Journal articles: 'MDMA'

1

Pirnay, Stephane O., Tsadik T. Abraham, and Marilyn A. Huestis. "Sensitive Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Method for Simultaneous Measurement of MDEA, MDMA, and Metabolites HMA, MDA, and HMMA in Human Urine." Clinical Chemistry 52, no. 9 (September 1, 2006): 1728–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2006.069054.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: A sensitive gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the simultaneous measurement of MDEA, MDMA, and its metabolites, 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or Ecstasy), and its metabolites, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMMA) in human urine. Methods: We hydrolyzed 1 mL urine, fortified with MDMA-d5, MDA-d5, and MDEA-d6, with 100 μL of concentrated hydrochloric acid at 120 °C for 40 min, then added 100 μL 10 N sodium hydroxide and 3 mL phosphate buffer 0.1 N (pH 6.0) were added to hydrolyzed urine specimens before solid-phase extraction. After elution and evaporation, we derivatized extracts with heptafluorobutyric acid anhydride and analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry operated in EI-selected ion-monitoring mode. Results: Limits of quantification were 25 μg/L for MDEA, MDMA, and its metabolites. Calibration curves were linear to 5000 μg/L for MDEA, MDMA, HMA, MDA, and HMMA, with a minimum r2 > 0.99. At 3 concentrations spanning the linear dynamic range of the assay, mean overall extraction efficiencies from urine were >85.5% for all compounds of interest. Intra- and interassay imprecisions, produced as CV, were <15% for all drugs at 30, 300, and 3000 μg/L. Conclusions: This gas chromatography-mass spectrometry assay provides adequate sensitivity and performance characteristics for the simultaneous quantification of MDEA, MDMA, and its metabolites HMMA, MDA, and HMA in human urine. The method meets and exceeds the requirements of the proposed Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s guidelines for federal workplace drug testing of MDEA and MDMA in urine.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

2

Peters, Frank T., Nele Samyn, Caroline TJ Lamers, Wim J. Riedel, Thomas Kraemer, Gert de Boeck, and Hans H. Maurer. "Drug Testing in Blood: Validated Negative-Ion Chemical Ionization Gas Chromatographic–Mass Spectrometric Assay for Enantioselective Measurement of the Designer Drugs MDEA, MDMA, and MDA and Its Application to Samples from a Controlled Study with MDMA." Clinical Chemistry 51, no. 10 (October 1, 2005): 1811–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2005.052746.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: The enantiomers of the designer drugs 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) differ in their pharmacologic and toxicologic potency. The aim of this study was to develop an assay for measuring these enantiomers in small plasma volumes and to analyze samples from a controlled study with MDMA. Methods: The analytes were extracted from ≤0.2 mL of plasma by mixed-mode solid-phase extraction. After derivatization with S-(−)-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride, the resulting diastereomers were separated by gas chromatography (HP-5MS) within 17 min and detected by mass spectrometry in the negative-ion chemical ionization mode. The method was fully validated and applied to samples from a controlled study in which a single dose of racemic MDMA (75 mg) was administered. Results: The derivatized enantiomers were well separated and detected with good sensitivity. The assay was linear (per enantiomer) at 1–50 μg/L for MDA and 5–250 μg/L for MDMA and MDEA. Analytical recovery, accuracy, repeatability, and intermediate precision data were within required limits. Extraction yields were 82.1%–95.3%. In the study samples, concentrations of R-(−)-MDMA significantly exceeded those of S-(+)-MDMA. Their ratios (R vs S) were always >1.0 and increased over time. Concentrations of S-(+)-MDA exceeded those of R-(−)-MDA, their ratios (R vs S) also increasing over time but remaining <1.0. Conclusions: This assay enables sensitive, reliable, and fast enantioselective measurement of MDA, MDMA, and MDEA in small volumes of plasma. The controlled study data confirm previous findings of MDMA and MDA enantiomer ratios (R vs S) increasing over time after ingestion of racemic MDMA.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

3

Kolbrich, Erin A., Ross H. Lowe, and Marilyn A. Huestis. "Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography/Electron-Impact Mass Spectrometry with Cryofocusing for Simultaneous Quantification of MDMA, MDA, HMMA, HMA, and MDEA in Human Plasma." Clinical Chemistry 54, no. 2 (February 1, 2008): 379–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2007.096800.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or Ecstasy) is a popular recreational drug. Analysis of MDMA and metabolites in human plasma, particularly in pharmacokinetic studies, requires low limits of quantification. Two-dimensional GC/MS with cryofocusing is a chromatographic technique recognized for its increased selectivity and resolution. Methods: This method simultaneously quantifies 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), MDMA, and its metabolites, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA) in human plasma. With hydrochloric acid, we hydrolyzed 1 mL plasma, fortified with internal standard. Analytes were subjected to solid-phase extraction, derivatized with heptafluorobutyric acid anhydride, and quantified using cryofocused 2-dimensional GC/MS operated in electron-impact selected ion-monitoring mode. Results: Limits of quantification were 1.0 μg/L for MDA and 2.5 μg/L for MDEA, MDMA, HMMA, and HMA. Calibration curves were linear to 100 μg/L for MDA and HMA and to 400 μg/L for MDEA, MDMA, and HMMA, with r2 > 0.997. At 3 concentrations spanning the linear dynamic range of the assay, mean overall extraction efficiencies from plasma were ≥85% for all compounds of interest. Recoveries were 85.6% to 107.2% of target, and intra- and interassay imprecision (CV) was <8.5% for all drugs at 3 concentrations within the range of the assay. None of the 66 exogenous compounds tested interfered with analyte quantification. Conclusions: This GC/MS assay provides low limits of quantification for simultaneous determination of MDEA, MDMA, and metabolites MDA, HMMA, and HMA in human plasma. The 2D chromatographic system should be suitable for application to other analytes and to other complex matrices.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

4

Peters, Frank T., Nele Samyn, Thomas Kraemer, Wim J. Riedel, and Hans H. Maurer. "Negative-Ion Chemical Ionization Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Assay for Enantioselective Measurement of Amphetamines in Oral Fluid: Application to a Controlled Study with MDMA and Driving Under the Influence Cases." Clinical Chemistry 53, no. 4 (April 1, 2007): 702–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2006.081547.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: Enantioselective analysis of amphetamine (AM), methamphetamine (MA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) helps interpret toxicological results. Methods have been described for various matrices, but so far not for oral fluid, a matrix of increasing importance in testing for drugs of abuse, especially in the context of driving under the influence of drugs (DUID). Methods: After dilution with 200 μL carbonate buffer (pH 9), oral fluid samples (10–50 μL) were derivatized with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride. The resulting diastereomers were extracted into 100 μL of cyclohexane, separated by gas chromatography (HP-5MS column), and detected by mass spectrometry in the negative-ion chemical ionization mode (GC-NICI-MS). The method was validated and applied to samples from a controlled study with MDMA and from authentic DUID cases. Results: The derivatized AM, MA, MDA, MDMA, and MDEA enantiomers were well separated from each other. The method was linear from 5–250 μg/L per enantiomer of MDA and from 25–1250 μg/L per enantiomer of AM, MA, MDMA, and MDEA. With the exception of MDEA, analytical recoveries, repeatability, and intermediate precision were within required limits. The analyte concentrations and enantiomer ratios in the application samples correlated only weakly with corresponding published plasma data. Conclusions: This sensitive, reliable, and fast GC-NICI-MS assay enantioselectively measures AM, MA, MDA, and MDMA in oral fluid samples. Prediction of plasma concentrations and enantiomer ratios from respective oral fluid data is not possible.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

5

Clauwaert, Karine M., Jan F. Van Bocxlaer, Els A. De Letter, Serge Van Calenbergh, Willy E. Lambert, and André P. De Leenheer. "Determination of the Designer Drugs 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3,4-Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine, and 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine with HPLC and Fluorescence Detection in Whole Blood, Serum, Vitreous Humor, and Urine." Clinical Chemistry 46, no. 12 (December 1, 2000): 1968–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/46.12.1968.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: The popular designer drugs 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) can be determined in serum, whole blood, and urine, but also in vitreous humor. The latter matrix is interesting when dealing with decomposed bodies in a toxicological setting. Methods: After extraction, chromatographic separation was achieved on a narrow-bore C18 column by gradient elution with fluorometric detection; results were confirmed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results: The method was linear over the range of 2–1000 μg/L for whole blood, serum, and vitreous humor, and 0.1–5 mg/L for urine. Extraction recoveries were >70%, imprecision (CV) was 2.5–19%, and analytical recoveries were 95.5–104.4%. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) were 0.8 and 2 μg/L, respectively, for whole blood, serum, and vitreous humor, and 2.5 μg/L and 0.1 mg/L, respectively, for urine. Excellent correlations between the quantitative LC-fluorescence and LC-MS/MS results were obtained. We found the following concentrations in a thanatochemical distribution study in rabbits: in serum, 5.3–685 μg/L for MDMA and from the LOQ to 14.5 μg/L for 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA); in whole blood, 19.7–710 μg/L for MDMA and from the LOQ to 17.8 μg/L for MDA; in vitreous humor, 12.1–97.8 μg/L for MDMA and from the LOQ to 3.86 μg/L for MDA. In routine toxicological urine samples, concentrations ranged from LOQ to 14.62 mg/L for MDA, from LOQ to 157 mg/L for MDMA, and from LOQ to 32.54 mg/L for MDEA. Conclusions: The HPLC method described is sensitive, specific, and suitable for the determination of MDMA, MDEA, and MDA in whole blood, serum, vitreous humor, and urine.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

6

Climko, Robert P., Herbert Roehrich, Donald R. Sweeney, and Jamil Al-Razi. "ECSTACY: A Review of MDMA and MDA." International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine 16, no. 4 (December 1987): 359–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/dcrp-u22m-aumd-d84h.

Full text

Abstract:

The Drug Enforcement Administration classified the drug methylenedioxymeth-amphetamine, MDMA, also known as Ecstacy, as a Schedule I controlled substance on July 1, 1985. The controversy surrounding the classification of MDMA is related to the question of its efficacy as an adjunct to psychotherapy and the larger issue of how to regulate the production and use of designer drugs. The authors review the literature on MDMA and its predecessor, MDA, a substance that differs from MDMA by one methyl group.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

7

Kunsman, G. W., B. Levine, J. J. Kuhlman, R. L. Jones, R. O. Hughes, C. I. Fujiyama, and M. L. Smith. "MDA-MDMA Concentrations in Urine Specimens*." Journal of Analytical Toxicology 20, no. 7 (November 1, 1996): 517–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jat/20.7.517.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

8

Abraham, T. T., A. J. Barnes, R. H. Lowe, E. A. Kolbrich Spargo, G. Milman, S. O. Pirnay, D. A. Gorelick, R. S. Goodwin, and M. A. Huestis. "Urinary MDMA, MDA, HMMA, and HMA Excretion Following Controlled MDMA Administration to Humans." Journal of Analytical Toxicology 33, no. 8 (October 1, 2009): 439–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jat/33.8.439.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

9

Kumazawa, Takeshi, Kenji Hara, Chika Hasegawa, Seisaku Uchigasaki, Xiao-Pen Lee, Hiroshi Seno, Osamu Suzuki, and Keizo Sato. "Fragmentation Pathways of Trifluoroacetyl Derivatives of Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, and Methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine Designer Drugs by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry." International Journal of Spectroscopy 2011 (August 22, 2011): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/318148.

Full text

Abstract:

Methamphetamine (MA), amphetamine (AM), and the methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine designer drugs, such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), N-methyl-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (MBDB), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), and 3,4-(methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (BDB), are widely abused as psychedelics. In this paper, these compounds were derivatized with trifluoroacetic (TFA) anhydride and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry using electron ionization in positive mode. Gas chromatographic separation for TFA derivatives of all compounds was successfully resolved using an Equity-5 fused silica capillary column with a poly (5% diphenyl-95% dimethylsiloxane) stationary phase. Base peaks or prominent peaks of MA, AM, MDMA, MDEA, MBDB, MDA, and BDB appeared at m/z 154, 140, 154, 168, 168, 135, and 135, respectively. These occurred due to α-cleavage from the amide nitrogen, splitting into the TFA imine species and benzyl or methylenedioxybenzyl cations. Further prominent fragment ions at m/z 118 for MA and AM, m/z 162 for MDMA, MDEA, and MDA, and m/z 176 for MBDB and BDB were produced by cleavage of the phenylpropane or methylenedioxypropane hydrocarbon radical cation via a hydrogen rearrangement. These fragmentation pathways for the TFA derivatives of all the compounds are summarized and illustrated in this paper.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

10

Cassidy, Geraldine, and Clive G. Ballard. "Psychiatric sequelae of MDMA (ecstasy) and related drugs." Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 11, no. 3 (September 1994): 132–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0790966700014841.

Full text

Abstract:

AbstractTwo cases of psychiatric disorder temporally related to the abuse of hallucinogenic amphetamines 3, 4 methylenedi-oxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) are described, suggesting that a variety of psychiatric morbidity may be precipitated by abuse of these drugs, including paranoid psychosis, mixed affective psychosis and symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

11

BOUSMAN, CHAD A., MARIANA CHERNER, KRISTEN T. EMORY, DANIEL BARRON, PATRICIA GREBENSTEIN, J. HAMPTON ATKINSON, ROBERT K. HEATON, and IGOR GRANT. "Preliminary evidence of motor impairment among polysubstance 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine users with intact neuropsychological functioning." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 16, no. 6 (August 25, 2010): 1047–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355617710000846.

Full text

Abstract:

AbstractNeuropsychological disturbances have been reported in association with use of the recreational drug “ecstasy,” or 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), but findings have been inconsistent. We performed comprehensive neuropsychological testing examining seven ability domains in 21 MDMA users (MDMA+) and 21 matched control participants (MDMA−). Among MDMA+ participants, median [interquartile range] lifetime MDMA use was 186 [111, 516] doses, with 120 [35–365] days of abstinence. There were no significant group differences in neuropsychological performance, with the exception of the motor speed/dexterity domain in which 43% of MDMA+ were impaired compared with 5% of MDMA− participants (p= .004). Motor impairment differences were not explained by use of other substances and were unrelated to length of abstinence or lifetime number of MDMA doses. Findings provide limited evidence for neuropsychological differences between MDMA+ and MDMA− participants with the exception of motor impairments observed in the MDMA+ group. However, replication of this finding in a larger sample is warranted. (JINS, 2010,16, 1047–1055.)

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

12

Mueller, Melanie, Jie Yuan, Una D. McCann, George Hatzidimitriou, and George A. Ricaurte. "Single oral doses of (±) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘Ecstasy’) produce lasting serotonergic deficits in non-human primates: relationship to plasma drug and metabolite concentrations." International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 16, no. 4 (May 1, 2013): 791–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1461145712000582.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Repeated doses of the popular recreational drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘Ecstasy’) are known to produce neurotoxic effects on brain serotonin (5-HT) neurons but it is widely believed that typical single oral doses of MDMA are free of neurotoxic risk. Experimental and therapeutic trials with MDMA in humans are underway. The mechanisms by which MDMA produces neurotoxic effects are not understood but drug metabolites have been implicated. The aim of the present study was to assess the neurotoxic potential of a range of clinically relevant single oral doses of MDMA in a non-human primate species that metabolizes MDMA in a manner similar to humans, the squirrel monkey. A secondary objective was to explore the relationship between plasma MDMA and metabolite concentrations and lasting serotonergic deficits. Single oral doses of MDMA produced lasting dose-related serotonergic neurochemical deficits in the brains of squirrel monkeys. Notably, even the lowest dose of MDMA tested (5.7 mg/kg, estimated to be equivalent to 1.6 mg/kg in humans) produced significant effects in some brain regions. Plasma levels of MDMA engendered by neurotoxic doses of MDMA were on the order of those found in humans. Serotonergic neurochemical markers were inversely correlated with plasma concentrations of MDMA, but not with those of its major metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine. These results suggest that single oral doses of MDMA in the range of those used by humans pose a neurotoxic risk and implicate the parent compound (MDMA), rather than one of its metabolites, in MDMA-induced 5-HT neural injury.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

13

Simmler, Linda D., Cédric M. Hysek, and Matthias E. Liechti. "Sex Differences in the Effects of MDMA (Ecstasy) on Plasma Copeptin in Healthy Subjects." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 96, no. 9 (September 1, 2011): 2844–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-1143.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) misuse is associated with hyponatremia particularly in women. Hyponatremia is possibly due to inappropriate secretion of plasma arginine vasopressin (AVP). Objective: To assess whether MDMA increases plasma AVP and copeptin in healthy male and female subjects and whether effects depend on MDMA-induced release of serotonin and norepinephrine. Copeptin, the C-terminal part of the AVP precursor preprovasopressin, is cosecreted with AVP and can be determined more reliably. Methods: We used a randomized placebo-controlled crossover design. Plasma and urine osmolalities as well as AVP and copeptin levels were measured in 16 healthy subjects (eight female, eight male) at baseline and after MDMA (125 mg) administration. In addition, we tested whether effects of MDMA on AVP and copeptin secretion can be prevented by pretreatment with the serotonin and norepinephrine transporter inhibitor duloxetine (120 mg), which blocks MDMA-induced transporter-mediated release of serotonin and norepinephrine. Results: MDMA significantly elevated plasma copeptin levels at 60 min and at 120 min compared with placebo in women but not in men. The copeptin response to MDMA in women was prevented by duloxetine. MDMA also nonsignificantly increased plasma AVP levels in women, and the effect was prevented by duloxetine. Although subjects drank more water after MDMA compared with placebo administration, MDMA tended to increase urine sodium levels and urine osmolality compared with placebo, indicating increased renal water retention. Conclusion: MDMA increased plasma copeptin, a marker for AVP secretion, in women but not in men. This sex difference in MDMA-induced AVP secretion may explain why hyponatremia is typically reported in female ecstasy users. The copeptin response to MDMA is likely mediated via MDMA-induced release of serotonin and/or norepinephrine because it was prevented by duloxetine, which blocks the interaction of MDMA with the serotonergic and noradrenergic system.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

14

Movassaghi, Shabnam, Ali Yousefi Oudarji, and Zahra Nadia Sharifi. "Effect of Pentoxifylline on Apoptosis of Kidney’s Cells Following Acute Methamphetamine Administration in Male Wistar Rats." Galen Medical Journal 5, no. 3 (September 20, 2016): 131–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.31661/gmj.v5i3.668.

Full text

Abstract:

Objective(s): Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a hallucinogenic drug of abuse which is the most popular drugs in the world and has been shown to induce apoptosis in kidney cells. As Pentoxifylline (PTX) increases cAMP and reduces tumor necrosis factor-α, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of pentoxifylline on kidney damage induced by acute administration of MDMA in male rat.Materials & methods: Thirty male rats (250-300 g) were randomly divided into five groups: including control (without any intervention), MDMA group ,the group received 7.5 mg/kg MDMA three times at every two hours for one day ,first experimental group, received 100 mg/kg PTX a week before MDMA administration, second experimental group received 100 mg/kg PTX Just in the time of the third injection of MDMA and the third experimental group received 100 mg/kg PTX followed by one dose of MDMA. Two weeks later, kidneys were removed and prepared for H&E staining, TUNEL and western blot techniques. Results: histopathological studies showed significantly decrease in the kidney cellular damage, in experimental group 1 compared to MDMA group. The number of TUNEL-positive cells was increased significantly in MDMA group. A significant difference was revealed in the mean number of TUNEL-positive cells between the rats treated with PTX before MDMA administration and MDMA group. Expression of active caspase-3 was significantly increased in the MDMA group. While the PTX treatment could significantly decrease when administrated before MDMA injections.Conclusion: Pentoxifylline can significantly reduce the severity of lesions in the kidney following administration of MDMA.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

15

Fitzgerald, Robert L., Robert V. Blanke, John A. Rosecrans, and Richard A. Glennon. "Stereochemistry of the metabolism of MDMA to MDA." Life Sciences 45, no. 4 (January 1989): 295–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(89)90138-0.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

16

El-Mallakh, Rif S., and Henry David Abraham. "MDMA (Ecstasy)." Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 19, no. 1 (January 2007): 45–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10401230601163592.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

17

Leverant, Robert. "MDMA Reconsidered." Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 18, no. 4 (October 1986): 373–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1986.10472373.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

18

Walubo, A., and D. Seger. "Fatal multi-organ failure after suicidal overdose with MDMA, `Ecstasy': case report and review of the literature." Human & Experimental Toxicology 18, no. 2 (February 1999): 119–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096032719901800209.

Full text

Abstract:

A 53-year-old prisoner died of multiorgan failure after a suicidal overdose with 3,4-methylenedeoxymethamphe-tamine (MDMA, `Ecstasy'). Twelve hours after ingestion of MDMA, the patient became severely hyperthermic (107.2°F) with evidence of rhabdomyolysis. He subsequently developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC) and acute renal failure. At autopsy, plasma concentration of MDMA was 3.05 mg/L. This case shows that MDMA is still abused in our community and clinicians should know the symptoms of MDMA intoxication. In particular, MDMA should be considered when patients have symptoms or signs of increased sympathetic activity. The pathophysiology and treatment of MDMA-induced hyperthermia are discussed.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

19

Kuypers, Kim PC, Patrick C. Dolder, Johannes G. Ramaekers, and Matthias E. Liechti. "Multifaceted empathy of healthy volunteers after single doses of MDMA: A pooled sample of placebo-controlled studies." Journal of Psychopharmacology 31, no. 5 (April 3, 2017): 589–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881117699617.

Full text

Abstract:

Previous placebo-controlled experimental studies have shown that a single dose of MDMA can increase emotional empathy in the multifaceted empathy test (MET) without affecting cognitive empathy. Although sufficiently powered to detect main effects of MDMA, these studies were generally underpowered to also validly assess contributions of additional parameters, such as sex, drug use history, trait empathy and MDMA or oxytocin plasma concentrations. The present study examined the robustness of the MDMA effect on empathy and investigated the moderating role of these additional parameters. Participants ( n = 118) from six placebo-controlled within-subject studies and two laboratories were included in the present pooled analysis. Empathy (MET), MDMA and oxytocin plasma concentrations were assessed after oral administration of MDMA (single dose, 75 or 125 mg). Trait empathy was assessed using the interpersonal reactivity index. We confirmed that MDMA increased emotional empathy at both doses without affecting cognitive empathy. This MDMA-related increase in empathy was most pronounced during presentation of positive emotions as compared with negative emotions. MDMA-induced empathy enhancement was positively related to MDMA blood concentrations measured before the test, but independent of sex, drug use history and trait empathy. Oxytocin concentrations increased after MDMA administration but were not associated with behavioral effects. The MDMA effects on emotional empathy were stable across laboratories and doses. Sex did not play a moderating role in this effect, and oxytocin levels, trait empathy and drug use history were also unrelated. Acute drug exposure was of significant relevance in the MDMA-induced emotional empathy elevation.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

20

Freudenmann, R. W. "„Ecstasy“ – die Droge der Techno-Generation." Nervenheilkunde 24, no. 07 (2005): 557–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1629999.

Full text

Abstract:

ZusammenfassungDie vorliegende Arbeit liefert eine Einführung zu „Ecstasy“, der Modedroge der Techno-Musik-Generation. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf klinisch relevanten Informationen. „Ecstasy“ ist der Straßenname für das ring-substituierte Amphetaminderivat 3,4-Methylene-Dioxy-Methamphetamin, kurz MDMA. Mittlerweile wird der Name „Ecstasy“ als Sammelbegriff für MDMA und seine chemisch nur leicht abweichenden Analoga MDA, MDEA und MBDB verwendet. Ausgehend von der Chemie wird der molekulare Wirkmechanismus der Substanzen erläutert. Die psychotropen und peripheren Wirkungen von „Ecstasy“ samt Komplikationen und das Vorgehen bei Intoxikationen werden dargestellt. Zudem werden die wichtigsten pharmakokinetischen Eigenschaften und gefährliche Wechselwirkungen mit anderen Substanzen besprochen. Typische Gebrauchsmuster, neue epidemiologische Gesichtspunkte und juristische Aspekte dieser in Deutschland nicht-verkehrsfähigen Betäubungsmittel werden beschrieben. Abschließend werden mögliche Langzeitfolgen beim Menschen nach schwerem „Ecstasy“-Konsum diskutiert.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

21

Cajanding, Ruff Joseph Macale. "MDMA-Associated Liver Toxicity: Pathophysiology, Management, and Current State of Knowledge." AACN Advanced Critical Care 30, no. 3 (September 15, 2019): 232–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4037/aacnacc2019852.

Full text

Abstract:

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) has become a popular recreational drug of abuse among young adults, partly because of the belief that it is relatively safe compared with other drugs with the same stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. However, MDMA use has been associated with a wide spectrum of organ toxicities, with the liver being severely affected by its deleterious effects. This article discusses the essential pharmacology of MDMA and describes the effects MDMA has on various organ systems of the body, with particular focus on the liver. The putative mechanisms by which MDMA can cause liver damage are explored, with emphasis on patient-related factors that explain why some individuals are more susceptible than others to damage from MDMA. The incidence of hepatotoxicity related to MDMA use is presented, and the nursing management of patients who develop acute liver failure due to MDMA overuse is explored in light of current evidence.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

22

Vizeli, Patrick, and Matthias E. Liechti. "Safety pharmacology of acute MDMA administration in healthy subjects." Journal of Psychopharmacology 31, no. 5 (February 21, 2017): 576–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881117691569.

Full text

Abstract:

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) is being investigated in MDMA-assisted psychotherapy. The present study characterized the safety pharmacology of single-dose administrations of MDMA (75 or 125 mg) using data from nine double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover studies performed in the same laboratory in a total of 166 healthy subjects. The duration of the subjective effects was 4.2 ± 1.3 h (range: 1.4–8.2 h). The 125 mg dose of MDMA produced greater ‘good drug effect’ ratings than 75 mg. MDMA produced moderate and transient ‘bad drug effect’ ratings, which were greater in women than in men. MDMA increased systolic blood pressure to >160 mmHg, heart rate >100 beats/min, and body temperature >38°C in 33%, 29% and 19% of the subjects, respectively. These proportions of subjects with hypertension (>160 mmHg), tachycardia, and body temperature >38°C were all significantly greater after 125 mg MDMA compared with the 75 mg dose. Acute and subacute adverse effects of MDMA as assessed by the List of Complaints were dose-dependent and more frequent in females. MDMA did not affect liver or kidney function at EOS 29 ± 22 days after use. No serious adverse events occurred. In conclusion, MDMA produced predominantly acute positive subjective drug effects. Bad subjective drug effects and other adverse effects were significantly more common in women. MDMA administration was overall safe in physically and psychiatrically healthy subjects and in a medical setting. However, the risks of MDMA are likely higher in patients with cardiovascular disease and remain to be investigated in patients with psychiatric disorders.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

23

Weber, Georg F., Bethann N. Johnson, Bryan K. Yamamoto, and Gary A. Gudelsky. "Effects of Stress and MDMA on Hippocampal Gene Expression." BioMed Research International 2014 (2014): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/141396.

Full text

Abstract:

MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) is a substituted amphetamine and popular drug of abuse. Its mood-enhancing short-term effects may prompt its consumption under stress. Clinical studies indicate that MDMA treatment may mitigate the symptoms of stress disorders such as posttraumatic stress syndrome (PTSD). On the other hand, repeated administration of MDMA results in persistent deficits in markers of serotonergic (5-HT) nerve terminals that have been viewed as indicative of 5-HT neurotoxicity. Exposure to chronic stress has been shown to augment MDMA-induced 5-HT neurotoxicity. Here, we examine the transcriptional responses in the hippocampus to MDMA treatment of control rats and rats exposed to chronic stress. MDMA altered the expression of genes that regulate unfolded protein binding, protein folding, calmodulin-dependent protein kinase activity, and neuropeptide signaling. In stressed rats, the gene expression profile in response to MDMA was altered to affect sensory processing and responses to tissue damage in nerve sheaths. Subsequent treatment with MDMA also markedly altered the genetic responses to stress such that the stress-induced downregulation of genes related to the circadian rhythm was reversed. The data support the view that MDMA-induced transcriptional responses accompany the persistent effects of this drug on neuronal structure/function. In addition, MDMA treatment alters the stress-induced transcriptional signature.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

24

Mohamed, Khaled M., and Abdulsallam Bakdash. "Comparison of 3 Derivatization Methods for the Analysis of Amphetamine-Related Drugs in Oral Fluid by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry." Analytical Chemistry Insights 12 (January 1, 2017): 117739011772753. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1177390117727533.

Full text

Abstract:

The heptafluorobutyric anhydride (HFBA), pentafluoropropionic anhydride (PFPA), and trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) are compared as derivatizing reagents to use as the optimal method for the analysis of 10 amphetamines and cathinones in oral fluid. The target compounds were amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (MA), 4-methylamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxy- N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA), cathinone (CAT), methcathinone, mephedrone, and ephedrine. Amphetamine-D5, MA-D5, MDA-D5, MDMA-D5, and MDEA-D5 use as internal standards (IS). The analytes and IS were extracted from 0.5 mL of oral fluid by ethyl acetate in the presence of NaOH (0.1 N) as the base and then the dried extracts were derivatized with HFBA, PFPA, or TFAA at 70°C for 30 minutes. The limits of quantification based on signal-to-noise ratios ≥10 were ranged between 2.5 and 10 ng/mL. The calibration graphs were linear in the range of 5 or 10 to 1000 ng/mL for all analytes. Based on sensitivity, the PFPA is proved to be the best for derivatization of the target compounds prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

25

Zgonjanin, Dragana, Eva Loncar, and Milos Tasic. "Analysis of forensic samples of "Ecstasy" tablets seized in Novi Sad during the 2004 year." Acta Periodica Technologica, no. 36 (2005): 247–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/apt0536247z.

Full text

Abstract:

The paper presents results of the analysis of illicit synthetic drugs in the form of tablets distributed under the name "Ecstasy", seized by the police in the broader area of Novi Sad 2004. A huge number of tablets has been analyzed (n=121), of various colours and with impressed symbols from the total amount of 93 seizures, which totally amounted to 1458 tablets. Regarding the number of seizures ecstasy (3,4-methylendioxy-N-meth-yl-amphetamine - MDMA) is dominant among all, and according to the quantity of seized tablets it is amphetamine (AP), while other amphetamine-type drugs (methamphetamine MA 3,4-methylendioxiamphetamine - MDA, 3,4-methylendioxi-N-ethyl-amphetamine MDEA) have been found in rather small quantities and very rarely. Tablets mostly contain caffeine as an additive. In the analytical procedure, the samples of tablets were subjected to liquid-liquid extraction and afterwards analyzed on the GCD (GC-EI) Hewlett-Packard instrument. The method is fast reliable and reproducible for the analysis of amphetamine, methamphetamine MDA, MDMA, MDEA, as well as various additives in the samples of seized tablets.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

26

Öztunç, Aysel, Armağan Önal, and Sidika Ertürk Toker. "Detection of Methamphetamine, Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, and 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine in Spiked Plasma by HPLC and TLC." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 93, no. 2 (April 1, 2010): 556–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/93.2.556.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract HPLC and TLC methods were developed for separation and detection of some amphetamine analogs: methamphetamine (MA); 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy); and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA) in spiked plasma samples. The methods are based on purple chromogens formed by displacement reaction of these secondary aliphatic amine-bearing drugs with 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane at 80C for 25 min. For HPLC, both normal phase (silica gel) and RP (C18) columns were used. With the former, good detection limits in plasma were obtained with a 6 min run: 70, 100, and 500 ng/mL for MDMA, MA, and MDEA, respectively. For TLC, hexanechloroform (1 + 9) and benzene-diethyl ether-petroleum ether (4060)acetonitrileethyl methyl ketone (2 + 3.5 + 3.5 + 0.5 + 0.5) were used as mobile phases for silica gel 60 TLC and cyano-bonded silica gel HPTLC plates, respectively. The former offered more sensitive results than the latter. Influence of evaporation steps on recovery and interferences for the HPLC and TLC methods were investigated. The developed methods are selective, simple, and easily applicable.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

27

HANSON, KAREN L., and MONICA LUCIANA. "Neurocognitive function in users of MDMA: the importance of clinically significant patterns of use." Psychological Medicine 34, no. 2 (January 28, 2004): 229–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291703001132.

Full text

Abstract:

Background. Use of MDMA (ecstasy), a serotonin neurotoxin, has been associated with memory impairment and psychological dysfunction. This study examined cognitive functioning in abstinent MDMA users and MDMA-naïve controls.Method. Participants completed measures of intelligence, motor function, attention, memory span, verbal fluency, immediate and delayed verbal memory, and working memory. They were also assessed for the presence of psychopathology. In addition to comparing cognitive function in MDMA users relative to controls, the possibility that clinically dysfunctional MDMA use increases the risk of cognitive impairment was examined.Results. MDMA users exhibited relative deficits in mnemonic and executive functions. Additionally, users that met DSM-IV substance use disorder criteria for lifetime MDMA abuse or dependence exhibited a number of additional deficits relative to those who did not meet these criteria.Conclusion. These findings suggest that clinically dysfunctional, rather than purely recreational, MDMA use is associated with cognitive impairment. Future research studies of diverse samples of users may shed light on the mechanisms that underlie these differences.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

28

Baggott, Matthew J., Kathleen J. Garrison, Jeremy R. Coyle, Gantt P. Galloway, Allan J. Barnes, Marilyn A. Huestis, and John E. Mendelson. "MDMA Impairs Response to Water Intake in Healthy Volunteers." Advances in Pharmacological Sciences 2016 (2016): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/2175896.

Full text

Abstract:

Hyponatremia is a serious complication of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) use. We investigated potential mechanisms in two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. In Study 1, healthy drug-experienced volunteers received MDMA or placebo alone and in combination with the alpha-1 adrenergic inverse agonist prazosin, used as a positive control to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH). In Study 2, volunteers received MDMA or placebo followed by standardized water intake. MDMA lowered serum sodium but did not increase ADH or copeptin, although the control prazosin did increase ADH. Water loading reduced serum sodium more after MDMA than after placebo. There was a trend for women to have lower baseline serum sodium than men, but there were no significant interactions with drug condition. Combining studies, MDMA potentiated the ability of water to lower serum sodium. Thus, hyponatremia appears to be a significant risk when hypotonic fluids are consumed during MDMA use. Clinical trials and events where MDMA use is common should anticipate and mitigate this risk.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

29

Fiege, Marko, Frank Wappler, Ralf Weisshorn, Mark U. Gerbershagen, Melanie Menge, and Jochen Schulte am Esch. "Induction of Malignant Hyperthermia in Susceptible Swine by 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“Ecstasy”)." Anesthesiology 99, no. 5 (November 1, 2003): 1132–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200311000-00020.

Full text

Abstract:

Background 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy") can mediate acute toxic effects such as muscle rigidity, metabolic acidosis, and hyperthermia. Because of close clinical similarities, an association between MDMA intoxication and malignant hyperthermia (MH) was suggested. The aim of this study was to investigate whether MDMA is a trigger of MH in susceptible swine. Methods MH-nontriggering general anesthesia was performed in six MH-susceptible (MHS) and six MH-normal swine. The animals were exposed to MDMA in cumulative doses of 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 mg/kg. The clinical occurrence of MH was defined by achievement of two of three conditions: central venous Pco2 >/=75 mmHg, central venous pH </= 7.20, and increase of body core temperature >/= 2.0 degrees C. Once MH occurred, a standardized therapy with dantrolene, sodium bicarbonate, and hyperventilation with 100% oxygen was initialized. Results Administration of 8 mg/kg MDMA triggered MH in all MHS swine. The MH-normal swine also developed clinical signs of hypermetabolism, but even after administration of 12 mg/kg MDMA, changes were moderate compared with the MHS swine. Dantrolene therapy of MDMA-induced MH crisis in the MHS swine partially counteracted the clinical signs of MH immediately. Conclusions MDMA induces MH in genetically susceptible swine in relevant doses. Therefore, MHS patients should avoid use of MDMA or related drugs. Patients with a personal or family history of MDMA-induced hyperthermia should be tested for a diagnosis of MH susceptibility. Dantrolene is effective in therapy of MDMA-induced porcine MH.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

30

Elk, Carrie. "MDMA (Ecstacy): Useful Information for Health Professionals Involved in Drug Education Programs." Journal of Drug Education 26, no. 4 (December 1996): 349–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/k2pl-q2yf-wng0-54qd.

Full text

Abstract:

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; “Ecstacy”) is an amphetamine derivative that is related chemically to both amphetamines and hallucinogens. Despite reports of an increase in MDMA usage among adolescents and young adults in the past decade, systematic scientific information concerning MDMA and its effects remains insufficient, thus limiting or eliminating MDMA from inclusion in the drug education curriculum.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

31

Fallon, John K., Andrew T. Kicman, John A. Henry, Peter J. Milligan, David A. Cowan, and Andrew J. Hutt. "Stereospecific Analysis and Enantiomeric Disposition of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) in Humans." Clinical Chemistry 45, no. 7 (July 1, 1999): 1058–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/45.7.1058.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: Little is known concerning the enantioselective disposition of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) in humans. In addition, the potential of utilizing the stereochemical composition of an analyte in biological media for forensic purposes requires investigation. Methods: The enantiomers of MDMA and its demethylated metabolite, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), present in plasma and urine extracts were derivatized with (−)-(R)-α-methoxy-α-trifluoromethylphenylacetyl chloride and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and gas chromatography, respectively. The enantioselective disposition of MDMA and MDA was determined following oral administration of racemic MDMA (40 mg) to eight male volunteers. Results: The plasma concentrations of (R)-MDMA exceeded those of the S-enantiomer [ratio R:S of the area under the curve (AUC), 2.4 ± 0.3], and the plasma half-life of (R)-MDMA (5.8 ± 2.2 h) was significantly longer than that of the S-enantiomer (3.6 ± 0.9 h). The majority of the recovered material in urine was excreted within 24 h after dosing, with the recovery of (R)-MDMA (21.4% ± 11.6%) being significantly greater than that of (S)-MDMA (9.3% ± 4.9%), and with (S)- and (R)-MDA accounting for 1.4% ± 0.5% and 1.0% ± 0.3% of the dose, respectively. Mathematical modeling of plasma enantiomeric composition vs sampling time demonstrated the applicability of using stereochemical data for the prediction of time elapsed after drug administration. Conclusions: Analytical methods for determining the enantiomeric composition of MDMA and MDA in plasma and urine were developed. The disposition of MDMA in humans is stereoselective, with the more active S-enantiomer having a reduced AUC and shorter half-life than (R)-MDMA. The determination of stereochemical composition may be applicable for forensic purposes.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

32

Brčić Karačonji, Irena, and Nataša Brajenović. "Evaluation of amphetamine-type stimulant abuse through hair analysis: Results from 12 years of work." Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 65, no. 2 (June 1, 2014): 225–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/10004-1254-65-2014-2514.

Full text

Abstract:

AbstractHair analysis is a reliable tool for detecting long-term exposure to illegal drugs, including amphetaminetype stimulants, over periods from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the length of the hair used for analysis. Between 2000 and 2012, over 600 hair samples were analysed at the Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Croatia (IMROH) for the presence of amphetamine-type stimulants. IMROH has used the same procedure for testing hair samples for amphetamine-type stimulants for over twelve years. It was found to be reliable for confirming repeated abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to determine amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA-Ecstasy), and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) in hair. Hair samples were either taken at the Institute, delivered by mail or a third person brought them to the laboratory. In most cases, the hair samples were tested anonymously. A total of 23 % of the tested samples were positive for one or more amphetamine-type stimulant. MDMA was the most frequently detected substance, whereas the most frequent combination was amphetamine with MDMA. Our results could indicate a trend in amphetamine-type stimulant abuse among young people in the Republic of Croatia.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

33

Pettie, Michaela, Alana Oakly, David N. Harper, and Bart A. Ellenbroek. "A genetic deletion of the serotonin transporter differentially influences the behavioural effects of MDMA." Journal of Psychopharmacology 33, no. 3 (January 22, 2019): 355–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881118822156.

Full text

Abstract:

Background: While (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) primarily induces serotonin release, it also affects dopamine and noradrenaline transmission. It is, however, unclear what role each of these neurotransmitters play in the behavioural profile of MDMA. Methods: In this study we used the drug discrimination (DD) and the acoustic startle (ASR) paradigms to examine the behaviour of rats with and without a genetic deletion of the serotonin transporter SERT (SERT−/− and SERT+/+ rats). In DD, rats were trained to respond on different levers following an injection of 1.5 mg/kg MDMA, or saline. After acquisition, they were given a challenge dose of 0.5 mg/kg amphetamine (AMPH). In the ASR paradigm, SERT+/+ and SERT−/− rats were given 0, 5 or 10 mg/kg MDMA. Results: In DD, significantly fewer SERT−/− rats acquired MDMA discrimination. When the acquirers were challenged with AMPH, SERT+/+ showed partial, while SERT−/− rats showed full generalisation to MDMA. In the ASR paradigm, MDMA significantly reduced prepulse inhibition and startle habituation in SERT+/+ rats, while having no effect in SERT−/− rats. Conclusion: Together these data suggest that in wildtype rats the interoceptive cues of MDMA are primarily mediated by serotonin and to a lesser extent by dopamine and noradrenaline, while the effects in the startle paradigm are almost exclusively mediated via serotonin. Together, these data contribute to our understanding of the complex pharmacodynamics of MDMA.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

34

Ma, Y., C. Bian, D. Song, G. Yao, and R. Nie. "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine causes retinal damage in C57BL/6J mice." Human & Experimental Toxicology 39, no. 11 (June 18, 2020): 1556–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327120930253.

Full text

Abstract:

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a powerfully addictive psychostimulant with pronounced effects on the central nervous system, but the precise mechanism of MDMA-induced toxicity remains unclear, specifically on the retina. This study was performed to investigate the effects of MDMA treatment on the retina and explore the underlying mechanism. C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into control and MDMA groups. Mice were treated with MDMA at progressively increasing doses (1–6 mg/kg) intraperitoneally 4 times per day. Electroretinography was used to test the retinal function. Pathological changes of the retina were examined by toluidine blue staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to measure the levels of cytokines in the retina. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot were used to measure gene and protein expression in the retina, respectively. Our study showed that MDMA treatment impaired retinal function and decreased retinal thickness. MDMA treatment also increased transforming growth factor β as well as inflammatory factors in the retina. Moreover, MDMA treatment increased protein expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and decreased tight junction protein expression in the retina. Our study indicated that treatment of MDMA caused retinal damage in C57BL/6J mice, associated with an increase of MMPs and a decrease of tight junction proteins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

35

Studerus, Erich, Patrick Vizeli, Samuel Harder, Laura Ley, and Matthias E. Liechti. "Prediction of MDMA response in healthy humans: a pooled analysis of placebo-controlled studies." Journal of Psychopharmacology 35, no. 5 (March 30, 2021): 556–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881121998322.

Full text

Abstract:

Background: 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”) is used both recreationally and therapeutically. Little is known about the factors influencing inter- and intra-individual differences in the acute response to MDMA. Effects of other psychoactive substances have been shown to be critically influenced by personality traits and mood state before intake. Methods: We pooled data from 10 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over studies performed in the same laboratory in 194 healthy subjects receiving doses of 75 or 125mg of MDMA. We investigated the influence of drug dose, body weight, sex, age, drug pre-experience, genetics, personality and mental state before drug intake on the acute physiological and psychological response to MDMA. Results: In univariable analyses, the MDMA plasma concentration was the strongest predictor for most outcome variables. When adjusting for dose per body weight, we found that (a) a higher activity of the enzyme CYP2D6 predicted lower MDMA plasma concentration, (b) a higher score in the personality trait “openness to experience” predicted more perceived “closeness”, a stronger decrease in “general inactivation”, and higher scores in the 5D-ASC (5 Dimensions of Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire) scales “oceanic boundlessness” and “visionary restructuralization”, and (c) subjects with high “neuroticism” or trait anxiety were more likely to have unpleasant and/or anxious reactions. Conclusions: Although MDMA plasma concentration was the strongest predictor, several personality traits and mood state variables additionally explained variance in the response to MDMA. The results confirm that both pharmacological and non-pharmacological variables influence the response to MDMA. These findings may be relevant for the therapeutic use of MDMA.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

36

Sá Couto, J., B. Da Luz, J. Rodrigues, M. Pão Trigo, and T. Ventura Gil. "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted Psychotherapy For Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Review." European Psychiatry 65, S1 (June 2022): S672—S673. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.1730.

Full text

Abstract:

Introduction Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition which can be developed following traumatic experience. Treatment guidelines have long considered psychotherapy as a first line treatment. Despite that, PTSD remains an illness with high rates of comorbidity. Therefore, exploring novel therapies is of utmost importance. Objectives Clarifying methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy efficacy in symptom relief in people with PTSD. Explaining clinical MDMA mechanism of action. Assessing safety of MDMA clinical use. Methods PubMed database search, with “MDMA for PTSD” keyword expression. 12 Articles published in the last ten years were selected among the 112 best matches. Reference lists of articles were reviewed to identify additional articles. Results Mithoefer et al. (2010) carried out the first controlled clinical study with MDMA-assisted psychotherapy in people with PTSD. Twenty patients with treatment-resistant PTSD were selected. They were given either placebo or two or three sessions of MDMA. 83% of the experimental group no longer met the criteria for PTSD (mean remission lasted 45 months without further MDMA doses) compared with 25% of the placebo group. Further studies were also suggestive of improvements in treatment-resistant PTSD patients undergoing MDMA-assisted psychotherapy. MDMA may increase exposure therapy effectiveness, allowing patients to stay emotionally involved while revisiting past traumas without being overwhelmed by anxiety and fear. Conclusions To date, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy studies demonstrated consistently positive results. However, they have been carried out with small groups of individuals. Therefore, larger trials should be conducted to assess MDMA’s efficacy and safety for it to become a licensed medicine. Disclosure No significant relationships.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

37

Barnes, Allan J., Bruno S. De Martinis, David A. Gorelick, Robert S. Goodwin, Erin A. Kolbrich, and Marilyn A. Huestis. "Disposition of MDMA and Metabolites in Human Sweat Following Controlled MDMA Administration." Clinical Chemistry 55, no. 3 (March 1, 2009): 454–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2008.117093.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background: Understanding the excretion of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and metabolites in sweat is vital for interpretation of sweat tests in drug treatment, criminal justice, and workplace programs. Methods: Placebo, low (1.0 mg/kg), and high (1.6 mg/kg) doses of oral MDMA were given double-blind in random order to healthy volunteers (n = 15) with histories of MDMA use. Participants resided on the closed clinical research unit for up to 7 days after each dose. Volunteers wore PharmChek® sweat patches (n = 640) before, during, and after controlled dosing. Patches were analyzed by solid phase extraction and GC-MS for MDMA, methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA). Limits of quantification (LOQ) were 2.5 ng/patch for MDMA and 5 ng/patch for HMA, HMMA, and MDA. Results: MDMA was the primary analyte detected in 382 patches (59.7%), with concentrations up to 3007 ng/patch. MDA was detected in 188 patches (29.4%) at <172 ng/patch, whereas no HMMA or HMA was detected; 224 patches (35.0%) and 60 patches (9.4%) were positive for MDMA and MDA, respectively, at the 25-ng/patch threshold proposed by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Conclusions: Sweat testing was shown to be an effective and reliable method for monitoring MDMA use in this controlled MDMA administration study. However, variability in sweat excretion suggests that results should be interpreted qualitatively rather than quantitatively. These data provide a scientific database for interpretation of MDMA sweat test results.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

38

Holze, Friederike, Patrick Vizeli, Felix Müller, Laura Ley, Raoul Duerig, Nimmy Varghese, Anne Eckert, Stefan Borgwardt, and Matthias E. Liechti. "Distinct acute effects of LSD, MDMA, and d-amphetamine in healthy subjects." Neuropsychopharmacology 45, no. 3 (November 16, 2019): 462–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0569-3.

Full text

Abstract:

AbstractLysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a classic psychedelic, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is an empathogen, and d-amphetamine is a classic stimulant. All three substances are used recreationally. LSD and MDMA are being investigated as medications to assist psychotherapy, and d-amphetamine is used for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. All three substances induce distinct acute subjective effects. However, differences in acute responses to these prototypical psychoactive substances have not been characterized in a controlled study. We investigated the acute autonomic, subjective, and endocrine effects of single doses of LSD (0.1 mg), MDMA (125 mg), d-amphetamine (40 mg), and placebo in a randomized, double-blind, cross-over study in 28 healthy subjects. All of the substances produced comparable increases in hemodynamic effects, body temperature, and pupil size, indicating equivalent autonomic responses at the doses used. LSD and MDMA increased heart rate more than d-amphetamine, and d-amphetamine increased blood pressure more than LSD and MDMA. LSD induced significantly higher ratings on the 5 Dimensions of Altered States of Consciousness scale and Mystical Experience Questionnaire than MDMA and d-amphetamine. LSD also produced greater subjective drug effects, ego dissolution, introversion, emotional excitation, anxiety, and inactivity than MDMA and d-amphetamine. LSD also induced greater impairments in subjective ratings of concentration, sense of time, and speed of thinking compared with MDMA and d-amphetamine. MDMA produced greater ratings of good drug effects, liking, high, and ego dissolution compared with d-amphetamine. d-Amphetamine increased ratings of activity and concentration compared with LSD. MDMA but not LSD or d-amphetamine increased plasma concentrations of oxytocin. None of the substances altered plasma concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. These results indicate clearly distinct acute effects of LSD, MDMA, and d-amphetamine and may assist the dose-finding in substance-assisted psychotherapy research.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

39

Gatch, Michael B., and Michael J. Forster. "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-like discriminative stimulus effects of pyrrolidinyl cathinones in rats." Journal of Psychopharmacology 34, no. 7 (June 13, 2020): 778–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881120914213.

Full text

Abstract:

Background: Synthetic cathinone derivatives are used as alternatives both for stimulant drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine and for club drugs such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), but little is known about their MDMA-like subjective effects. Methods In order to determine their similarity to MDMA, the discriminative stimulus effects of 10 pyrrolidinyl cathinones (α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, 4′-methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4′-MePPP), α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone, 3′,4′-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone (MD-PBP), α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, 3,4-methylenedioxy-pyrovalerone (MDPV), α-pyrrolidinopentiothiophenone, napthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone), α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone, and 4′-methyl-α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone (4′-MePHP)) were assessed in Sprague–Dawley rats trained to discriminate 1.5 mg/kg racemic ±-MDMA from vehicle. Results: Compounds with no substitutions on the phenyl ring and the thiophene produced 44–67% MDMA-appropriate responding. In contrast, the substituted pyrrolidinyl cathinones produced a range of MDMA-appropriate responding dependent upon the length of the alpha side chain. 4′-MePPP, with a single carbon on the alpha position, produced 99.8% MDMA-appropriate responding, MD-PBP (two carbons) produced 83%, naphyrone (three carbons) produced 71%, MDPV (three carbons) produced, 66%, and 4′-MePHP (four carbons) produced 47%. Conclusions: Many cathinone compounds have discriminative stimulus effects similar to those of MDMA. However, the pyrrolidine substitution appears to reduce serotonergic effects, with a commensurate decrease in MDMA-like effects. Substitutions on the phenyl ring appear to be able to restore MDMA-like responding, but only in compounds with short alpha side chains. These findings agree with earlier findings of increasing dopaminergic effects and stronger reinforcing effects with increasing side chain. Assessment of more compounds is necessary to establish the replicability/robustness of this phenomenon. These findings may be of use in predicting which compounds will have MDMA/club drug-like effects versus psychostimulant-like effects.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

40

Hensley, D., and J. T. Cody. "Simultaneous Determination of Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) Enantiomers by GC-MS." Journal of Analytical Toxicology 23, no. 6 (October 1, 1999): 518–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jat/23.6.518.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

41

DACOSTA, J., and A. CHASIN. "Determination of MDMA, MDEA and MDA in urine by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection." Journal of Chromatography B 811, no. 1 (November 5, 2004): 41–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1570-0232(04)00630-0.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

42

DACOSTA, J., and A. CHASIN. "Determination of MDMA, MDEA and MDA in urine by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection." Journal of Chromatography B 811, no. 1 (November 5, 2004): 41–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2004.03.076.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

43

Noggle, F. Taylor, Jack DeRuiter, and Melinda J. Long. "Spectrophotometric and Liquid Chromatographic Identification of 3,4-Methylenedioxyphenylisopropylamine and Its N-Methyl and N-Ethyl Homologs." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 69, no. 4 (July 1, 1986): 681–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/69.4.681.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract 3,4-Methylenedioxyphenylisopropylamine (MDA) is an hallucinogenic drug that somewhat resembles lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in its effects. Recently, widespread abuse of the N-methyl homolog (MDMA) of MDA has led to federal control. This article reports on the synthesis of the N-ethyl homolog (MDEA) of MDA as well as spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods for identification of the 3 homologs.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

44

Carlyle, Molly, Tobias Stevens, Leah Fawaz, Beth Marsh, Sophia Kosmider, and Celia JA Morgan. "Greater empathy in MDMA users." Journal of Psychopharmacology 33, no. 3 (February 5, 2019): 295–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881119826594.

Full text

Abstract:

Background: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is widely known for its positive acute effects on social behaviour, such as increasing empathy, whilst also attenuating the negative impact of social exclusion. However there is a scarcity of research that investigates the long-term impact of recreational MDMA use on these fundamental social processes. Method: Sixty-seven individuals were split into three groups based on their drug-use history: poly-drug MDMA users ( n = 25), poly-drug users who do not use MDMA ( n = 19), alcohol-only users ( n = 23), and were tested in an independent groups design. Participants completed both a self-report measure of emotional and cognitive empathy, along with the Multifaceted Empathy Task – a computerised assessment of empathy – and the Cyberball Game – a social exclusion paradigm. Results: MDMA users had significantly greater subjective emotional empathy, and greater cognitive empathy on the computer task compared with the poly-drug users who do not use MDMA. There were no significant differences in subjective responses to social exclusion between the groups. Indices of MDMA use did not correlate with empathy. Conclusions: Long-term MDMA users in this sample exhibited normal psychosocial functioning in regard to empathy and social pain and had higher subjective emotional empathy. This conflicts with previous suggestions that moderate, long-term MDMA use may cause heightened social distress, and is further evidence of the safety of the drug, which is relevant to considerations of its therapeutic use.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

45

Tsai, Chi-Jung, Chuang-Hsin Chiu, Yu-Yeh Kuo, Wen-Sheng Huang, Tsung-Hsun Yu, Leo Garcia Flores, Skye Hsin-Hsien Yeh, and Kuo-Hsing Ma. "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) Model: In Vivo 4-[18F]-ADAM PET Imaging." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 13 (June 24, 2022): 7035. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23137035.

Full text

Abstract:

Numerous studies have confirmed that 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) produces long-lasting changes to the density of the serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT). Amitriptyline (AMI) has been shown to exert neuroprotective properties in neuropathologic injury. Here, we used a SERT-specific radionuclide, 4-[18F]-ADAM, to assess the longitudinal alterations in SERT binding and evaluate the synergistic neuroprotective effect of AMI in a rat MDMA model. In response to MDMA treatment regimens, SERT binding was significantly reduced in rat brains. Region-specific recovery rate (normalized to baseline) in the MDMA group at day 14 was 71.29% ± 3.21%, and progressively increased to 90.90% ± 7.63% at day 35. AMI dramatically increased SERT binding in all brain regions, enhancing average ~18% recovery rate at day 14 when compared with the MDMA group. The immunochemical staining revealed that AMI markedly increased the serotonergic fiber density in the cingulate and thalamus after MDMA-induction, and confirmed the PET findings. Using in vivo longitudinal PET imaging, we demonstrated that SERT recovery was positively correlated with the duration of MDMA abstinence, implying that lower SERT densities in MDMA-induced rats reflected neurotoxic effects and were (varied) region-specific and reversible. AMI globally accelerated the recovery rate of SERT binding and increased SERT fiber density with possible neuroprotective effects.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

46

Sáez-Briones, Patricio, Boris Palma, Héctor Burgos, Rafael Barra, and Alejandro Hernández. "Aromatic Bromination Abolishes Deficits in Visuospatial Learning Induced by MDMA (“Ecstasy”) in Rats While Preserving the Ability to Increase LTP in the Prefrontal Cortex." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 4 (February 13, 2023): 3724. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043724.

Full text

Abstract:

It has recently been demonstrated that aromatic bromination at C(2) abolishes all typical psychomotor, and some key prosocial effects of the entactogen MDMA in rats. Nevertheless, the influence of aromatic bromination on MDMA-like effects on higher cognitive functions remains unexplored. In the present work, the effects of MDMA and its brominated analog 2Br-4,5-MDMA (1 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg i.p. each) on visuospatial learning, using a radial, octagonal Olton maze (4 × 4) which may discriminate between short-term and long-term memory, were compared with their influence on in vivo long-term potentiation (LTP) in the prefrontal cortex in rats. The results obtained indicate that MDMA diminishes both short- and long-term visuospatial memory but increases LTP. In contrast, 2Br-4,5-MDMA preserves long-term visuospatial memory and slightly accelerates the occurrence of short-term memory compared to controls, but increases LTP, like MDMA. Taken together, these data are consistent with the notion that the modulatory effects induced by the aromatic bromination of the MDMA template, which abolishes typical entactogenic-like responses, might be extended to those effects affecting higher cognitive functions, such as visuospatial learning. This effect seems not to be associated with the increase of LTP in the prefrontal cortex.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

47

Carrera, Perliveh, and Vivek N. Iyer. "Profound Hypoglycemia with Ecstasy Intoxication." Case Reports in Emergency Medicine 2015 (2015): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/483153.

Full text

Abstract:

Background.3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or ecstasy is a synthetic drug that is commonly abused for its stimulant and euphoric effects. Adverse MDMA effects include hyperthermia, psychomotor agitation, hemodynamic compromise, renal failure, hyponatremia, and coma. However, endogenous hyperinsulinemia with severe persistent hypoglycemia has not been reported with MDMA use.Case Report.We report the case of a 29-year-old woman who remained severely hypoglycemic requiring continuous intravenous infusion of high-dose dextrose solutions for more than 24 hours after MDMA intoxication. Serum insulin and C-peptide levels confirmed marked endogenous hyperinsulinemia as the cause of the severe hypoglycemia.Why Should an Emergency Physician Be Aware of This?Immediate and frequent monitoring of blood glucose should be instituted in patients presenting with MDMA ingestion particularly if found to be initially hypoglycemic. Early recognition can help prevent the deleterious effects of untreated hypoglycemia that can add to the morbidity from MDMA use. Clinicians need to be aware of this side effect of MDMA so they can carefully monitor and treat it, especially in patients presenting with altered mental status.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

48

Fineschi, Vittorio, and Alessandra Masti. "Fatal poisoning by MDMA (ecstasy) and MDEA: A case report." International Journal of Legal Medicine 108, no. 5 (September 1996): 272–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01369826.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

49

Wright, Dean J., Ben Colagiuri, and Nick Glozier. "Evaluating the attitudes of mental health professionals towards trials of MDMA: a randomised vignette trial." BMJ Open 12, no. 11 (November 2022): e060360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-060360.

Full text

Abstract:

ObjectivesTo compare attitudes of mental health (MH) professionals towards trials of methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy (MDMA-AP), with a neutrally labelled pharmacotherapy trial.DesignA randomised controlled vignette study design, with experimenters blinded to group condition.SettingParticipants were recruited online via professional societies.ParticipantsPsychiatrists, psychologists and MH researchers from across Australia.InterventionsParticipants were randomly allocated to read a vignette about a trial of either MDMA-AP or a neutrally labelled pharmacotherapy.OutcomesComparison of the difference in four attitudes towards MDMA-AP and control: How likely they were to (1) recommend participating, or (2) object to participating in the trial; (3) their predicted efficacy; and (4) concerns about the safety of the trial.ResultsThere were no overall differences between professional’s attitudes towards MDMA-AP (n=51) and the control pharmacotherapy (n=43) trial vignettes. Psychiatrists were less likely to recommend participation in the MDMA-AP than the control trial (d=0.72, p=0.02), but did not differ in other attitudes. Psychologists and researchers did not differ in any attitudes. The correlation between professional experience and both: (1) concern about, and (2) strength of objection to, the trial, was higher for MDMA-AP, than control (d=0.60, p=0.01 andd=0.40, p=0.03, respectively).ConclusionsPsychiatrists, but not psychologists or researchers showed more hesitancy in recommending trials of MDMA-AP versus an unknown pharmacotherapy. Experienced MH professionals were more likely to have negative views about MDMA-AP trials than less experienced MH professionals. This may reflect the experience of prior unfulfilled pharmacotherapy innovation or exuberance associated with fewer years of practice. Research into, and implementation of, MDMA-AP may face barriers with certain MH professionals, which will need be addressed if MDMA-AP continues to show promise as an efficacious treatment.Trial registration numberThe study design was registered with the ANZCTR (ACTRN12620001068954).

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

50

van Amsterdam, Jan, Gjalt-Jorn Ygram Peters, Ed Pennings, Tom Blickman, Kaj Hollemans, Joost J. Jacobus Breeksema, Johannes G. Ramaekers, et al. "Developing a new national MDMA policy: Results of a multi-decision multi-criterion decision analysis." Journal of Psychopharmacology 35, no. 5 (February 2, 2021): 537–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881120981380.

Full text

Abstract:

Background: Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)) has a relatively low harm and low dependence liability but is scheduled on List I of the Dutch Opium Act (‘hard drugs’). Concerns surrounding increasing MDMA-related criminality coupled with the possibly inappropriate scheduling of MDMA initiated a debate to revise the current Dutch ecstasy policy. Methods: An interdisciplinary group of 18 experts on health, social harms and drug criminality and law enforcement reformulated the science-based Dutch MDMA policy using multi-decision multi-criterion decision analysis (MD-MCDA). The experts collectively formulated policy instruments and rated their effects on 25 outcome criteria, including health, criminality, law enforcement and financial issues, thematically grouped in six clusters. Results: The experts scored the effect of 22 policy instruments, each with between two and seven different mutually exclusive options, on 25 outcome criteria. The optimal policy model was defined by the set of 22 policy instrument options which gave the highest overall score on the 25 outcome criteria. Implementation of the optimal policy model, including regulated MDMA sales, decreases health harms, MDMA-related organised crime and environmental damage, as well as increases state revenues and quality of MDMA products and user information. This model was slightly modified to increase its political feasibility. Sensitivity analyses showed that the outcomes of the current MD-MCDA are robust and independent of variability in weight values. Conclusion: The present results provide a feasible and realistic set of policy instrument options to revise the legislation towards a rational MDMA policy that is likely to reduce both adverse (public) health risks and MDMA-related criminal burden.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

Journal articles on the topic 'MDMA'

Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles