keeping strong military forces under their command at the conclusion of a campaign, thereby diminishing their reliance on contingents approved by the provincial estates or soldiers hastily raised by private entrepreneurs to meet specific emergencies.

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Parent, G. J., F. Pernet, J. M. Sévigny, M. Ouellette, and R. Tremblay. "16.P27. Thermal adaptation in hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 148 (August 2007): S78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.06.202.

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Hu, Zhi, Hao Song, Cong Zhou, Zheng-Lin Yu, Mei-Jie Yang, and Tao Zhang. "Complete mitochondrial genome of the hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria)." Mitochondrial DNA Part B 4, no. 2 (July 3, 2019): 3738–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1681306.

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Keppler, C. J., and A. H. Ringwood. "Effects of Metal Exposures on Juvenile Clams, Mercenaria mercenaria." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 68, no. 1 (January 2002): 43–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00128-001-0217-5.

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Fawcett, Lynda B., and Marenes R. Tripp. "Chemotaxis of Mercenaria mercenaria Hemocytes to Bacteria in Vitro." Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 63, no. 3 (May 1994): 275–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jipa.1994.1052.

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