Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'MCMC, Méthode de Monte-Carlo par chaînes de Markov'
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Bekhti, Yousra. "Contributions to sparse source localization for MEG/EEG brain imaging." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Paris, ENST, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018ENST0017.
Full textUnderstanding the full complexity of the brain has been a challenging research project for decades, yet there are many mysteries that remain unsolved. Being able to model how the brain represents, analyzes, processes, and transforms information of millions of different tasks in a record time is primordial for both cognitive and clinical studies. These tasks can go from language, perception, memory, attention, emotion, to reasoning and creativity. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG) allow us to non-invasively measure the brain activity with high temporal and good spatial resolution using sensors positioned all over the head, in order to be analyzed. For a given magnetic-electric field outside the head, there are an infinite number of electrical current source distributed inside of the brain that could have created it. This means that the M/EEG inverse problem is ill-posed, having many solutions to the single problem. This constrains us to make assumptions about how the brain might work. This thesis investigated the assumption of having sparse source estimate, i.e. only few sources are activated for each specific task. This is modeled as a penalized regression with a spatio-temporal regularization term. The aim of this thesis was to use outstanding methodologies from machine learning field to solve the three steps of the M/EEG inverse problem. The first step is to model the problem in the time frequency domain with a multi-scale dictionary to take into account the mixture of non-stationary brain sources, i.e. brain regions share information resulting in brain activity alternating from a source to another. This is done by formulating the problem as a penalized regression with a data fit term and a spatio-temporal regularization term, which has an extra hyperparameter. This hyperparameter is mostly tuned by hand, which makes the analysis of source brain activity not objective, but also hard to generalize on big studies. The second contribution is to automatically estimate this hyperparameter under some conditions, which increase the objectivity of the solvers. However, these state-of-the-art solvers have a main problem that their source localization solver gives one solution, and does not allow for any uncertainty quantification. We investigated this question by studying new techniques as done by a Bayesian community involving Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. It allows us to obtain uncertainty maps over source localization estimation, which is primordial for a clinical study, e.g. epileptic activity. The last main contribution is to have a complete comparison of state-of-the-art solvers on phantom dataset. Phantom is an artificial object that mimics the brain activity based on theoretical description and produces realistic data corresponding to complex spatio-temporal current sources. In other words, all solvers have been tested on an almost real dataset with a known ground truth for a real validation
Thouvenin, Pierre-Antoine. "Modeling spatial and temporal variabilities in hyperspectral image unmixing." Phd thesis, Toulouse, INPT, 2017. http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/19258/1/THOUVENIN_PierreAntoine.pdf.
Full textSuparman, Suparman. "Problèmes de choix de modèles par simulation de type Monte Carlo par chaînes de Markov à sauts réversibles." Toulouse 3, 2003. http://www.theses.fr/2003TOU30005.
Full textAltaleb, Anas. "Méthodes d'échantillonnage par mélanges et algorithmes MCMC." Rouen, 1999. http://www.theses.fr/1999ROUES034.
Full textGbedo, Yémalin Gabin. "Les techniques Monte Carlo par chaînes de Markov appliquées à la détermination des distributions de partons." Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017GREAY059/document.
Full textWe have developed a new approach to determine parton distribution functions and quantify their experimental uncertainties, based on Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods.The main interest devoted to such a study is that we can replace the standard χ 2 MINUIT minimization by procedures grounded on Statistical Methods, and on Bayesian inference in particular, thus offering additional insight into the rich field of PDFs determination.After reviewing these Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques, we introduce the algorithm we have chosen to implement – namely Hybrid (or Hamiltonian) Monte Carlo. This algorithm, initially developed for lattice quantum chromodynamique, turns out to be very interesting when applied to parton distribution functions determination by global analyses ; we have shown that it allows to circumvent the technical difficulties due to the high dimensionality of the problem, in particular concerning the acceptance rate. The feasibility study performed and presented in this thesis, indicates that Markov chain Monte Carlo method can successfully be applied to the extraction of PDFs and of their experimental uncertainties
Albert, Isabelle. "Inférence bayesienne par les methodes de Monte Carlo par chaînes de Markov et arbres de régression pour l'analyse statistique des données corrélées." Paris 11, 1998. http://www.theses.fr/1998PA11T020.
Full textDelescluse, Matthieu. "Une approche Monte Carlo par Chaînes de Markov pour la classification des potentiels d'action. Application à l'étude des corrélations d'activité des cellules de Purkinje." Phd thesis, Université Pierre et Marie Curie - Paris VI, 2005. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00011123.
Full textCette méthode de spike-sorting a fait l'objet d'une validation expérimentale sur des populations de cellules de Purkinje (PCs), dans les tranches de cervelet de rat. Par ailleurs, l'étude des trains de PAs de ces cellules fournis par le spike-sorting, n'a pas révélé de corrélations temporelles significatives en régime spontané, en dépit de l'existence d'une inhibition commune par les interneurones de la couche moléculaire et d'une inhibition directe de PC à PC. Des simulations ont montré que l'influence de ces inhibitions sur les relations temporelles entre les trains de PCs était trop faible pour pouvoir être détectée par nos méthodes d'analyse de corrélations. Les codes élaborés pour l'analyse des trains de PAs sont également disponibles sous la forme d'un second logiciel libre.
Delescluse, Matthieu. "Une approche Monte Carlo par chaînes de Markov pour la classification des potentiels d' action : application à l' étude des corrélations d' activité des cellules de Purkinje." Paris 6, 2005. http://www.theses.fr/2005PA066493.
Full textSpinelli, Marta. "Cosmological parameter estimation with the Planck satellite data : from the construction of a likelihood to neutrino properties." Thesis, Paris 11, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA112241/document.
Full textThe cosmic microwave background (CMB), relic of the hot Big-Bang, carries the traces of both the rich structure formation of the late time epochs and the energetic early phases of the universe.The Planck satellite provided, from 2009 to 2013, high-quality measurements of the anisotropies of the CMB. These are used in this thesis to determine the parameters of the standard cosmological model and of the extension concerning the neutrino sector. The construction of an high-l Planck likelihood is detailed. This involves a masking strategy that deals in particular with the contamination from thermal emission of the Galaxy. The residual foregrounds are treated directly at the power spectrum level relying on physically motivated templates based on Planck studies.The statistical methods needed to extract the cosmological parameters in the comparison between models and data are described, both the Bayesian Monte Carlo Markov Chain techniques and the frequentist profile likelihood. Results on cosmological parameters are presented using Planck data alone and in combination with the small scale data from the ground based CMB experiment ACT and SPT, the Baryon Acoustic Oscillation and the Supernovae. Constraints on the absolute scale of neutrino masses and of the number of effective neutrino are also discussed
Bӑrbos, Andrei-Cristian. "Efficient high-dimension gaussian sampling based on matrix splitting : application to bayesian Inversion." Thesis, Bordeaux, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018BORD0002/document.
Full textThe thesis deals with the problem of high-dimensional Gaussian sampling.Such a problem arises for example in Bayesian inverse problems in imaging where the number of variables easily reaches an order of 106_109. The complexity of the sampling problem is inherently linked to the structure of the covariance matrix. Different solutions to tackle this problem have already been proposed among which we emphasizethe Hogwild algorithm which runs local Gibbs sampling updates in parallel with periodic global synchronisation.Our algorithm makes use of the connection between a class of iterative samplers and iterative solvers for systems of linear equations. It does not target the required Gaussian distribution, instead it targets an approximate distribution. However, we are able to control how far off the approximate distribution is with respect to the required one by means of asingle tuning parameter.We first compare the proposed sampling algorithm with the Gibbs and Hogwild algorithms on moderately sized problems for different target distributions. Our algorithm manages to out perform the Gibbs and Hogwild algorithms in most of the cases. Let us note that the performances of our algorithm are dependent on the tuning parameter.We then compare the proposed algorithm with the Hogwild algorithm on a large scalereal application, namely image deconvolution-interpolation. The proposed algorithm enables us to obtain good results, whereas the Hogwild algorithm fails to converge. Let us note that for small values of the tuning parameter our algorithm fails to converge as well.Not with standing, a suitably chosen value for the tuning parameter enables our proposed sampler to converge and to deliver good results
Putze, Antje. "Phénoménologie et détection du rayonnement cosmique nucléaire." Phd thesis, Université Joseph Fourier (Grenoble), 2009. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00433301.
Full textPutze, Antje. "Phénoménologie et détection du rayonnement cosmique nucléaire." Phd thesis, Grenoble 1, 2009. http://www.theses.fr/2009GRE10144.
Full textOne century after the discovery of cosmic rays – a flux of energetic charged particles which bombards the upper layers of Earth's atmosphere –, many questions remain still open on its origin, nature and transport. The precise measurement of the cosmic-ray ion flux aims to study the acceleration and propagation processes. In particular, the measurement of secondary-to-primary ratios allows to constrain propagation models very effectively due to its direct dependency to the grammage seen by the particles during their transport. The knowledge and the characterisation of the processes related to the propagation make it possible to reconstruct the cosmic-ray source spectrum and thus to constrain the acceleration processes, but also to test the existence of exotic contributions such as the annihilation of dark-matter particles. This thesis treats two aspects of cosmic-ray physics: the phenomenology and the detection. Concerning the phenomenological aspect, the work presented here consists in evaluating and studying the constraints on galactic cosmic-ray propagation models provided by current measurements using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo. The experimental aspect of this work concerns the participation in the construction, the validation and the data analysis of the CherCam subdetector – a Cherenkov imager measuring the charge of cosmic-ray ions for the CREAM experiment – whose preliminary results are presented
Dang, Hong-Phuong. "Approches bayésiennes non paramétriques et apprentissage de dictionnaire pour les problèmes inverses en traitement d'image." Thesis, Ecole centrale de Lille, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016ECLI0019/document.
Full textDictionary learning for sparse representation has been widely advocated for solving inverse problems. Optimization methods and parametric approaches towards dictionary learning have been particularly explored. These methods meet some limitations, particularly related to the choice of parameters. In general, the dictionary size is fixed in advance, and sparsity or noise level may also be needed. In this thesis, we show how to perform jointly dictionary and parameter learning, with an emphasis on image processing. We propose and study the Indian Buffet Process for Dictionary Learning (IBP-DL) method, using a bayesian nonparametric approach.A primer on bayesian nonparametrics is first presented. Dirichlet and Beta processes and their respective derivatives, the Chinese restaurant and Indian Buffet processes are described. The proposed model for dictionary learning relies on an Indian Buffet prior, which permits to learn an adaptive size dictionary. The Monte-Carlo method for inference is detailed. Noise and sparsity levels are also inferred, so that in practice no parameter tuning is required. Numerical experiments illustrate the performances of the approach in different settings: image denoising, inpainting and compressed sensing. Results are compared with state-of-the art methods is made. Matlab and C sources are available for sake of reproducibility
Oulad, Ameziane Mehdi. "Amélioration de l'exploration de l'espace d'état dans les méthodes de Monte Carlo séquentielles pour le suivi visuel." Thesis, Ecole centrale de Lille, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017ECLI0007.
Full textIn computer vision applications, visual tracking is an important and a fundamental task. Solving the tracking problematic based on a statistical formulation in the Bayesian framework has gained great interest in recent years due to the capabilities of the sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) methods to adapt to various tracking schemes and to take into account model uncertainties. In practice, the efficiency of SMC methods strongly depends on the proposal density used to explore the state space, thus the choice of the proposal is essential. In the thesis, our approach to efficiently explore the state space aims to derive a close approximation of the optimal proposal. The proposed near optimal proposal relies on an approximation of the likelihood using a new form of likelihood based on soft detection information which is more trustworthy and requires less calculations than the usual likelihood. In comparison with previous works, our near optimal proposal offers a good compromise between computational complexity and optimality.Improving the exploration of the state space is most required in two visual tracking applications: abrupt motion tracking and multiple object tracking. In the thesis, we focus on the ability of the near optimal SMC methods to deal with abrupt motion situations and we compare them to the state-of-the-art methods proposed in the literature for these situations. Also, we extend the near optimal proposal to multiple object tracking scenarios and show the benefit of using the near optimal SMC algorithms for these scenarios. Moreover, we implemented the Local PF which partition large state spaces into separate smaller subspaces while modelling interactions
Sodjo, Jessica. "Modèle bayésien non paramétrique pour la segmentation jointe d'un ensemble d'images avec des classes partagées." Thesis, Bordeaux, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018BORD0152/document.
Full textThis work concerns the joint segmentation of a set images in a Bayesian framework. The proposed model combines the hierarchical Dirichlet process (HDP) and the Potts random field. Hence, for a set of images, each is divided into homogeneous regions and similar regions between images are grouped into classes. On the one hand, thanks to the HDP, it is not necessary to define a priori the number of regions per image and the number of classes, common or not.On the other hand, the Potts field ensures a spatial consistency. The arising a priori and a posteriori distributions are complex and makes it impossible to compute analytically estimators. A Gibbs algorithm is then proposed to generate samples of the distribution a posteriori. Moreover,a generalized Swendsen-Wang algorithm is developed for a better exploration of the a posteriori distribution. Finally, a sequential Monte Carlo sampler is defined for the estimation of the hyperparameters of the model.These methods have been evaluated on toy examples and natural images. The choice of the best partition is done by minimization of a numbering free criterion. The performance are assessed by metrics well-known in statistics but unused in image segmentation
Wei, Qi. "Bayesian fusion of multi-band images : A powerful tool for super-resolution." Phd thesis, Toulouse, INPT, 2015. http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/14398/1/wei.pdf.
Full textElvira, Clément. "Modèles bayésiens pour l’identification de représentations antiparcimonieuses et l’analyse en composantes principales bayésienne non paramétrique." Thesis, Ecole centrale de Lille, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017ECLI0016/document.
Full textThis thesis proposes Bayesian parametric and nonparametric models for signal representation. The first model infers a higher dimensional representation of a signal for sake of robustness by enforcing the information to be spread uniformly. These so called anti-sparse representations are obtained by solving a linear inverse problem with an infinite-norm penalty. We propose in this thesis a Bayesian formulation of anti-sparse coding involving a new probability distribution, referred to as the democratic prior. A Gibbs and two proximal samplers are proposed to approximate Bayesian estimators. The algorithm is called BAC-1. Simulations on synthetic data illustrate the performances of the two proposed samplers and the results are compared with state-of-the art methods. The second model identifies a lower dimensional representation of a signal for modelisation and model selection. Principal component analysis is very popular to perform dimension reduction. The selection of the number of significant components is essential but often based on some practical heuristics depending on the application. Few works have proposed a probabilistic approach to infer the number of significant components. We propose a Bayesian nonparametric principal component analysis called BNP-PCA. The proposed model involves an Indian buffet process to promote a parsimonious use of principal components, which is assigned a prior distribution defined on the manifold of orthonormal basis. Inference is done using MCMC methods. The estimators of the latent dimension are theoretically and empirically studied. The relevance of the approach is assessed on two applications
Eid, Abdelrahman. "Stochastic simulations for graphs and machine learning." Thesis, Lille 1, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020LIL1I018.
Full textWhile it is impractical to study the population in many domains and applications, sampling is a necessary method allows to infer information. This thesis is dedicated to develop probability sampling algorithms to infer the whole population when it is too large or impossible to be obtained. Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) techniques are one of the most important tools for sampling from probability distributions especially when these distributions haveintractable normalization constants.The work of this thesis is mainly interested in graph sampling techniques. Two methods in chapter 2 are presented to sample uniform subtrees from graphs using Metropolis-Hastings algorithms. The proposed methods aim to sample trees according to a distribution from a graph where the vertices are labelled. The efficiency of these methods is proved mathematically. Additionally, simulation studies were conducted and confirmed the theoretical convergence results to the equilibrium distribution.Continuing to the work on graph sampling, a method is presented in chapter 3 to sample sets of similar vertices in an arbitrary undirected graph using the properties of the Permanental Point processes PPP. Our algorithm to sample sets of k vertices is designed to overcome the problem of computational complexity when computing the permanent by sampling a joint distribution whose marginal distribution is a kPPP.Finally in chapter 4, we use the definitions of the MCMC methods and convergence speed to estimate the kernel bandwidth used for classification in supervised Machine learning. A simple and fast method called KBER is presented to estimate the bandwidth of the Radial basis function RBF kernel using the average Ricci curvature of graphs
Tamatoro, Johng-Ay. "Approche stochastique de l'analyse du « residual moveout » pour la quantification de l'incertitude dans l'imagerie sismique." Thesis, Pau, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PAUU3044/document.
Full textThe main goal of the seismic imaging for oil exploration and production as it is done nowadays is to provide an image of the first kilometers of the subsurface to allow the localization and an accurate estimation of hydrocarbon resources. The reservoirs where these hydrocarbons are trapped are structures which have a more or less complex geology. To characterize these reservoirs and allow the production of hydrocarbons, the geophysicist uses the depth migration which is a seismic imaging tool which serves to convert time data recorded during seismic surveys into depth images which will be exploited by the reservoir engineer with the help of the seismic interpreter and the geologist. During the depth migration, seismic events (reflectors, diffractions, faults …) are moved to their correct locations in space. Relevant depth migration requires an accurate knowledge of vertical and horizontal seismic velocity variations (velocity model). Usually the so-called Common-Image-Gathers (CIGs) serve as a tool to verify correctness of the velocity model. Often the CIGs are computed in the surface offset (distance between shot point and receiver) domain and their flatness serve as criteria of the velocity model correctness. Residual moveout (RMO) of the events on CIGs due to the ratio of migration velocity model and effective velocity model indicates incorrectness of the velocity model and is used for the velocity model updating. The post-stacked images forming the CIGs which are used as data for the RMO analysis are the results of an inverse problem and are corrupt by noises. An uncertainty analysis is necessary to improve evaluation of the results. Dealing with the uncertainty is a major issue, which supposes to help in decisions that have important social and commercial implications. The goal of this thesis is to contribute to the uncertainty analysis and its quantification in the analysis of various parameters computed during the seismic processing and particularly in RMO analysis. To reach these goals several stages were necessary. We began by appropriating the various geophysical concepts necessary for the understanding of:- the organization of the seismic data ;- the various processing ;- the various mathematical and methodological tools which are used (chapters 2 and 3). In the chapter 4, we present different tools used for the conventional RMO analysis. In the fifth one, we give a statistical interpretation of the conventional RMO analysis and we propose a stochastic approach of this analysis. This approach consists in hierarchical statistical model where the parameters are: - the variance which express the noise level in the data ;- a functional parameter which express coherency of the amplitudes along events ; - the ratio which is assume to be a random variable and not an unknown fixed parameter as it is the case in conventional approach. The adjustment of data to the model done by using smoothing methods of data, combined with the using of the wavelets for the estimation of allow to compute the posterior distribution of given the data by the empirical Bayes methods. An estimation of the parameter is obtained by using Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulations of its posterior distribution. The various quantiles of these simulations provide different estimations of . The proposed methodology is validated in the sixth chapter by its application on synthetic data and real data. A sensitivity analysis of the estimation of the parameter was done. The using of the uncertainty of this parameter to quantify the uncertainty of the spatial positions of reflectors is presented in this thesis
Raherinirina, Angelo. "Modélisation markovienne des dynamiques d'usages des sols. Cas des parcelles situées sur le bord du corridor forestier {Ranomafana-Andringitra}." Phd thesis, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00936305.
Full textRaherinirina, Angelo. "Modélisation markovienne des dynamiques d'usage des sols. Cas des parcelles situées sur le bord du corridor forestier Ranomafana-Andringitra." Phd thesis, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00870679.
Full textFontaine, Simon. "MCMC adaptatifs à essais multiples." Thèse, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/22547.
Full textHuguet, Guillaume. "Étude d’algorithmes de simulation par chaînes de Markov non réversibles." Thesis, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/24345.
Full textMarkov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods commonly use chains that respect the detailed balance condition. These chains are called reversible. Most of the theory developed for MCMC evolves around those particular chains. Peskun (1973) and Tierney (1998) provided useful theorems on the ordering of the asymptotic variances for two estimators produced by two different reversible chains. In this thesis, we are interested in non-reversible chains, which are chains that don’t respect the detailed balance condition. We present algorithms that simulate non-reversible chains, mainly the Guided Random Walk (GRW) by Gustafson (1998) and the Discrete Bouncy Particle Sampler (DBPS) by Sherlock and Thiery (2017). For both algorithms, we compare the asymptotic variance of estimators with the ones produced by the Metropolis- Hastings algorithm. We present a recent theoretical framework introduced by Andrieu and Livingstone (2019) and their analysis of the GRW. We then show that the DBPS is part of this framework and present an analysis on the asymptotic variance of estimators. Their main theorem can provide an ordering of the asymptotic variances of two estimators resulting from nonreversible chains. We show that an estimator could have a lower asymptotic variance by adding propositions to the DBPS. We then present empirical results of a modified DBPS. Through the thesis we will mostly be interested in chains that are produced by deterministic proposals. We show a general construction of the delayed rejection algorithm using deterministic proposals and one possible equivalent for non-reversible chains.
Handi, Youssef. "Modèle d'agrégation des avis des experts, en fiabilité d'équipements." Thèse, 2021. http://depot-e.uqtr.ca/id/eprint/9666/1/eprint9666.pdf.
Full textDesjardins, Guillaume. "Improving sampling, optimization and feature extraction in Boltzmann machines." Thèse, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/10550.
Full textDespite the current widescale success of deep learning in training large scale hierarchical models through supervised learning, unsupervised learning promises to play a crucial role towards solving general Artificial Intelligence, where agents are expected to learn with little to no supervision. The work presented in this thesis tackles the problem of unsupervised feature learning and density estimation, using a model family at the heart of the deep learning phenomenon: the Boltzmann Machine (BM). We present contributions in the areas of sampling, partition function estimation, optimization and the more general topic of invariant feature learning. With regards to sampling, we present a novel adaptive parallel tempering method which dynamically adjusts the temperatures under simulation to maintain good mixing in the presence of complex multi-modal distributions. When used in the context of stochastic maximum likelihood (SML) training, the improved ergodicity of our sampler translates to increased robustness to learning rates and faster per epoch convergence. Though our application is limited to BM, our method is general and is applicable to sampling from arbitrary probabilistic models using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) techniques. While SML gradients can be estimated via sampling, computing data likelihoods requires an estimate of the partition function. Contrary to previous approaches which consider the model as a black box, we provide an efficient algorithm which instead tracks the change in the log partition function incurred by successive parameter updates. Our algorithm frames this estimation problem as one of filtering performed over a 2D lattice, with one dimension representing time and the other temperature. On the topic of optimization, our thesis presents a novel algorithm for applying the natural gradient to large scale Boltzmann Machines. Up until now, its application had been constrained by the computational and memory requirements of computing the Fisher Information Matrix (FIM), which is square in the number of parameters. The Metric-Free Natural Gradient algorithm (MFNG) avoids computing the FIM altogether by combining a linear solver with an efficient matrix-vector operation. The method shows promise in that the resulting updates yield faster per-epoch convergence, despite being slower in terms of wall clock time. Finally, we explore how invariant features can be learnt through modifications to the BM energy function. We study the problem in the context of the spike & slab Restricted Boltzmann Machine (ssRBM), which we extend to handle both binary and sparse input distributions. By associating each spike with several slab variables, latent variables can be made invariant to a rich, high dimensional subspace resulting in increased invariance in the learnt representation. When using the expected model posterior as input to a classifier, increased invariance translates to improved classification accuracy in the low-label data regime. We conclude by showing a connection between invariance and the more powerful concept of disentangling factors of variation. While invariance can be achieved by pooling over subspaces, disentangling can be achieved by learning multiple complementary views of the same subspace. In particular, we show how this can be achieved using third-order BMs featuring multiplicative interactions between pairs of random variables.