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Eastwood, Adrienne E. "Memory or attention?, understanding working memory in children." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2001. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/NQ65235.pdf.
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MacDonald, Mary Ann. "Memory and metamemory in hyperactive children." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/30999.
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Memory and metamemory were examined in 30 hyperactive and 30 nonhyperactive children matched on age, grade, and IQ (as measured by the Vocabulary and the Block Design subtests of the WISC-R), within the context of a broad range of tasks. The five tasks investigated in this study were: (a) a prospective memory task, (b) a feeling-of-knowing task, a visual retention task, (c) a word generation task, (d) and (e) an object span and recall task.
Previous research has demonstrated considerable variability in the performance of hyperactive children on memory tasks. They have been shown to perform as well as normal children on tasks of cued recall, paired associates for meaningful words, and on tests of recognition memory. They are distinguished from normal children by their poor performance on tasks of uncued recall, paired associates learning for semantically unrelated words, and in addition, often display performance decrements when task demands increase.
The results of this study suggest that hyperactive children are less efficient in metamemory knowledge and skills than normal children. These findings are consistent with the proposal that the difficulties hyperactive children demonstrate on memory tasks may result from a deficiency in their ability to efficiently engage in metamemory processes.
The hyperactive children in this study generally had more difficulty than the control children with recall on all the tasks. These included tests of both verbal and nonverbal memory, short and long-term memory, and prospective remembering. Further, they did not derive a memorial benefit, as the control subjects did, when generating their own recall items, or when recalling visual stimuli that could be more easily verbally encoded than others.
The hyperactive subjects demonstrated their recall abilities by performing as well as the normal subjects on the recall of read words in the word generation task, and on the recall of the low and medium level of labelability items in the visual retention task. Also, the recall performance of the hyperactive subjects differed significantly between a no-strategy and a provided strategy condition on the prospective memory task. Moreover, there were no group differences on the recognition memory test of the feeling-of-knowing task.
The results of this study are consistent with the previous investigations of memory performance in hyperactive children. The present findings further extend the past research by demonstrating selective memory deficits in the hyperactive subjects that are consistent with deficits in metamemory abilities. The proposition that metamemory skills are implicated in the difficulties that the hyperactive children demonstrated in this study is further supported by the difficulty they experienced in describing how they remembered the task items. The hyperactive subjects had more difficulty than the control subjects when attempting to describe a strategy that they used to aid recall. The strategies they described, relative to the control subjects, tended to be vague and poorly defined. These findings suggest that there may be both qualitative and quantitative differences in the way in which hyperactive and normal children use strategies.
In summary, the findings of this study suggest that hyperactive children, relative to normal children, seem to be deficient in both their metamemory knowledge and the ability to monitor and control their memory performance. Questions addressing whether these children cannot or do not employ these skills were introduced. The clinical implications of the findings were considered and recommendations were made for future research.<br>Arts, Faculty of<br>Psychology, Department of<br>Graduate
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Forrest, Tammy J. "Memory errors in elementary school children." Diss., Full text available online (restricted access), 2002. http://images.lib.monash.edu.au/ts/theses/Forrest.pdf.
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Henry, Lucy A. "The development of memory in children." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1989. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.253175.
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McCormack, Teresa. "The development of contextual memory in children." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.326665.
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Ashbrook, Richard McBride. "Memory organization in attention deficit disorder children." The Ohio State University, 1985. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1371733849.
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Gascoigne, Michael. "Long-term memory in children with epilepsy." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/10216.
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Memory difficulties represent a common complaint in patients with epilepsy. These difficulties may refer to (i) a faster rate of forgetting of newly-learned materials over long delays relative to short delays (accelerated long-term forgetting; ALF) or (ii) autobiographical memory (ABM) difficulties, including deficits in recall of episodic (re-experiencing of personal events) and semantic (factual information) components. To date, ALF and ABM studies have largely focussed on adults. This thesis assesses ALF and ABM in children with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and in those with idiopathic generalised epilepsy (IGE). ALF is assessed in 23 children with TLE, 20 with IGE and 58 similarly-matched controls. Participants completed a battery of tests, including a measure of verbal learning and recall after short (30-min) and long (7-day) delays. Relative to controls, children with TLE recalled fewer words at the 7-day delay compared with the 30-min delay. Age was also negatively correlated with word recall after short and long delays within the TLE group. Children with IGE recalled fewer words after a long, but not short, delay relative to controls. Moreover, greater epilepsy severity was associated with poorer 7-day recognition in the IGE group. ABM was assessed in 21 children with TLE, 18 with IGE and 42 healthy controls. Children with TLE recalled fewer episodic, but not semantic, details than controls. Unlike controls, episodic recall did not increase with age in the TLE group and was unrelated to epilepsy factors, such as side of seizure focus. Children with IGE recalled fewer episodic details than controls while earlier age of seizure onset was associated with poorer episodic recall. Our findings suggest that long-term memory consolidation may be disrupted by temporal lobe pathology or seizure focus and generalised seizures. Finally, long-term memory deficits may gradually emerge in children with TLE, as older children are more likely to present with these deficits.
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Howard, Megan. "Understanding Autobiographical Memory of Children Through Self-Report." Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2006. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1226.
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This item is only available in print in the UCF Libraries. If this is your Honors Thesis, you can help us make it available online for use by researchers around the world by following the instructions on the distribution consent form at http://library.ucf.edu/Systems/DigitalInitiatives/DigitalCollections/InternetDistributionConsentAgreementForm.pdf You may also contact the project coordinator, Kerri Bottorff, at kerri.bottorff@ucf.edu for more information.<br>Bachelors<br>Arts and Sciences<br>Psychology
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Buller, Terri. "Implicit and explicit memory in preschoolers." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/29349.
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Explicit memory refers to conscious or deliberate recollection of recent events and experiences, whereas implicit memory is revealed when the same events and experiences affect performance in the absence of conscious recollection. It is well known that implicit and explicit memory develop differently across the life span: Explicit memory is acquired in early childhood, remains stable across adulthood, and then decreases in later life, whereas implicit memory develops earlier in childhood and remains intact well into late adulthood (for review see Graf, 1990). To explain this pattern of results, it has been suggested that implicit memory performance is mediated by automatic processing, whereas explicit memory performance is mediated by subject controlled processing, such as goals and strategies (e.g., Craik, 1983).
My thesis examines whether development during the preschool years has the same effect or different effects on implicit and explicit memory test performance. Toward this goal, I first collected normative data to establish baserate performance on category production tests for use in the main experiment. Subjects consisted of 96 preschoolers and production norms were gathered for 7 different categories. The procedure involved reading a brief story to focus subjects attention on a category and required them to name 5 items from that category. Test performance showed two notable findings. First, some categories had a more gradual drop-off in response rate distributions than others, and second, differences in response rates for the different age groups were greater in some categories than others.
The main part of this thesis is an experiment that examined whether development has the same effect or different effects on implicit and explicit memory test performance. Subjects for this study consisted of groups of 12 3-, 4-, and 5-year olds (n=36). The method involved presenting subjects with category production and category cued-recall tests for previously studied items. The items were selected from the norms according to three criteria: frequency of occurrence in the norms was not at floor or ceiling, occurrence frequencies were similar across age groups, and each item was representable as a picture.
During the study phase five items were studied from each of 4 categories: CLOTHES, TRAVEL, PLAYGROUND, and ZOO. Ten of the 20 items (5 per category) were studied by each subject -- 5 in a non-elaborative study condition that required subjects to name each item and 5 in an elaborative study condition that asked them to name each item and answer a question about real-life aspects/uses of the item (e.g., "Do boys wear dresses?"). Two sets of target items that were not studied were used to assess baserate performance.
The testing phase occurred immediately after the study phase. Implicit memory performance was assessed with category production tests using the same procedure as for the norms study. Explicit memory was assessed with a category cued-recall test. The critical findings from the implicit memory tests were: more priming in the elaborative than in the non-elaborative study conditions, and similarly large priming effects across age-groups. The explicit memory test results showed that performance increased across age-groups, but only for materials in the non-elaborative study condition. In the elaborative study condition 3-year olds' performance was comparable to that of the 5-year olds.
The present thesis illustrated the distinction between implicit and explicit memory performance. Furthermore, it supports the hypothesis that while there is overlap of some of the components mediating these forms of memory, particularly related to storage of materials, there are significant differences between other mediating processes of implicit and explicit memory that are more closely associated with retrieval of materials.<br>Arts, Faculty of<br>Psychology, Department of<br>Graduate
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Tillman, Carin. "Working Memory and Higher-Order Cognition in Children." Doctoral thesis, Uppsala University, Department of Psychology, 2008. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-9271.
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<p>Higher-order cognitive functions, such as executive function (EF) and intelligence, are crucial to the everyday functioning of human beings. Gaining knowledge about these functions is important for our general understanding of human nature as well as for our ability to help those who may not develop these processes optimally. The present thesis focused particularly on the EF component working memory (WM), described as the ability to maintain informa-tion in consciousness during short time periods with the purpose of using that information in complex cognition. The major aims of the thesis were to increase our understanding of higher-order cognition in children as well as of deficiencies in intelligence found in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). We approached these aims by studying the interrelations among EF-related components in terms of their independent contributions to intellectual functioning. We also studied whether the lower intelligence in children with ADHD was mediated by fundamental EF-related components or whether these deficiencies went beyond the weaknesses in these specific cognitive functions.</p><p>Interpreting the present data, we suggest that intellectual functioning in children is best viewed as representing a system of primarily independent parts that may be accompanied by an overarching common mechanism. The multiple components involve, but are surely not limited to, WM functions, inhibitory functions, sustained attention, and processing speed. One of these functions, WM, was found to be further partitioned into domain-specific executive WM processes and domain-specific short-term storage processes, all of which constitute important aspects of higher-order cognitive functioning. We have further learned that deficits in fluid intelligence in children with ADHD may entail more than weaknesses in specific central cognitive functions. This additional deficit is cautiously interpreted as involving supe-rior executive attention functions setting the stage for the development and integration of the EF system as well as the “intelligence system”.</p>
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Boyko, Kelly A. "The structure of associative memory in creative children." Thesis, University of Ottawa (Canada), 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/9952.
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Theorists operating in the associationist tradition have consistently maintained that creative thinking involves the ability to generate remote associations. It has been inferred that this ability requires a particular kind of associative memory structure, one which is characterized by many between-configuration links and many weak within-configuration links. However, there has been a paucity of studies examining the associative memory structures of creative individuals. Still, considerable effort has been devoted in the developmental literature to delineating various types of organizational structures in children's memories. Consequently, this research explored how associational processes operate in children vis-a-vis their memory structures. As well, an attempt was made to replicate part of a frequently-cited developmental shift from children's use of themes and categories to their use of categories as organizational structures on memory tasks. A series of three studies, each employing different memory tasks, were conducted to examine differences in the associative memory structures of more creative and less creative children in grades 3 and 7. Stimulus words used for the experimental tasks comprised three configural dimensions: within category, within theme, and between category and theme. The expected developmental shift towards increased category usage with age was partially replicated on a sorting task; Grade 3 children used more associations than Grade 7 children, and Grade 7 children used more categories than Grade 3 children. Results obtained on two receptive memory tasks (i.e., associability-rating and association-decision) indicated that the associative memory structures of more creative versus less creative children, as well as older versus younger children, appear to be characterized by many strong within-category associative links, fewer and weaker within-theme associative links, and very few and weak between-category-and-theme associative links. Yet, results obtained on one productive memory task (i.e., recall) revealed that both older more creative children and younger children tend to retain the use of weak between-category-and-theme associative links, whereas older less creative children relinquish these over time. These results suggest that the creative individual's continued ability to access weak between-configuration links from memory accounts in part for his/her ability to generate remote associations. As well, it appears that this ability to generate remote associations occurs not during the encoding stage but during retrieval. This coincides with recent developments in the computational modelling of creative thinking processes. Such developments highlight the creative individual's selection of viable associations among ideas, rather than the generation of associations among ideas per se.
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Mason, Debbie L. "Nonverbal communication and memory in language-impaired children." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1997. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq22864.pdf.
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Wilhelm, Ines [Verfasser]. "Sleep-dependent memory consolidation in children / Ines Wilhelm." Lübeck : Zentrale Hochschulbibliothek Lübeck, 2012. http://d-nb.info/1020114770/34.
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Bablekou, Zoe. "Memory processes in children with specific language difficulties." Thesis, University of Leeds, 1989. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.252961.
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Sterne, Abram. "Phonological awareness, memory, and reading in deaf children." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.284957.
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DIAS, LUCIANA BROOKING TERESA. "MEMORY IN SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN: A NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE." PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO, 2011. http://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/Busca_etds.php?strSecao=resultado&nrSeq=34732@1.
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COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR<br>PROGRAMA DE SUPORTE À PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO DE INSTS. DE ENSINO<br>A memória se apresenta em sistemas distintos e interligados. Ela permite a constituição do sujeito e sua interação com o meio em que vive. Durante o desenvolvimento, mudanças biológicas e comportamentais vão ocorrendo, algumas vezes de forma rápida e outras, lentamente, respeitando a maturação neuronal, a interação social e a cultura em que vive. Nesse contexto, a emoção tem um papel modulador das funções cognitivas, fortalecendo ou enfraquecendo o armazenamento de uma informação, ou seja, influenciando a memória. Seu armazenamento pode ser sensorial, de curto e de longo prazo e ela pode se dividir em estágios (codificação, armazenamento e recuperação) e em tipos (explícita ou declarativa e implícita ou não declarativa). A memória explícita se subdivide em episódica e semântica, a implícita inclui os hábitos e habilidades, e a memória de curto prazo inclui a memória de trabalho. As áreas cerebrais envolvidas são o
hipocampo, lobos frontal e temporal e a amígdala. Há distinção dos sistemas de memória durante o desenvolvimento: bebês reproduzem ações, reconhecem faces e eventos familiares e apresentam memória implícita (que não se altera muito ao longo do desenvolvimento); crianças pré-escolares apresentam uma memória mais sofisticada, organizando melhor as informações; e na fase escolar a memória já se encontra mais desenvolvida. O estudo mostrou que a memória semântica melhora gradualmente com a idade, acompanhando a ampliação de vocabulário; a memória episódica se desenvolve de forma mais pontual; e a memória de trabalho apresenta maturação mais tardia, acompanhando o desenvolvimento das funções executivas.<br>The memory is divided into different systems and interconnected. It allows the creation of the subject and its interaction with the environment in which they live. During the development, behavioral and biological changes are occurring, sometimes quickly and others slowly, respecting the neuronal maturation, social
interaction and culture in which they live. In this aspect, some skills are innate and others, acquired, learned. In this context, emotion plays a modulator of cognitive functions, strengthening or weakening the storage of information, ie, influencing memory. It can present divided into stages (sensory, short term and long term), in steps (encoding, storage and retrieval), and types (declarative or explicit and implicit or non-declarative). The explicit type is subdivided into episodic and semantic, the implicit include the habits and skills, and the short-term memory includes the working memory. The brain areas involved are the hippocampus, frontal and temporal lobes, and amygdale. in the formation of new memories and the recognition and consolidation during learning, and amygdala, allowing storage of the episodes that involve more emotion. There are distinctions in the memory systems during the development: babies reproduce actions, recognize faces and family events and have implicit memory (which does not change much throughout development), preschool children have a more sophisticated memory by organizing the information better; and during school memory is already more developed. The study showed that semantic memory improves gradually with age, following the expansion of vocabulary; episodic memory develops in a more timely, and working memory presents late maturation, following the development
of executive functions.
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Heffernan, Thomas M. "The measurement of working memory capacity in children." Thesis, University of Manchester, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.680200.
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McCormack, Sarah (Sarah Smith). "Memory Functions among Children Irradiated for Brain Tumor." Thesis, University of North Texas, 1995. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc278041/.
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Children who have received radiation therapy for the treatment of brain tumors have been shown to experience neurocognitive deficits which appear to increase over time. The purpose of this study was to examine the memory functioning of 22 children irradiated for brain tumor and 22 healthy children of the same age who had not received irradiation. Subjects were administered a brief form of the WISC-III, to obtain an IQ, and the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML), to evaluate visual and verbal memory. Results indicated that, although there were no significant differences between the IQ scores of healthy children and children who had been irradiated, children who have received radiation therapy for brain tumor evidence memory deficits which effect visual and verbal memory abilities. Among the children who had been irradiated, as time since treatment increased, visual memory and overall memory functioning appeared to decline. Findings also suggested that children who received total tumor resection may evidence greater memory deficits than those who received only a partial resection. Visual memory was more closely related to IQ in the children irradiated for brain tumor than in the healthy children. The overall importance of research with this population lies in refining the understanding of memory deficits and strengths in order to formulate more effective remediation compensation, strategies.
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Childress, Debra M. Reznick J. Steven. "Memory in 3-year-old children with autism." Chapel Hill, N.C. : University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2008. http://dc.lib.unc.edu/u?/etd,2257.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2008.<br>Title from electronic title page (viewed Jun. 26, 2009). "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Psychology Developmental Psychology." Discipline: Psychology; Department/School: Psychology.
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Magimairaj, Beula M. "Attentional mechanisms in children's complex memory span performance." Ohio : Ohio University, 2010. http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/view.cgi?ohiou1267650640.
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Silverman, Andrew Flint. "Disinhibition, memory, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder /." Full text (PDF) from UMI/Dissertation Abstracts International, 2001. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/fullcit?p3055244.
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Thorn, Annabel S. C. "Language specialisation in verbal short-term memory." Thesis, University of Bristol, 1998. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.266906.
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Roe, Katherine V. "Working memory and language development in early childhood /." Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC IP addresses, 2002. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3069224.
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Hick, Rachel Fiona. "Language and memory development in children with Down syndrome and children with specific language impairment." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2003. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.488023.
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Loucks, Jeffery Thomas. "Familiarity and organization of action memory in adults and young children /." Connect to title online (Scholars' Bank) Connect to title online (ProQuest), 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/10231.
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Sugrue, Katrina Joan, and n/a. "False memories produced by children and adults in the DRM paradigm." University of Otago. Department of Psychology, 2006. http://adt.otago.ac.nz./public/adt-NZDU20060523.162905.
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The primary objective of the present thesis was to investigate factors that influence the creation of false memories using the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. The experimental research addressed the effect of age, list length, and list content on the magnitude of the DRM illusion with a view to testing assumptions derived from activation-monitoring theory and Fuzzy Trace Theory. In the first experiment, I wanted to determine whether the DRM paradigm is appropriate for use with New Zealand English-speaking adults. In addition, Experiment 1 was designed to assess the effect of prior recall on recognition performance. To answer these questions, I assigned half of the participants to a recall-plus-recognition condition and the remaining participants to a recognition-only condition. Rates of false recall and recognition were comparable to those reported in the literature, which suggested that the task is suitable for use with New Zealand adults. Furthermore, prior recall enhanced correct recognition but it did not affect false recognition. In Experiment 2, I examined how manipulations of list-length affected children and adults' susceptibility to the DRM illusion. Ten-year-olds and adults studied eight lists of either 7 or 14 words. In the 14-word condition, adults falsely recalled more critical targets than children; however, in the 7-word condition, there was no age difference in false recall. In addition, adults falsely recognised a greater proportion of critical targets than children, however, this effect was not dependent on the length of the study list. In Experiments 3A and 3B, I examined whether presenting highly familiar study materials would enhance children's susceptibility to false memories. Ten-year-old children and adults studied four standard DRM lists, four new lists that centred on 'child-friendly' concepts, such as birthday and school (CF lists), and four lists derived from child word-association norms. In both experiments, there was no age difference in rates of false recall. In addition, presenting material that was deemed more developmentally appropriate did not enhance children's susceptibility to false memories relative to adults. In Experiment 4, I introduced a post-recall phase to examine why the DRM illusion is less likely to occur when short lists are presented and when the materials are child-friendly. During the post-recall phase, participants were asked to report any other words that they had thought of during the presentation or recall of the study lists. Thinking about the target word, but remembering that it had not been presented, could not account for decreased levels of false recall in the short-list condition. Similarly, with the CF lists, it appeared that the list items were less likely to activate the critical target for both children and adults. In the final three experiments, I explored the assumptions outlined in activation-monitoring theory and fuzzy-trace theory to determine which model provided the best account of the findings obtained to date. To explore the activation-monitoring account, children and adults completed word association tasks. To explore fuzzy-trace theory, children and adults were given a gist extraction task where they had to identify the critical targets associated with each list. Collectively, the results of the present thesis fit more comfortably within an activation-monitoring framework than they do within the fuzzy-trace framework. Although the precise mechanisms underlying the DRM illusion have yet to be elucidated, the present findings suggest that gist extraction, activation processes, and source monitoring each play a substantial role in mediating false memory levels.
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Tverin, Tea Marika. "Giving children a chance to be children : care, memory and identity in the countryside." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10871/18165.
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Care has seldom been linked with memory and the natural environment. Moreover young people have been largely absent from geographical explorations of memory and memories. This research seeks, in part, to fill these gaps by examining young people's memories and memory formation within frameworks of care and the natural environment. More specifically this research provides insights into socially and economically marginalised young people's memory processes as well as the multiple emotional geographies that are created in an affective web of care, other people and the natural environment. This thesis provides an original, critical examination of a third sector charitable organisation Country Holidays for Inner City Kids (CHICKS) and their respite breaks for disadvantaged young people between 8-15 years of age. 26 young people who attended CHICKS were interviewed in addition to multiple staff members, volunteers and referral agents. Additionally exhaustive observations were carried out on 17 different respite breaks. This thesis has three research aims. Firstly it sets out to examine how care experiences shape memory formation at CHICKS. Secondly, it explores how care produces space, particularly in the natural environment. And thirdly it examines what kind of emotional geographies does care produce. First and foremost this thesis contributes into geographies of care. Furthermore, it ties care into other scholarly niches. It offers a somewhat novel conceptualisation of nature as a space of care: a therapeutic landscape that extends beyond literal connections between the physical environment and feelings of well-being. This research also contributes to the geographical research on care and memory by integrating young people in such research, as well as by suggesting that memories can become a vessel for well-being. Overall, the unique research arena makes this an original piece of work thus adding knowledge to geographies of care on affective, methodological and theoretical levels. This research demonstrates flat ontology of care, fun, geographies of love and the natural environment can open up transformative spaces where identity processes and the self can be processed and re-processed. Ultimately, this all makes it possible for memory and memories to become an intervention; a tool against adversity that allows the young person to go to a better mental and emotional place.
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Chan, Yu-pang Simon. "Phonological working memory and sentence comprehension in preschool children." Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 1996. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B36209259.
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Thesis (B.Sc)--University of Hong Kong, 1996.<br>"A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science (Speech and Hearing Sciences), The University of Hong Kong, April 29, 1996." Also available in print.
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Kwok, Yee-tak Esther. "Phonological working memory and speech production in preschool children." Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 1996. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B36209284.
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Thesis (B.Sc)--University of Hong Kong, 1996.<br>"A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science (Speech and Hearing Sciences), The University of Hong Kong, April 29, 1996." Also available in print.
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Stanutz, Sandy. "Pitch discrimination and melodic memory in children with autism." Thesis, McGill University, 2010. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=86728.
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Objective: The current research indicates that those with autism have an excellent memory for pitch. Persons with autism have better pitch discrimination and memory for individual notes. The purpose of this study was extend this research in school aged children, comparing pitch discrimination and melodic memory of children with autism to that of typically developing children.<br>Method: Twenty-five children with autism between the ages of 8-12 and 25 typically developing children within the same age range participated in the study. Children completed pitch discrimination tasks in two differing contexts. In one context, children were asked to indicate whether two pitches were the same or different when the two pitches were either the same or one note of the pair had been altered so that it was 25, 35, or 45-cents sharp or flat. In the other context, children were asked to discriminate whether two melodies were the same or different when the leading tone of each melody was either the same or had been altered so that it was 25, 35, or 45-cents sharp or flat. In addition, children were also asked to recall melodies one week after they were paired with pictures during a familiarization task. All the tasks in the study were formatted on computer.<br>Results: Children with autism outperformed typically developing children in both pitch discrimination contexts. Children with autism were superior to typically developing children when remembering melodies one week after they had been paired with animal pictures.<br>Conclusion: Children with autism demonstrated better pitch discrimination and melodic memory than typically developing children. These abilities may be genetic, as the majority of the participants in the study had limited music training. Alternatively, these abilities could be reflective of a different developmental process in the auditory modality of children with autism whereby developmental differences in auditory perceptions may be adaptive in some musical contexts.<br>Objectif: Les recherches actuelles démontrent que les personnes autistiques discernent mieux la hauteur des sons et ont une meilleure mémoire des sons individuels. La présente étude vise à étendre la recherche aux enfants d'âge scolaire en comparant, chez les enfants autistiques par rapport aux enfants qui se développent normalement, le discernement de la hauteur des sons et la mémoire mélodique.<br>Méthodologie: Vingt-cinq enfants autistiques ainsi que 25 enfants ayant un développement normal, tous âgés de 8 à 12 ans, ont participé à l'étude. Placés dans deux contextes différents, les enfants ont effectué des tâches faisant appel à leur capacité de discerner la hauteur des sons. Dans le premier contexte, les enfants devaient indiquer si deux sons étaient semblables ou différents lorsque les deux sons étaient les mêmes ou lorsque l'un d'eux avait été modifié pour être plus aigu ou plus bas de 25, 35, ou 45-cents. Dans l'autre contexte, les enfants devaient dire si deux sons mélodies étaient les memes ou si elles étaient différentes lorsque chacune des melodies étaient la mêmes ou si elles étaient différentes lorsque la sensible de chacune des melodies étaient soit la même, soit qu'elle avait été modifiée pour être plus aigue ou plus basse de 25, 35, ou 45-cents. En outre, les enfants devaient aussi se remémorer des mélodies qui, la semaine précédente, avaient été associées à des images d'animaux au cours d'une tâche de familiarsation. Toutes les tâches accomplies par les enfants au cours de l'étude ont été effectuées sur ordinateur.<br>Résultats: Les enfants autistiques ont mieux réussis que les enfants ayant un développement normal et, cela, dans les deux contextes de discernment de la hauteur des sons. Ils ont aussi été supérieurs lorsqu'il a fallu se remémorer des melodies une semaine après qu'elles eurent été associés à des images d'animaux.<br>Conclusions: Les enfants autistiques ont démontré que leur jugement de la hauteur des sons et et leur mémoire mélodique étaient meilleurs que ceux des enfants ayant un développement normal. Ces habiletés pourraient être innées étant donné que la majorité des participants á l'étude avaient une formation musicale limitée. Par ailleurs, ces habiletés pourraient être le signe d'un processus développemental different des attributs auditifs des enfants autistiques, ces différences développementales des perceptions auditives pouvent comporter une capacité d'adaptation à certains contextes musicaux.
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MacSweeney, Mairead Finola. "The development of short-term memory in deaf children." Thesis, University College London (University of London), 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.313653.
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Adams, Anne-Marie. "Phonological working memory and speech production in young children." Thesis, University of Bristol, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.283918.
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Alcantara, Helene Deborah-Lynne. "Characteristic Memory Functions in Subtypes of Arithmetic Disabled Children." Thesis, University of North Texas, 1994. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc277591/.
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West, Gillian. "Procedural and declarative memory and language ability in children." Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2018. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10046062/.
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Impaired procedural learning has been suggested as a possible cause of developmental language disorder and dyslexia (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2007; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005). However, studies investigating this hypothesis have so far delivered inconsistent results. These studies typically use extreme group designs, frequently with small sample sizes and measures of procedural learning with unreported reliability. This thesis first used a meta-analysis to examine the existing evidence for a procedural deficit in language disorders. The experimental studies then took a different approach to previous studies, using a concurrent correlational design to test large samples of children unselected for ability on a wide range of implicit (serial reaction time, Hebb serial learning, contextual cueing and probabilistic category learning) and declarative learning tasks and literacy, language and arithmetic attainment measures. The reliability of the tasks was also carefully assessed. A final study explored the hypothesis from an extreme group design perspective, comparing a typically developing sample with a group of dyslexic children matched for reading ability. None of the studies found evidence of a relationship between procedural learning and language-related abilities. By contrast, a relationship between verbal declarative learning and attainment was found replicating earlier studies. Crucially, the first large-scale study showed that procedural learning tasks of a similar length to those typically used in earlier studies had unacceptably low reliability and correlated poorly with each other and with attainment. The second large-scale study, used extended procedural learning tasks that had proved reliable in adults, but found similar low levels of reliability in children. Additionally, the level of attention children paid during these extended tasks accounted entirely for the relationship between procedural learning and attainment. The results in this thesis highlight the importance of establishing task reliability, as well as considering the potential effects of individual differences in basic cognitive processes such as attention in all investigations of procedural learning.
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Ivarsson, Magnus, and Stefan Strohmayer. "Working memory training improves arithmetic skills and verbal working memory capacity in children with ADHD." Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Psykologiska institutionen, 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-49618.
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Children with ADHD diagnosis often display working memory deficits, as well as reading and mathematical disabilities. Previous studies have demonstrated that computerized working memory training (WMT) is a promising intervention. The present study aimed at exploring the effects of WMT on working memory, scholastic skills and behavioral symptoms in children with ADHD. Thirty-two children, aged 6 to 11, were randomized to WMT or a control condition. WMT consisted of nine tasks taxing working memory with adaptive difficulty level. All children trained in their homes, with their parents acting as supervisors. Children who completed more than 20 days of training in 5-8 weeks (8 in the WMT condition and 13 in the control condition) were considered compliers. Assessments were conducted before and after intervention. Results indicated that WMT lead to significant gains of verbal working memory and arithmetic skills. More research is needed to further investigate the effects of WMT.
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Robertson, Chuck Lewis. "An examination of processing resource and knowledge structure contributions to memory for younger and older adults across a range of performance levels." Diss., Available online, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2004:, 2004. http://etd.gatech.edu/theses/available/etd-06072004-131344/unrestricted/robertson%5Fchuck%5F200405%5Fphd.pdf.
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Baxter, James Storrie. "Children as eyewitnesses : a developmental study." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 1988. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk/R?func=search-advanced-go&find_code1=WSN&request1=AAIU009390.
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There is evidence that a sizeable proportion of adults distrust children's testimony. An analysis of individual expressions of this distrust suggests that it is based on four main ideas. These are that there are age trends in the reliability of children's testimony such that: firstly, the tendency to confabulate, or recall on the basis of what was probable rather than on what was seen, decreases with age; secondly, the tendency to confuse fact with fantasy decreases with age; thirdly, the tendency uncritically to accept misinformation about a witnessed event after the event decreases with age, and finally, susceptibility to social pressures which may distort testimony decreases with age. The experiments reported in this thesis were designed to test these hypotheses. Only the final hypothesis was supported in its simplest form, and even this hypothesis was not supported if subjects had already committed themselves to an account of the details of an event, prior to being exposed to social pressures on these details. These findings suggest that age is an unreliable predictor of distortions in children's event recall, and that problems with children's testimony may be specific to situations rather than to particular age groups. The results of the experiments are compared with traditional ideas about child witnesses, and the idea that it may be possible to enhance the reliability of children's testimony is considered.
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Guger, Sharon L. "Implicit and explicit memory in children with moderate closed head injuries." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2000. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ56232.pdf.
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Calderón, Janet. "Working memory in Spanish-English bilinguals with language impairment /." Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2003. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3099983.
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Turner, Kimberly Ann. "Deliberate Memory in Three-Year-Old Children: Interrelations among Task Approaches, Working Memory, and Inhibitory Control." NCSU, 2008. http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/theses/available/etd-03242008-181800/.
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Preschool children are capable of displaying strategies in memory tasks and demonstrating an early understanding of memorization (e. g., Wellman, 1988; Baker-Ward, Ornstein, & Holden, 1984). Questions remain, however, about the origins of strategic behavior in early childhood. A great deal of recent attention has been devoted to the interrelations among working memory and measures of executive functioning/inhibitory control in elementary-school children (e.g., Schneider, Schumann-Hengsteler, & Sodian, 2005). The goal of this investigation was to extend this work to preschool children in order to examine possible influences on the emergence of deliberate remembering. Specifically, interrelations among working memory, inhibitory control, and deliberate task approaches were examined in 168 three-year-olds who participated in a large-scale, broadly-focused investigation of development, the Durham Child Health and Development Study. Although predicted relations among multiple domains of cognitive functioning were not observed, important findings did emerge. Previous results examining the use of deliberate task approaches were replicated in a more diverse and younger sample. Support for the presence of deliberate remembering in young preschoolers was found in a significant positive relation between language ability and the extent of deliberate task approaches. Finally, an unexpected relation between deliberate task approaches and subsequent recall performance was found; this result is discussed in relation to Utilization Deficiency. Implications for understanding some of the contributors to the emergence of deliberate remembering are presented, and directions for future research are discussed.
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Wilson, Sheryl Lee. "A neuropsychological investigation of the memory skills of learning-disabled children compared to normal children." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/184900.
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Memory is a complex cognitive process which has been widely researched within the field of neuropsychology. In clinical studies of adults, the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) is widely used. At this time there is no comparable clinical tool within the child literature pertaining to memory. There are studies which have extended the age limits of the WMS, but the youngest sample ranged from 10 to 14 years of age. The present research was conducted in two studies. The first study concerns the development of a memory scale for use with children aged six to twelve. This scale, Wilson's Adapted Memory Scale for Children (WAMS-C), was constructed utilizing the basic structure and subtests of the WMS. The scale was administered to 33 normal children, ranging in age from 6 to 12 years. It was hypothesized that the scale would reflect the developmental nature of memory as well as the relationship between memory and intelligence. The second study compared the memory skills of a learning disabled (LD) sample of children to those of a sample of normal learning (NL) children. A specific profile of academic achievement was used to define the LD children who participated in this study. (Reading and Spelling impaired, and relatively better Arithmetic skills). Research conducted by Rourke and his associates identified this subtype of LD children and provided predictions pertaining to their differential performance on verbal and visual tasks. The WAMS-C contains both verbal and visual memory tasks. It was predicted that these children would (1) do less well than NL children on the memory scale and (2) that these LD children would be impaired on the verbal memory portion of the WAMS-C, compared to NL children, but would exhibit equivalent performance on the visual memory tasks. The results of the studies showed the WAMS-C to reflect the developmental nature of memory and the relationship with intelligence. Also, LD children had significantly lower scores on the WAMS-C. However, neither the verbal or visual subtests differentiated between groups. Rather, subtests which may reflect short-term memory deficits and/or attentional problems appeared responsible for the differences found.
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Duis, Sandra S. "Differential performances on the wide range assessment of memory and learning of children diagnosed with reading disorder, attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and traumatic brain injury." Virtual Press, 1997. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1063200.
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The purpose of this investigation was to compare the performances on the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML; Sheslow & Adams, 1990) of children with different developmental and neurological disorders. The primary question was whether the WRAML subtests significantly differentiate among children with Developmental Reading Disorders (RD; n = 44), with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; n = 37), with Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI; n = 30), and without developmental or neurological disabilities (n = 103). Archival data from the TBI Project at James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children and from the Division of Psychology at Alfred I. duPont Institute was analyzed. The results of a discriminant functions analysis indicated that significant differences among the groups do exist on the WRAML and that the groups were discriminated from one another by three distinct types of tasks (i.e., functions): rote memory, verbal learning, and meaningful memory. Furthermore, based on WRAML performance alone, participants had a 63% chance of being classified into their proper diagnostic group. In addition to supporting the use of multi-dimensional tasks to assess memory, the results of this study have clinical relevance for developing diagnosis-specific recommendations for memory and learning problems.<br>Department of Educational Psychology
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Burch, Richard Kenneth. "THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENGLISH PROFICIENCY AND DIGIT SPAN PERFORMANCE IN MEXICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/184047.
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The digit span test has long been used in the study and evaluation of memory processes in children. The study of memory processes in bilingual children has received only limited attention. The purpose of the present study was to examine the influences of bilingual interference, English proficiency, and item familiarity on a task of short-term memory. One-hundred nineteen third grade subjects were assigned to one of four groups based on their language background and ethnicity. Subjects were administered the Digit Span subtest from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised in English as well as a test of general ability, the Coloured Progressive Matrices, and a reaction time measure, item identification. The data were analyzed using ANOVA and multiple regression procedures. Results showed that Mexican-American bilingual subjects who were proficient in English performed comparably to monolingual Mexican-American subjects. These results were discussed in terms of their support for the dual storage and independence positions of bilingual memory. Results of the data analysis also revealed a small but significant direct causal link between English proficiency level and digit span. This finding was discussed in terms of its support for the use of digit span measures with bilingual Mexican-American children providing the students have been determined to be proficient in English on a standardized measure. A final finding of the present study concerned the absence of a role for item familiarity as an intervening variable between English proficiency level and digit span. Results showed a direct association between English proficiency level and reaction time, but no significant association between reaction time and digit span. Implications of the current findings were discussed in relation to relevant theory and prior research findings.
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Balcomb, Frances Katherine. "Does Implicit Metacognition Provide a Tool for Self-Guided Learning in Preschool Children?" Diss., The University of Arizona, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/193765.
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The study of developmental metacognition was originally proposed as a way to better understand memory, by elucidating the processes that act upon and therefore affect it. Much research has been conducted to examine the nature of metacognitive processes, and the interaction between metacognitive judgments and learning behavior in adults. Developmental research has demonstrated that there is a strong developmental trend, such that metacognitive abilities emerge at age four years at the earliest and mature until adulthood. However, this estimate raises a potential paradox, given young children's excellent learning abilities, if monitoring and differentially responding to changes in internal states of knowledge is an important component of learning. This dissertation proposes that metacognitive processes, like memory-monitoring, rather than being distinct from and externally operating on core cognitive process, may be intrinsically linked to basic cognitive functions, arising naturally as a result of processing. By this account, metacognitive abilities emerge in implicit form early in development along with other developing cognitive functions like memory, and what is observed later as the emergence of metacognition may rather be the transition from an implicit and undifferentiated process to an explicit and more readily testable process. This dissertation presents six experiments exploring the relationship between memory-monitoring in non-human animals, preschool children, and adults, using a non-verbal paradigm adapted from comparative literature. Participants learned a set of visual paired-associates, and at test were given the option to selectively accept or decline a memory trial for each item. Accuracy for accepted items was significantly higher than for declined in children and there was a similar tendency with adults, suggesting implicit memory-monitoring skills. Additionally, a relationship between memory-monitoring assessments and other cognitive processes was found, suggesting that memory-monitoring does not function independently of other cognitions. The results suggest that children may have implicit access to internal knowledge states at very young ages, providing an explanation for how they are able to guide learning, even as infants. Further the results suggest that the relationship between metacognitive and other cognitive skills may be rather more dynamic and complex than has typically been described.
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Randall, Lee. "Evaluating the utility of working memory training programmes for children." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2016. https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/evaluating-the-utility-of-working-memory-training-programmes-for-children(cb53427b-2946-4e55-b28d-75db70dc41cb).html.
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The literature suggests working memory can have a significant effect on children's academic success. A number of working memory training programmes have been developed as tools for helping children to boost their working memory and learning ability. The reliability and validity of this body of evidence has been challenged recently with questions raised as to whether such programmes actually do boost working memory or show any subsequent impact upon learning. The thesis contains an evaluative systematic review examining eight studies from the last decade that explore the effects of working memory training on working memory, literacy and numeracy. The review found significant near and far transfer effects for improvements to working memory with differences in the pattern of these improvements. The assertion that working memory training leads to improvements in other areas such as literacy and numeracy is also challenged. The thesis also contains an examination of the efficacy of a paired whole class working memory intervention in delivering improvements in the working memory, literacy and numeracy skills of primary aged school children. The pre-experimental design tested the impact of the intervention on the working memory, literacy and numeracy of a sample of forty-one Year 4 children. The data demonstrated a significant positive immediate effect of the programme on verbal working memory recall and processing and visual-spatial working memory processing and recall. No significant immediate effects of the programme were found on numeracy or literacy. Finally a critical appraisal of concepts of evidence based practice and a review of the literature regarding the dissemination of research and notions of research impact is presented. The implications of the current research for professional practice is explored in terms of the care that must be taken by educational professionals in offering up working memory training programmes as solutions to academic underachievement in children.
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McLean, Janet F. "Working memory differences in children with specific difficulties in arithmetic." Thesis, Lancaster University, 1998. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.302420.
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Broadley, Irene. "Teaching short term memory skills to children with Down's syndrome." Thesis, University of Portsmouth, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.387268.
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Landsiedel, Julia. "Prospective memory in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder." Thesis, University of Kent, 2017. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/66668/.
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Prospective memory (PM) or memory for delayed intentions refers to the ability to remember to carry out a planned intention at an appropriate moment in the future. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by a cognitive profile of strengths and weaknesses, which suggest that PM may be a challenge for individuals with this condition. A small group of studies investigating PM in ASD have produced heterogeneous evidence. Thus, the aim of this thesis was to advance our understanding of PM abilities in ASD. Based on a meta-analysis as well as a thorough review of the existing literature, the experiments in this thesis targeted two main questions. (1) What underpins time-based PM problems in ASD and how could they be addressed? (2) Is event-based PM in ASD impaired or spared? The findings in this thesis indicate that ASD is characterised by time-based PM impairments, which were related to executive functioning, on the one hand, whereas on the other hand event-based PM abilities remain spared. The theoretical and practical implications of these results, as well as directions for future research are discussed.
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Ferner, Harriet. "Overgeneral autobiographical memory in children and adolescents exposed to trauma." Thesis, King's College London (University of London), 2013. https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/overgeneral-autobiographical-memory-in-children-and-adolescents-exposed-to-trauma(229913da-005c-4653-98d6-1d60678d491a).html.
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Background and Aims: Early posttraumatic stress reactions are distressing and disabling for a significant minority of children and young people. We aimed to explore the relationship between posttraumatic stress reactions, cognitive variables implicated by an adult cognitive model of PTSD (Ehlers & Clark, 2000), and overgeneral autobiographical memory; a phenomenon linked to depression and trauma in adults, but rarely explored in children. Methods: Emergency department attendees (aged 8-18) and their parents were interviewed 2-6 weeks post-trauma. Children completed a diagnostic interview for acute stress disorder (ASD), and self-report depression and posttraumatic stress symptom severity questionnaires. Established statistical predictors of posttrauatmic stress reactions were measured using child and parent self-report questionnaires. The Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) (Williams & Broadbent, 1986) was used to assess overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM). Results: Among participants (N=43), 30.2% met ASD diagnostic criteria. Using step-wise linear regression analysis; avoidance, negative appraisals and, to a lesser extent, rumination accounted for over two-thirds of the variance of posttraumatic stress symptom severity scores in our sample. Rumination and to a lesser extent negative appraisals together accounted for 80% of the variance of scores in depression severity scores. AMT performance did not contribute significantly to these models. However, those with greater depression symptom severity retrieved fewer specific memories in response to positive cue words on the AMT (p = .022). Parental anxiety and depression did not significantly differ between ASD and non-ASD groups. Findings regarding prior emotional and behavioural difficulties were mixed. Conclusions: Avoidance, negative appraisals and rumination, variables identified in adult cognitive models relate to early responses to trauma in children. Overgeneral autobiographical memory appears less important in this respect, but findings remain tentative at this stage.
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Westwell, Nikki. "Autobiographical memory, emotional intelligence, emotion focusing and depression in children." Thesis, Bangor University, 2006. https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/autobiographical-memory-emotional-intelligence-emotion-focusing-and-depression-in-children(7bb7083c-464b-419c-8a31-a39e4d381070).html.
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The link between overgeneral autobiographical memory (ANI) and depression has been well established in adults and in limited research on adolescents. Major theories propose that overgeneral AM is a consequence of childhood trauma, serving to minimise negative affect associated with aversive memories. The body of research in the area tends to support the premise that overgeneral ANI function as a short-term protective factor against memories of distressing experiences. However, in tile longer term, it may interact with other mechanisms such as rumination, social problem solving and working memory capacity, resulting in Vulnerability to depression. Understanding the developmental course of overgeneral AM in people Suffering from depression is important in the design and implementation of interventions for both children and adults suffering with depressed mood. This large-scale research project reviewed and critically evaluated studies on autobiographical memory across the lifespan in the context of the models of AM such as the Affect Regulation Hypothesis and Working Memory Capacity theories of Williams (1996). The aim of the current study was to explore the relationships between measures of AM, depressed mood, emotional intelligence and a new paradigm known as emotion focusing, in a non-clinical sample of 58 primary school age children. No statistically significant relationships were found between the constructs and children categorised as high and low in depression did not differ significantly on any of the measures suggesting that overgeneral AM may not be associated with depression in this age group. An analysis of effect sizes indicated that more depressed children may become increasingly reliant on an overgeneral retrieval style with age. This finding is potentially clinically meaningful and worthy of discussion. Limitations of the research and directions for future investigation, particularly those including longitudinal designs, are discussed. In addition, the theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.