Academic literature on the topic 'Measles hemagglutinin gene'

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Journal articles on the topic "Measles hemagglutinin gene"

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Bianchi, Silvia, Marta Canuti, Giulia Ciceri, Maria Gori, Daniela Colzani, Marco Dura, Beatrice Marina Pennati, et al. "Molecular Epidemiology of B3 and D8 Measles Viruses through Hemagglutinin Phylogenetic History." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 12 (June 22, 2020): 4435. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124435.

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Of the 24 known measles genotypes, only D8 and B3 are responsible for outbreaks in the last years in Europe, Asia, and America. In this study the H gene of 92 strains circulating between 2015 and 2019 in Lombardy, Northern Italy, and 1273 H sequences available in GenBank were analyzed in order to evaluate the genetic variability and to assess the conservation of the immunodominant sites. Overall, in Lombardy we observed the presence of four different B3 and three different D8 clusters, each one of them including sequences derived from viruses found in both vaccinated and unvaccinated subjects. Worldwide, the residue 400 within the H protein, a position located within the main immune epitope, is mutated in all circulating strains that belong to the two globally endemic genotypes, B3 and D8. Our data demonstrate the usefulness of measles virus (MV) H gene sequencing. Indeed, the monitoring the H protein epitopes of circulating strains could be included in the measles laboratory surveillance activities in order to improve and optimize strategies for measles control, as countries go towards elimination phase.
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Cardoso, Alicia I., Nathalie Sixt, Agnes Vallier, Joel Fayolle, Robin Buckland, and T. Fabian Wild. "Measles Virus DNA Vaccination: Antibody Isotype Is Determined by the Method of Immunization and by the Nature of both the Antigen and the Coimmunized Antigen." Journal of Virology 72, no. 3 (March 1, 1998): 2516–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.72.3.2516-2518.1998.

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ABSTRACT Plasmids encoding the measles virus hemagglutinin (HA) and nucleoprotein (NP) proteins inoculated into the skin of BALB/c mice by the gene gun method induced both humoral and cytotoxic lymphocyte class I-restrict- ed immune responses. Although intramuscular immunization induces the immunoglobulin G2a (IgG2a) antibody isotype for both antigens, with gene gun immunization, the NP still generated mainly IgG2a and the major isotype induced by the HA was IgG1. Interestingly, gene gun coimmunization of HA and NP plasmids resulted in a dominant IgG1 HA response and the switching of antibodies generated against the NP to the IgG1 isotype.
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Saitoh, Mika, Makoto Takeda, Koichi Gotoh, Fumihiko Takeuchi, Tsuyoshi Sekizuka, Makoto Kuroda, Katsumi Mizuta, et al. "Molecular Evolution of Hemagglutinin (H) Gene in Measles Virus Genotypes D3, D5, D9, and H1." PLoS ONE 7, no. 11 (November 29, 2012): e50660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050660.

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Harvala, Heli, Åsa Wiman, Anders Wallensten, Katherina Zakikhany, Hélène Englund, and Maria Brytting. "Role of Sequencing the Measles Virus Hemagglutinin Gene and Hypervariable Region in the Measles Outbreak Investigations in Sweden During 2013–2014." Journal of Infectious Diseases 213, no. 4 (September 7, 2015): 592–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv434.

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Ciceri, G., M. Canuti, S. Bianchi, M. Gori, A. Piralla, D. Colzani, M. Libretti, et al. "Genetic variability of the measles virus hemagglutinin gene in B3 genotype strains circulating in Northern Italy." Infection, Genetics and Evolution 75 (November 2019): 103943. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2019.103943.

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Lingyun, Li, and Qi Yipeng. "Measles virus (Nepal strain) hemagglutinin gene: Cloning, complete nucleotide sequence analysis and expression in COS cells." Wuhan University Journal of Natural Sciences 3, no. 3 (September 1998): 377–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02829998.

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Qi, Yuan, Kailin Xing, Lanlin Zhang, Fangyu Zhao, Ming Yao, Aiqun Hu, and Xianghua Wu. "Protective immunity elicited by measles vaccine exerts anti-tumor effects on measles virus hemagglutinin gene-modified cancer cells in a mouse model." Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology 144, no. 10 (August 6, 2018): 1945–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00432-018-2720-7.

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Zhou, Nan, Mingma Li, Yue Huang, Lu Zhou, and Bei Wang. "Genetic Characterizations and Molecular Evolution of the Measles Virus Genotype B3’s Hemagglutinin (H) Gene in the Elimination Era." Viruses 13, no. 10 (September 30, 2021): 1970. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13101970.

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Measles virus (MeV) genotype B3 is one globally significant circulating genotype. Here, we present a systematic description of long-term evolutionary characterizations of the MeV genotype B3’s hemagglutinin (H) gene in the elimination era. Our results show that the B3 H gene can be divided into two main sub-genotypes, and the highest intra-genotypic diversity was observed in 2004. MeV genotype B3’s H gene diverged in 1976; its overall nucleotide substitution rate is estimated to be 5.697 × 10−4 substitutions/site/year, and is slowing down. The amino acid substitution rate of genotype B3’s H gene is also decreasing, and the mean effective population size has been in a downward trend since 2000. Selection pressure analysis only recognized a few sites under positive selection, and the number of positive selection sites is getting smaller. All of these observations may reveal that genotype B3’s H gene is not under strong selection pressure, and is becoming increasingly conservative. MeV H-gene or whole-genome sequencing should be routine, so as to better elucidate the molecular epidemiology of MeV in the future.
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Durbin, Anna P., Mario H. Skiadopoulos, Josephine M. McAuliffe, Jeffrey M. Riggs, Sonja R. Surman, Peter L. Collins, and Brian R. Murphy. "Human Parainfluenza Virus Type 3 (PIV3) Expressing the Hemagglutinin Protein of Measles Virus Provides a Potential Method for Immunization against Measles Virus and PIV3 in Early Infancy." Journal of Virology 74, no. 15 (August 1, 2000): 6821–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.74.15.6821-6831.2000.

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ABSTRACT Recombinant human parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3) was used as a vector to express the major protective antigen of measles virus, the hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein, in order to create a bivalent PIV3-measles virus that can be administered intranasally. The measles virus HA open reading frame (ORF) was inserted as an additional transcriptional unit into the N-P, P-M, or HA-neuraminidase (HN)-L gene junction of wild-type PIV3 or into the N-P or P-M gene junction of an attenuated derivative of PIV3, termed rcp45L. The recombinant PIV3 (rPIV3) viruses bearing the HA inserts replicated more slowly in vitro than their parental viruses but reached comparable peak titers of ≥107.5 50% tissue culture infective doses per ml. Each of the wild-type or cold-passaged 45L (cp45L) PIV3(HA) chimeric viruses replicated 5- to 10-fold less well than its respective parent virus in the upper respiratory tract of hamsters. Thus, insertion of the ∼2-kb ORF itself conferred attenuation, and this attenuation was additive to that conferred by thecp45L mutations. The attenuated cp45L PIV3(HA) recombinants induced a high level of resistance to replication of PIV3 challenge virus in hamsters and induced very high levels of measles virus neutralizing antibodies (>1:8,000) that are well in excess of those known to be protective in humans. rPIV3s expressing the HA gene in the N-P or P-M junction induced about 400-fold more measles virus-neutralizing antibody than did the rPIV3 with the HA gene in the HN-L junction, indicating that the N-P or P-M junction appears to be the preferred insertion site. Previous studies indicated that the PIV3cp45 virus, a more attenuated version of rcp45L, replicates efficiently in the respiratory tract of monkeys and is immunogenic and protective even when administered in the presence of very high titers of passively transferred PIV3 antibodies (A. P. Durbin, C. J. Cho, W. R. Elkins, L. S. Wyatt, B. Moss, and B. R. Murphy, J. Infect. Dis. 179:1345–1351, 1999). This suggests that this intranasally administered PIV3(HA) chimeric virus can be used to immunize infants with maternally acquired measles virus antibodies in whom the current parenterally administered live measles virus vaccine is ineffective.
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Schneider, Urs, Frances Bullough, Sompong Vongpunsawad, Stephen J. Russell, and Roberto Cattaneo. "Recombinant Measles Viruses Efficiently Entering Cells through Targeted Receptors." Journal of Virology 74, no. 21 (November 1, 2000): 9928–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.74.21.9928-9936.2000.

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ABSTRACT We sought proof of principle that one of the safest human vaccines, measles virus Edmonston B (MV-Edm), can be genetically modified to allow entry via cell surface molecules other than its receptor CD46. Hybrid proteins consisting of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) or the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) linked to the extracellular (carboxyl) terminus of the MV-Edm attachment protein hemagglutinin (H) were produced. The standard H protein gene was replaced by one coding for H/EGF or H/IGF1 in cDNA copies of the MV genome. Recombinant viruses were rescued and replicated to titers approaching those of the parental strain. MV displaying EGF or IGF1 efficiently entered CD46-negative rodent cells expressing the human EGF or the IGF1 receptor, respectively, and the EGF virus caused extensive syncytium formation and cell death. Taking advantage of a factor Xa protease recognition site engineered in the hybrid H proteins, the displayed domain was cleaved off from virus particles, and specific entry in rodent cells was abrogated. These studies prove that MV can be engineered to selectively eliminate cells expressing a targeted receptor and provide insights into the mechanism of MV entry.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Measles hemagglutinin gene"

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CICERI, GIULIA. "APPROCCI MOLECOLARI E BIOINFORMATICI INNOVATIVI PER STUDI DI EPIDEMIOLOGIA MOLECOLARE DEL MORBILLO NELL'AMBITO DEL WHO EUROPEAN REGION MEASLES STRATEGIC PLAN 2010-2020." Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Milano, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/2434/699852.

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INTRODUZIONE. Il morbillo è una malattia esantematica estremamente contagiosa trasmissibile per via aerea causata da un virus della famiglia Paramyxoviridae, genere Morbillivirus. L’infezione spesso è causa di complicanze severe e decessi, è prevenibile con la vaccinazione e presenta i requisiti per l’eliminazione. L’Italia fa parte dei 12 paesi europei dove la trasmissione del morbillo è ancora endemica. Il Global Measles and Rubella Strategic Plan 2012 – 2020 ha fissato il goal di eliminazione del morbillo endemico nella Regione Europea dell’OMS. Per raggiungere tale obiettivo è necessario ottenere e mantenere coperture vaccinali elevate (>95%) e disporre di un sistema di sorveglianza sensibile e di qualità. La sorveglianza molecolare del morbillo è una componente chiave della verifica dell'eliminazione del morbillo endemico ed è uno strumento cruciale sia per stabilire eventuali link epidemiologici tra casi che si verificano nello stesso periodo in una determinata area geografica sia per identificare le possibili fonti di importazione. Con il progredire del programma di eliminazione, la diversità genetica dei ceppi di morbillo circolanti diminuisce. I continui viaggi aerei e la facilità di scambi tra i paesi favoriscono le importazioni in una determinata area geografica di varianti virali appartenenti allo stesso genotipo. In questo contesto, i tradizionali metodi di laboratorio non consentono di distinguere la trasmissione endemica da eventi di importazione delle stesse varianti virali. Con il progredire del programma di vaccinazione, inoltre, una quota sempre più alta di casi di morbillo si verifica in soggetti vaccinati. Le nuove e avanzate tecnologie devono quindi permette di ampliare le conoscenze su questi aspetti e consentire di identificare ceppi potenzialmente in grado di eludere la risposta immunitaria. SCOPO. Scopo del presente progetto di dottorato è quello di studiare e sorvegliare nel tempo l’epidemiologia molecolare del morbillo in vista dell’obiettivo di eliminazione, attraverso lo sviluppo e l’utilizzo di metodologie innovative molecolari e bioinformatiche. La ricerca pertanto si propone di combinare il metodo epidemiologico tradizionale con le tecniche molecolari e bioinformatiche che la nuova era offre. Un ulteriore obiettivo è stato quello di studiare casi confermati di morbillo in soggetti precedentemente vaccinati, al fine di valutare il fallimento vaccinale e identificare eventuali mutanti escape a livello del gene H. MATERIALI E METODI. Sono stati analizzati i campioni biologici provenienti da pazienti con diagnosi sospetta di morbillo raccolti nell’ambito della Sistema di Sorveglianza Integrata Morbillo e Rosolia della Regione Lombardia (rete MoRoNET), da marzo 2017 a luglio 2019. I campioni sono stati sottoposti a estrazione dell'RNA e a test di Real Time RT-PCR per l’identificazione del genoma del virus del morbillo. Tutti i campioni risultati positivi sono stati sottoposti a retrotrascrizione e a successiva amplificazione genica della regione N-450 del virus del morbillo mediante nested RT-PCR per la caratterizzazione genotipica. Campioni di interesse (N=50) sono stati sottoposti ad amplificazione del gene virale H mediante due emi-nested PCR e ad amplificazione dell’intero genoma attraverso l’utilizzo di specifiche coppie di primer per l’amplificazione di 10 frammenti parzialmente sovrapposti. Gli amplificati sono stati sequenziati e sono state analizzate filogeneticamente le sequenze N-450, N-450/H e l’intero genoma attraverso diversi programmi bioinformatici (ClustalX2, BioEdit, MEGA7) per le valutazioni filogenetiche. Lo studio dei casi vaccinati è stato condotto attraverso l’analisi dei dati sierologici ottenuti dal database del laboratorio di riferimento regionale; in aggiunta, è stata analizzata la sequenza amminoacidica (ottenuta tramite la conversione delle sequenze nucleotidiche grazie al programma BioEdit) della proteina H di 7 casi vaccinati e di 80 casi non vaccinati come gruppo controllo. I dati anagrafici, clinici ed epidemiologici relativi ai casi di morbillo analizzati nel presente lavoro sono stati ottenuti dal database della Regione Lombardia per le malattie infettive MAINF. RISULTATI. Complessivamente, tra marzo 2017 e luglio 2019 sono stati indagati 885 casi sospetti di morbillo segnalati a Milano e nelle aree limitrofe. Il 74.2% dei casi indagati è stato confermato in laboratorio. Il maggior numero di casi è stato confermato nel 2017 (50.4%). Le fasce d’età più colpite sono state quelle dei giovani tra i 15 e i 39 anni (63.0%) e degli adulti over-39 anni (21.5%), dato che si è confermato per tutti e tre gli anni esaminati. Il 92.1% dei casi confermati di morbillo non era vaccinato. La consultazione del database regionale MAINF ha permesso di classificare i casi confermati come sporadici (57.4%) o appartenenti a focolai (42.7%). Il 9.7% dei casi confermati dal nostro laboratorio si trovava fuori dal territorio in esame durante il periodo di incubazione della malattia. In questo modo è stato possibile definire l’importazione dell’infezione, sia dall’estero (44.3% dei casi importati) che da altre regioni italiane (55.7% dei casi importati). La caratterizzazione genotipica mediante sequenziamento della regione N-450 di Morbillivirus è stata completata con successo per il 95.3% dei casi. È stato possibile evidenziare la costante co-circolazione di due genotipi, il D8 (72.9%) e il B3 (26.1%). L’analisi intra-genotipica ha permesso di identificare complessivamente 16 varianti virali, di cui 8 già classificate dall’OMS e definite WHO named strain. In particolare, sono state identificate 5 WHO named strain D8 (Mv/Osaka.JPN/29.15, Mvs/London.GBR/21.16/2, MVi/Hulu-Langat.MYS/26.11, MVs/Gir-Somnath.IND/42.16, Mvs/Victoria.AUS/6.18) e 3 WHO named strain B3 (MV/Dublin.IRL/8.16, MVs/Saint-Denis.FRA/36.17, Mvs/Ljubljana.SVN.27.17). La D8-Osaka è stata la variante predominante nel 2017, la B3-Dublino nel 2018 e la D8-Gir Somnath nel 2019. Sono state inoltre identificate 69 sequenze non ancora classificate dall’OMS e momentaneamente denominate “no named strain”. Venti erano di genotipo D8 e 49 di genotipo B3. Alcune di queste sequenze hanno dato origine a eventi di trasmissione continua, altre a casi sporadici o a piccoli focolai familiari non propagandosi ulteriormente nella popolazione. È stata approfondita l’analisi molecolare di ceppi correlati a importanti eventi epidemici (focolai nosocomiali e familiari) e a casi notificati come sporadici avvenuti a breve distanza geografica e temporale dai focolai. È stato quindi sviluppato il sequenziamento e l’analisi filogenetica di una regione di più di 2000 nucleotidi, comprendente l’N-450 e tutto il gene H (N-450/H). Ciò ha reso possibile valutare la variabilità genetica (intra-variante) di ceppi 100% identici in N-450. L’analisi filogenetica di questa regione ha permesso di osservare che sequenze tra loro identiche nella sola regione N-450 formavano dei cluster e altre invece risultavano non strettamente correlate. In un secondo momento, gli stessi ceppi sono stati sottoposti a sequenziamento dell’intero genoma, la cui analisi filogenetica ha confermato i dati ottenuti in N-450/H, ma raggiungendo un maggior match con l’indagine epidemiologica e risultando più sensibile nel delineare le singole catene di trasmissione. È stato studiato il profilo sierologico di 33 casi confermati di morbillo con storia di vaccinazione documentata nel database regionale MAINF. Nel 18.2% dei casi, il riscontro di negatività in IgG in fase acuta (7-10 giorni dall’esordio del rash) ha suggerito una mancata risposta al vaccino (non-responder) e quindi un fallimento primario della vaccinazione. La gran parte dei casi vaccinati (81.8%) ha mostrato una risposta in IgG in fase acuta e pertanto inquadrabile come fallimento verosimilmente secondario. La capacità di trasmettere l’infezione da parte di soggetti con fallimento vaccinale è stata dimostrata nel 12% dei casi. Infine, i soggetti con fallimento primario avevano un’età mediana all’epoca dell’ultima dose più elevata rispetto a quelli con fallimento secondario (12 anni e 6 anni rispettivamente). Un ulteriore obiettivo del presente progetto è stato quello di analizzare 87 sequenze amminoacidiche della proteina H (target principale degli anticorpi neutralizzanti) identificate in soggetti vaccinati e non vaccinati. Di queste, 30, di cui 7 appartenenti a ceppi di casi vaccinati, presentavano sostituzioni in siti immunoepitopici. Le sostituzioni riscontrate sono state L247S, P247S, A400V, A192T e Q575K. Non sono invece state riscontrate mutazioni in siti funzionali della proteina, come per esempio residui di cisteina importanti per il mantenimento della struttura terziaria, o in siti di legame col recettore, responsabili del riconoscimento e dell’ingresso nella cellula ospite. CONCLUSIONI. L’andamento epidemiologico e genotipico dei casi di morbillo identificato nei 3 anni di studio a Milano e nelle aree limitrofe rispecchia quello riscontrato sul territorio nazionale. L’analisi intra-genotipica condotta ha permesso di identificare complessivamente 16 varianti virali, di cui 4 predominanti e un’elevata variabilità per entrambi i genotipi individuati (D8 e B3). Ciò conferma il pattern tipico nelle aree caratterizzate da un abbassamento delle coperture vaccinali e un aumento dei soggetti suscettibili alla malattia. Per dimostrare l’interruzione della circolazione all’interno del proprio territorio, i paesi devono essere in grado di distinguere le trasmissioni endemiche dai casi importati, in quanto la malattia può essere considerata eliminata solo in assenza di focolai endemici. La circolazione a livello mondiale di un ristretto numero di varianti virali limita l’informazione data dall’analisi filogenetica della regione N-450 e rende più complessa la ricostruzione delle rotte di trasmissione e la caratterizzazione dei focolai epidemici. Inoltre, non consente di ricostruire le catene di trasmissione e identificare i casi di importazione da fonti diverse. È pertanto importante mettere in atto nuove strategie metodologiche per ampliare la “finestra di sequenziamento”. L’analisi dell’intero genoma è risultata sensibile e in grado di ricostruire le catene di trasmissione e identificare i casi di importazione. Questa tecnica risulta tuttavia estremamente laboriosa e costosa e, nell’attuale contesto epidemiologico, non applicabile come metodica di routine. Potrebbe risultare invece la strategia ottimale per i paesi measles-free o che si stanno avvicinando all'eliminazione del morbillo, dove è necessario verificare l’introduzione solo di pochi ceppi virali. I risultati ottenuti nel corso dei 3 anni di dottorato sui ceppi coinvolti in importanti eventi epidemici a Milano e nelle aree limitrofe suggeriscono che l’analisi della regione N-450/H possa essere considerata una valida strategia di implementazione della sorveglianza molecolare in questa fase del programma di eliminazione. Per quanto riguarda lo studio dei casi confermati di morbillo in soggetti vaccinati, i risultati hanno dimostrato che la maggior parte dei fallimenti vaccinali non sono dovuti a una mancata risposta immunitaria (non-responder), ma piuttosto ad una perdita nel tempo della risposta immunologica vaccino-indotta. Tuttavia, la valutazione del titolo anticorpale è stata fatta durante la fase acuta della malattia e non si è potuto valutare quanti soggetti presentavano titoli anticorpali protettivi prima dell’infezione. Questa valutazione avrebbe contribuito a identificare i booster delle IgG in fase acuta causati dall’incontro col virus selvaggio. Il riscontro di una percentuale non trascurabile di casi di morbillo tra soggetti vaccinati che ha dato origine a focolai evidenzia la necessità di mantenere alta l’attenzione nel mettere in atto le misure di contenimento e diffusione della malattia anche in presenza di casi vaccinati. Ulteriori studi multidisciplinari devono essere condotti per confermare i risultati ottenuti e delineare opportuni piani risolutivi. L’analisi amminoacidica della proteina H ha permesso di identificare mutazioni in siti critici della proteina non osservate da studi precedenti. I dati ottenuti sono da un lato rassicuranti in quanto non mostrano la circolazione di mutanti escape, dall’altro documentano una variabilità della proteina H che impone la necessità di un monitoraggio costante. In conclusione, nel presente progetto di dottorato, sono state sviluppate e applicate metodologie innovative risultate utili per la corretta valutazione dello scenario epidemiologico attuale, caratterizzato dalla circolazione di ceppi endemici, dalla continua introduzione di varianti virali e da una quota non trascurabile di fallimenti vaccinali.
INTRODUCTION. Measles virus belongs to the morbillivirus genus of the family Paramyxoviridae. Infection with measles virus results in an extremely contagious exanthematic disease transmitted by air. It often causes severe complications and deaths, is preventable with vaccination and presents requirements for elimination. Italy is one of the 12 European countries where measles transmission is still endemic. The Global Measles and Rubella Strategic Plan 2012–2020 has set the goal of the elimination of endemic measles in the WHO European Region. To achieve this goal, high vaccination coverage must be obtained and maintained (>95%), and a sensitive and quality surveillance system must be ensured. Measles molecular surveillance is a key component to verify the endemic measles elimination, and a crucial tool both to establish any epidemiological link between cases occur in the same period and area, and to identify the importation sources. With the progress of the elimination program, the genetic diversity of circulating measles strains decreases. Continuous air travels and the ease world trade between countries facilitate imports into a given geographical area of viral variants belonging to the same genotype. In this context, traditional laboratory methods can not distinguish endemic transmission from import events of the same viral variant. In addition, as the vaccination program moves forward, an increasing proportion of measles cases occur in vaccinated individuals. New and advanced technologies must therefore allow us to broaden knowledge on measles in vaccinated people, and allow us to identify strains potentially capable of evading the immune response. AIM. The aim of the PhD project is to study and monitor in time the molecular epidemiology of measles in view of the elimination goal, through the develop and the use of innovative molecular and bioinformatic methodologies. Therefore, the research aims to combine the traditional epidemiological methods with the molecular and bioinformatic techniques of the new era. A further objective is to study measles confirmed cases in vaccinated people, in order to assess vaccination failure and to identify any escape mutant in the measles H gene. MATERIALS AND METHODS. From March 2017 to July 2019, biological specimens from patients with suspected measles were collected and analysed as part of the Measles and Rubella Integrated Surveillance System of the Lombardy Region (MoRoNET network). Viral RNA was extracted, and a Real Time RT-PCR was carried out for the measles genome identification. Retro-transcription was performed to all the measles positive samples, and a nested RT-PCR was conducted for the amplification of the N-450 region, in order to perform the genotyping. Samples of interest (N=50) have undergone two emi-nested PCR for the amplification of the H gene. Moreover, the amplification of the complete genome through specific couples of primers (which allow to obtain 10 overlapped fragments) has been conducted on the same samples. Amplicons were sequenced and a phylogenetic analysis was conducted on N-450 region, N-450/H region and on the whole genome, using the bioinformatic programs ClustalX2, BioEdit and MEGA7. Vaccinated measles cases were studied through analysis on serological data obtained from the regional referent laboratory database. In addition, the amino acid sequence of measles H protein (obtained from the conversion of the nucleotide sequences with BioEdit) was analysed in 7 vaccinated measles cases and 80 non-vaccinated measles cases, as control group. Personal, clinical and epidemiological data of measles cases analysed in this study were obtained from the Lombardy Region database of infectious diseases, MAINF. RESULTS. Overall, from March 2017 to July 2019, 885 suspected measles cases reported in Milan and surrounding areas were investigated. The 74.2% of measles cases was confirmed by laboratory investigations. The largest number of measles cases was confirmed in 2017 (50.4%). The age groups 15-39 years and over-39 years were the most affected over the all three years (63.0% and 42.7% of measles cases, respectively). The 92.1% of measles cases was unvaccinated. Regional database MAINF allowed to classify measles cases as sporadic (57.4%) or belonging to outbreaks (42.7%). The 9.7% of measles cases confirmed by our laboratory was outside the examined area during the incubation period of the disease. Genetic characterization was performed by the N-450 morbillivirus region sequencing and was completed with success in 95.3% of measles cases. The genotyping made possible to highlight the continuous co-circulation of two genotypes, D8 (72.9%) and B3 (26.1%). The intra-genotype analysis identified overall 16 viral variants, 8 of them already classified as WHO named strain. In particular, 5 WHO named strains D8 (Mv/Osaka.JPN/29.15, Mvs/London.GBR/21.16/2, MVi/Hulu-Langat.MYS/26.11, MVs/Gir-Somnath.IND/42.16, Mvs/Victoria.AUS/6.18) and 3 WHO named strains B3 (MV/Dublin.IRL/8.16, MVs/Saint-Denis.FRA/36.17, Mvs/Ljubljana.SVN.27.17) have been identified. The named strain D8-Osaka was the predominant genotype variant during the 2017. The named strain B3-Dublin was the predominant genotype variant during the 2018, and the named strain D8-Gir Somnath was the most frequently detected during the 2019. Moreover, 69 sequences not yet classified by the WHO have been identified and called “no-named strain”. Twenty no-named strains belonged to genotype D8 and 49 belonged to genotype B3. Some of them were responsible of continued transmission events, sporadic cases or small familiar outbreaks that did not further spread into the population. Molecular analysis has been deepened on strains correlated to nosocomial and familiar outbreaks and on strains correlated to sporadic cases occurred within short geographical and temporal distances from the outbreaks. It was therefore developed the sequencing and the phylogenetic analysis of a more than 2000 nucleotides region, which includes the N-450 region and the whole H gene (N-450/H). This made possible to evaluate the genetic variability of strains 100% identical in the N-450 region. Phylogenetic analysis of the N-450/H construct allowed to observe clusters within strains with the same N-450 region, whereas others 100% identical in N-450 were not strictly correlated. Subsequently, the whole genome sequencing was carried out on the same strains, and the phylogenetic analysis confirmed data obtained with N-450/H analysis. However, the whole genome sequencing analysis reached a greater match with the epidemiological investigation, and it resulted more sensitive outlining the single chains of transmission. The serological profile of 33 measles cases with a vaccination history was investigated. Negativity in IgG test during the acute phase of the disease (7-10 days from rash) was found in 18.2% of measles cases, suggesting a failure in vaccination response (non-responder) and therefore a primary vaccine failure. The majority of vaccinated measles cases (81.8%) showed an IgG response during the acute phase. Therefore, these cases could be placed in a secondary vaccine failure. Ability to transmit the infection to secondary cases was found in the 12% of vaccinated measles cases. In addition, the median age at the time of the last vaccine dose of measles cases with primary vaccine failure was higher than the one of measles cases with secondary vaccine failure (12 and 6 years old, respectively). Another goal of the present project was to analyse 87 aminoacidic sequences of measles H protein (first target of human neutralizing antibodies) identified in vaccinated and not vaccinated subjects. Of them, 30, of which 7 belonged to vaccinated measles cases, showed amino acid substitutions in antigenic epitopes. The substitutions were L247S, P247S, A400V, A192T, and Q575K. No mutations were found at functional sites of the protein, such as cysteine residues important for the maintenance of the tertiary protein structure, or on binding receptor sites, responsible for the recognition and the entry into the host cell. CONCLUSIONS. The epidemiological trend and genotypes of measles cases identified in Milan and the surrounding areas in the 3 years of study reflect what found on the national territory. The intra-genotyping analysis identified overall 16 viral variants, 4 of them predominant, and a high variability for both the D8 and B3 genotypes. This result confirms the typical pattern of areas characterized from a reduction of vaccination coverage and with an increment of susceptible subjects. To demonstrate the interruption of the virus circulation in the territory, countries must be able to distinguish endemic transmission form imported cases. Indeed, measles disease can be considered eliminated only in the absence of endemic outbreaks. The worldwide circulation of a small number of viral variants limits the information given by the phylogenetic analysis of the N-450 region, and makes more complex the reconstruction of transmission routes, as well as the outbreaks characterization. Furthermore, it is impossible to trace the chains of transmission and identify imported cases from different sources. It is therefore important to implement new methodologic strategies in order to extend the “window sequencing”. The whole genome analysis was sensitive and resulted able to trace the chains of transmission and identify the imported cases. This technique, however, is extremely laborious and expensive, and it is not applicable as routine tool in the actual epidemiological context. It could be instead the optimal strategy for measles-free countries, or for which ones is approaching the measles elimination, with only few cases to verify. The results obtained on strains involved in important epidemic events in Milan and surrounding areas during the 3-years PhD study suggest that the N-450/H analysis could be considered a good implementation strategy of the molecular surveillance in the actual elimination program phase. Regarding the study of measles cases in vaccinated subjects, it can be hypothesized that vaccination failure is not caused by an immunity system failure to vaccination (non-responder), but rather to a decline over the time of the immunity response vaccine-induced. However, the antibody evaluation was made during the acute phase of the disease, and it is not able to evaluate how many subjects had protective antibody titres before the infection. This evaluation would contribute to identified IgG boosters in acute phase caused by the wild-type measles strain exposure. The finding of an important proportion of vaccinated measles cases able to originate outbreaks highlight the necessity to maintain a high attention for the containment measures and for the spread disease control even in presence of vaccinated subjects. More multidisciplinary studies must be conducted to confirm the obtained results and to outline appropriate resolutive planes. Amino acid analysis of the measles H protein has led to identify mutations in critical protein sites observed for the first time. Data obtained are on the one hand reassuring because no escape mutant was found. On the other hand, data document a measles H protein variability which impose a constant monitoring. In conclusion, in this PhD project the innovative techniques developed and applied were found to be useful for the correct evaluation of the actual epidemiological scenario, which is characterized by the circulation of endemic measles strains, the continuous introduction of viral variants and a significant number of vaccine failures.
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