Journal articles on the topic 'Mathematics Study and teaching (Secondary) Victoria Case studies'

ABSTRACT: Teacher performance has been the focus of educational policy reforms in recent decades for the professional development of teachers. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of teaching experience and peer teaching skills on basic training on ECE teacher performance. This research uses ex-post facto quantitative method of comparative analysis and design by level. The population is all ECE teachers who attend basic-level education and training in Tangerang Regency, totaling 3358 people consisting of 116 male teachers and 3,242 female teachers. Data collection techniques using a questionnaire with data analysis include descriptive analysis. Requirements test analysis and inferential analysis. The results show that there are differences in the performance of ECE teachers between teachers with more than five years of teaching experience and less than five years, in the group of ECE teachers with high peer teaching skills and low peer teaching skills. The implication of this research is that it is hoped that various parties will become more active in aligning ECE teacher training so that it can improve the performance of ECE teachers. Keywords: teaching experience, peer teaching ability, tiered basic training, ECE teacher performance References: Adeyemi, T. (2008). Influence of Teachers’ Teaching Experience on Students’ Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Studies in Mathematics and Sciences, 5(1), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajesms.v5i1.38609 Ahmad, N. J., Ishak, N. A., Samsudin, M. A., Meylani, V., & Said, H. M. (2019). Pre-service science teachers in international teaching practicum: Reflection of the experience. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 8(3), 308–316. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v8i3.18907 Andrin, G. R., Etcuban, J. O., Watin, A. K. O., Maluya, R., Rocha, E. D. V, & Maulit, A. A. (2017). Professional Preparation and Performance of Preschool Teachers in the Public and Private Schools of Cebu City, Philippines. ACADEME, 10. Andrin, Glenn R, Etcuban, J. O., Watin, A. K. O., Maluya, R., Rocha, E. D. V, & Maulit, A. A. (2017). Professional Preparation and Performance of Preschool Teachers in the Public and Private Schools of Cebu City, Philippines. ACADEME, 10. Armytage, P. (2018). Review of the Victorian Institute of Teaching. Bichi, A. A. (2019). Evaluation of Teacher Performance in Schools: Implication for Sustainable Evaluation of Teacher Performance in Schools: Implication for Sustainable Development Goals. December 2017. Campolo, M., Maritz, C. A., Thielman, G., & Packel, L. (2013). An Evaluation of Peer Teaching Across the Curriculum: Student Perspectives. International Journal of Therapies and Rehabilitation Research, 2(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.5455/ijtrr.00000016 Clearinghouse, W. W. (2018). National Board for Professional Teaching Standards Certification. Colthart, I., Bagnall, G., Evans, A., Allbutt, H., Haig, A., Illing, J., & McKinstry, B. (2008). The effectiveness of self-assessment on the identification of learner needs, learner activity, and impact on clinical practice: BEME Guide no. 10. Medical Teacher, 30(2), 124–145. Darling-Hammond, L. (2011). Teacher quality and student achievement. Teacher Quality and Student Achievement, 8(1), 1–215. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v8n1.2000 Donaldson, M. L. (2009). So long, Lake Wobegon? Using teacher evaluation to raise teacher quality. Center for American Progress, 1–32. Fogaça, N., Rego, M. C. B., Melo, M. C. C., Armond, L. P., & Coelho, F. A. (2018). Job Performance Analysis: Scientific Studies in the Main Journals of Management and Psychology from 2006 to 2015. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 30(4), 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21248 Frye, E. M., Trathen, W., & Koppenhaver, D. A. (2010). Internet workshop and blog publishing: Meeting student (and teacher) learning needs to achieve best practice in the twenty-first-century social studies classroom. The Social Studies, 101(2), 46–53. Hanushek, E. A. (2011). The economic value of higher teacher quality. Economics of Education Review, 30(3), 466–479. Heryati, Y., & Rusdiana, A. (2015). Pendidikan Profesi Keguruan. Bandung: CV Pustaka Setia. John P. Papay Eric S. Taylor John H. Tyler Mary Laski. (2016). Learning Job Skills From Colleagues At Work: Evidence From A Field Experiment Using Teacher Performance Data (p. 49). Katz, L. G., & Raths, J. D. (1985). Dispositions as goals for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 1(4), 301–307. Kavanoz, S., & Yüksel, G. (2015). An Investigation of Peer-Teaching Technique in Student Teacher Development An Investigation of Peer-Teaching Technique in Student Teacher Development. June 2010. Kurniawan, A. R., Chan, F., Sargandi, M., Yolanda, S., Karomah, R., Setianingtyas, W., & Irani, S. (2019). Kebijakan Sekolah Dalam Penggunaan Gadget di Sekolah Dasar. Jurnal Tunas Pendidikan, 2(1), 72–81. Lim, L. L. (2014). A case study on peer-teaching. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 2(08), 35. Manchishi, P. C., & Mwanza, D. S. (2016). Teacher Preparation at the University of Zambia: Is Peer Teaching Still a Useful Strategy? International Journal of Humanities, Social Sciences and Education, 3(11), 88–100. https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.0311012 Mansur, M. (2007). KTSP: Pembelajaran Berbasis Kompetensi dan Kontekstual, Jakarta: PT. Bumi. Marais, P., & Meier, C. (2004). Hear our voices: Student teachers’ experiences during practical teaching. Africa Education Review, 1(2), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146620408566281 McFarland, J., Hussar, B., Wang, X., Zhang, J., Wang, K., Rathbun, A., Barmer, A., Cataldi, E. F., & Mann, F. B. (2018). The Condition of Education 2018. NCES 2018-144. National Center for Education Statistics. Meilanie, R. S. M., & Syamsiatin, E. (2020). Multi Perspectives on Play Based Curriculum Quality Standards in the Center Learning Model. Jurnal Pendidikan Usia Dini, 14(1), 15–31. Michael Luna, S. (2016). (Re)defining “good teaching”: Teacher performance assessments and critical race theory in early childhood teacher education. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 17(4), 442–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463949116677932 Morgan, G. B., Hodge, K. J., Trepinski, T. M., & Anderson, L. W. (2014). The Stability of Teacher Performance and Effectiveness: Implications for Policies Concerning Teacher Evaluation Grant. Mulyasa, E. (2013). Uji kompetensi dan Penilaian Kinerja guru. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Nasrun, Dr., & Ambarita, D. F. P. (2017). The Effect of Organizational Culture and Work Motivation on Teachers Performance of Public Senior High School in Tebing Tinggi. Atlantis Press, 118, 320–326. https://doi.org/10.2991/icset-17.2017.53 Nguyen, M. (2013). Peer tutoring as a strategy to promote academic success. Research Brief. Noelke, C., & Horn, D. (2010). OECD Review on Evaluation and Assessment Frameworks for Improving School Outcomes-Hungary Country Background Report. OECD: PARIS. OECD. (2005). Teacher’s matter. Attracting, developing, and retaining effective teachers. Paris. OECD-Education Committee. Pablo Fraser, Gabor Fülöp, M. L. and M. S. D. (2018). I.  What teachers and school leaders say about their jobs. TALIS, 2, 1–7. Parihar, K. S., Campus, D., Principal, J., & Campus, D. (2017). Study Of Effect Of Pre Teaching Training Experience On. 5, 59–62. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1039595 Parsons, S. A., Vaughn, M., Scales, R. Q., Gallagher, M. A., Parsons, A. W., Davis, S. G., Pierczynski, M., & Allen, M. (2018). Teachers’ instructional adaptations: A research synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 88(2), 205–242. Pillay, R., & Laeequddin, M. (2019). Peer teaching: A pedagogic method for higher education. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 9(1), 2907–2913. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.A9106.119119 Popova, A., Evans, D. K., & Arancibia, V. (2018). Training Teachers on the Job What Works and How to Measure It. Policy Research Working Paper, September 2016. Ramadoni, W., Kusmintardjo, K., & Arifin, I. (2016). Kepemimpinan Kepala Sekolah dalam Upaya Peningkatan Kinerja Guru (Studi Multi Kasus di Paud Islam Sabilillah dan Sdn Tanjungsari 1 Kabupaten Sidoarjo). Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, Dan Pengembangan, 1(8), 1500–1504. Rees, E. L., Quinn, P. J., Davies, B., & Fotheringham, V. (2016). How does peer teaching compare to faculty teaching? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medical Teacher, 38(8), 829–837. Sawchuk, S. (2015). Teacher evaluation: An issue overview. Education Week, 35(3), 1–6. Skourdoumbis, A. (2018). Theorising teacher performance dispositions in an age of audit. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3492 Springer, M. G., Swain, W. A., & Rodriguez, L. A. (2016). Effective teacher retention bonuses: Evidence from Tennessee. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(2), 199–221. Staiger, D. O., & Rockoff, J. E. (2010). Searching for effective teachers with imperfect information. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(3), 97–118. Suyatno, H., & Pd, M. (2008). Panduan sertifikasi guru. Jakarta: PT Macanan Jaya Cemerlang. ten Cate, O. (2017). Practice Report / Bericht aus der Praxis: Peer teaching: From method to philosophy. Zeitschrift Fur Evidenz, Fortbildung Und Qualitat Im Gesundheitswesen, 127–128, 85–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zefq.2017.10.005 Thurlings, M., & den Brok, P. (2018). Student teachers’ and in-service teachers’ peer learning: A realist synthesis. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24(1–2), 13–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2018.1509719 Toch, T., & Rothman, R. (2008). Rush to Judgment: Teacher Evaluation in Public Education. Education Sector Reports. Education Sector. Ünal, Z., & Unal, A. (2012). The Impact of Years of Teaching Experience on the Classroom Management Approaches of Elementary School Teachers. International Journal of Instruction, 5(2), 41–60. Vasay, E. T. (2010). The effects of peer teaching in the performance of students in mathematics. E-International Scientific Research Journal, 2(2), 161–171. Weisberg, D., Sexton, S., Mulhern, J., Keeling, D., Schunck, J., Palcisco, A., & Morgan, K. (2009). The widget effect: Our national failure to acknowledge and act on differences in teacher effectiveness. New Teacher Project. Winters, M. A., & Cowen, J. M. (2013). Would a value‐added system of retention improve the distribution of teacher quality? A Simulation of Alternative Policies. 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Interactive whiteboard offers a high-potential innovative tool in mathematical educational environments, in which teachers’ modeling processes and students’ exploring activities can easily be executed. Nevertheless, these affordances are not self-evident. There is a gap between the potential claims of the tool and its actual use in the classrooms. This study investigated, through two parallel case studies, the interactive whiteboard potential in view of optimizing the exploitation of the interactive whiteboard, improving conceptual understanding, and fostering interactivity in secondary mathematics classrooms. Two main patterns for a productive interactive whiteboard use emerged: (a) a problem-solving pattern consisting of interactive whiteboard supporting problem-solving activities and (b) an organizer pattern consisting of using interactive whiteboard as a kind of advanced organizer and stimulating students’ reflection and mathematical contributions. The two patterns were used to design and teach lessons that were analyzed through the instrumental orchestration framework elaborated by Drijvers, Tacoma, Besamusca, Doorman, and Boon. Analysis showed how the interactive whiteboard acted as a useful instrument for students’ discussion and collective construction of mathematical knowledge.

Professional organizations have provided recommendations for mathematics teaching and learning; however, few studies have investigated the practical integration of those recommendations into mathematics teacher education programs. In this study, we examine how the reported “big ideas” of courses in secondary mathematics teacher education programs emphasized the content and teaching practices necessary for future mathematics teachers, as recommended by policy documents. As part of a larger study, we conducted a series of interviews in secondary mathematics teacher education programs at four universities (names are descriptive pseudonyms): Great Lakes University (GLU), Midwestern Research University (MRU), Midwestern Urban University (MUU), and Southeastern Research University (SRU). We selected the institutions and programs based on their Carnegie Classification, the types of communities in which they were situated, the average number of graduates from a program, the departmental homes of their secondary mathematics education programs, and the demographics of their student populations. The analysis of data collected from 12 courses across four universities revealed specific ways in which big ideas in secondary mathematics teacher education programs emphasized areas related to mathematics learning, teaching, and issues of equity and access.

This study presents findings from multiple case studies undertaken in three secondary schools in South Africa’s Limpopo Province. The goal was to collect input from students on mathematics teaching practices in their classrooms. The study included a self-selected sample of eleven grade 12 students. Unstructured individual interviews and students’ written reports were used to collect data, which was then analyzed based on emerging themes. Students expressed genuine concerns about teachers’ lesson preparation, subject and pedagogical knowledge, classroom management, attention given to slow learners, quality of classwork and homework tasks given to students, exam preparation, class attendance, and utilization of contact time, teachers’ attitudes, and their emotional intelligence, among others. Based on the study’s findings, the author suggests that student evaluation of teaching be used in secondary schools to help teachers reflect on their teaching practices in order to create learning environments that most students would enjoy.

Purpose – Given that students were out of school in response to the COVID-19 pandemic public health measures, traditional teaching practices have been forced to switch to online mediated learning environments. This study represents the first research effort to capture the experience of Malaysian mathematics teachers about their teaching during the pandemic. This includes investigating digital education tools mathematics teachers used, issues they encountered, and the knowledge and skills they need to improve during the enforced online teaching situation. Methodology – This study employed a survey design and qualitative data were collected using an online questionnaire. A total of 202 primary and secondary mathematics teachers from Malaysia participated in the study. The data were analysed through thematic analysis and descriptive statistics. Findings – First, it was found that the mathematics teachers employed a variety of digital education tools during the pandemic and the most commonly used tool was WhatsApp. Second, the top two issues faced by the teacher respondents were due to internet problems and students’ engagement during the online learning. A particular striking finding revealed that three-fifths of the teacher respondents who were concerned about the issue of students’ engagement were secondary mathematics teachers. Third, findings of the study further clarified that most of the teacher respondents wanted to improve their technological skills. Significance – This study supports mathematics teachers in making informed decisions about their teaching during school closures. The findings of this study also serve to alert the education sector about the issues related to the implementation of online education in times of the pandemic. In general, this study necessitates in developing preparedness for future pandemics.

Abstract Analysis of the experimental results presented in the following chapter reveals experiences with introduction of active learning methods in basic mathematics courses at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava. Experiment was implemented in the academic year 2018/19, in basic courses Mathematics I and Mathematics II scheduled in the first year of bachelor study programs and in subject Basics of Statistical Analysis for bachelor students in the second year of their studies. The aim of the experiment was to find achieved level of knowledge acquisition and to compare abilities of students to solve mathematical problems individually or by collective work and collaboration in small groups. Anonymous questionnaire answered by students after completion of the experiment provided rich feedback and overview of their opinions, from which their attitudes towards different teaching methods applied in 3 compulsory subjects from their study programs could be deduced and summarised. Based on received data, research analysed also results that students achieved comparing their achievement from the secondary schools and in both maths courses at the university.

Limited studies investigate the high school teachers’ challenges and ­strategies while teaching science and mathematics in English as the target language through the ­content and ­language integrated learning (CLIL) approach. Hence, this study aimed to ­investigate the ­challenges that science and math teachers encounter and the strategies they employ while fostering students’ development of proficiency in English as the target language in ­physics, ­chemistry, biology, and mathematics courses in the International General Certificate of ­Secondary ­Education (IGCSE) and International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP). The study utilized ­various qualitative tools such as semi-structured interviews, open-ended ­questionnaires, and lesson ­observations to analyze science and math teachers’ strategies and challenges at a case school in eastern Turkey. The study revealed that as part of the CLIL approach, the ­participant teachers indicated various challenges such as a lack of vocabulary repertoire, translation ­problems, and weak foundational knowledge. They used common strategies such as group work ­interactions, interdisciplinary activities, individualized feedback, the promotion of higher-order thinking skills, inquiry-based learning, and reinforcement of language used to deal with these ­challenges. The study presents further implications for good practices and recommendations to resolve ­challenges.

The purpose of this article is to specify whether there is any influence of school practices towards mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics outcomes. The studies about the effect of school practice on student achievement have a long history both domestically and abroad. However, the investigation of how the social context of school and practices affect student performance is not clear, especially in mathematics. To investigate this, I will chose al-touri secondary school where I teach as a case-study for my research. The instrument use for the article will be based on a questionnaire, which contains 2 sections. Section 1 will contain “School Level Environment Questionnaire” (SLEQ). Section 2 will contain “Mathematic Self-efficacy Questionnaire” (MSEQ). The mathematic scores of students will be taken for the first and second semester to compare between them and to see if there is a significant relationship between school practices and mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics outcomes. The findings indicate that there is a significant difference in students’ perception about their school practice and mathematic self-efficacy based on their achievement and according to ANOVA test, there is a relationship between school practices and mathematic self-efficacy. The result from this study can be generalized to the population of all schools in the Arab Sectors in Israel. Moreover, we can use the questionnaires obtained in the study to identify the strengths and weaknesses of schools in their teaching and learning process and to focus on improving their latter, at the same time maintaining the strength of their teaching strategies.

The purpose of this article is to specify whether there is any influence of school practices towards mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics outcomes. The studies about the effect of school practice on student achievement have a long history both domestically and abroad. However, the investigation of how the social context of school and practices affect student performance is not clear, especially in mathematics. To investigate this, I will chose al-touri secondary school where I teach as a case-study for my research. The instrument use for the article will be based on a questionnaire, which contains 2 sections. Section 1 will contain “School Level Environment Questionnaire” (SLEQ). Section 2 will contain “Mathematic Self-efficacy Questionnaire” (MSEQ). The mathematic scores of students will be taken for the first and second semester to compare between them and to see if there is a significant relationship between school practices and mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics outcomes. The findings indicate that there is a significant difference in students’ perception about their school practice and mathematic self-efficacy based on their achievement and according to ANOVA test, there is a relationship between school practices and mathematic self-efficacy. The result from this study can be generalized to the population of all schools in the Arab Sectors in Israel. Moreover, we can use the questionnaires obtained in the study to identify the strengths and weaknesses of schools in their teaching and learning process and to focus on improving their latter, at the same time maintaining the strength of their teaching strategies.

This study focuses on the statistical analysis of the performance of students of different ages in solving electricity problems, after learning Physical Matter Sciences (PMS), Chemical Matter Sciences (CMS), Mathematical Sciences and Applications (MSA) and Mathematical and Computer Sciences (MCS) programs in the first year at Ibn Tofail University in Morocco. The student’s scores were obtained in mathematics (analysis and algebra), French, and electricity exams in terms of the 2017/2018 year. The data collected from the written student responses in the electricity exams were analyzed by SPSS software (version 25) using the multiple correspondence analysis method to study the influence of diverse variables: gender (M/F), age, and performance in analysis, algebra and French. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient (0.81) reflects the consistency and reliability of the used method, where 50% of the variability is explained by Dimension 1, and 36% is explained by Dimension 2. The discussion is made on the basis of previous studies conducted in secondary and university cycles of various contexts. It was found that students who perform better in solving electricity problems do not necessarily have a high level in the French teaching language. The teaching language correlates weakly with students' performance in solving electricity problems and their learning electrical concepts and phenomena. A positive correlation between performance in mathematics, particularly algebra, and performance in electricity is confirmed as stated elsewhere. So, the learning electricity at the university level cannot be done without deep mathematical knowledge. The analysis showed that the performance in electricity was not affected by the gender and age of the students.

Background Over the past decade, most of the quantitative studies on teacher preparation have focused on comparisons between alternative and traditional routes. There has been relatively little quantitative research on specific features of teacher education that might cause certain pathways into teaching to be more effective than others. The vast majority of evidence on features of preservice preparation comes from qualitative case studies of single institutions that prepare teachers. Among the few large-scale cross-institution studies that exist, most provide only descriptive trends that fail to account for teacher and school characteristics that might explain apparent relationships in the data. Additionally, these studies typically look at state- or district-level data, providing little information on national trends. Purpose Focusing on two features of preparation commonly targeted by certification policies, this study asks: Does completing more practice teaching and methods-related coursework predict teachers’ retention and perceived instructional preparedness? Do the results vary for different kinds of teachers and schools. Research Design This is a secondary analysis of data from the two most recent administrations of the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), a nationally representative survey of teachers that includes information about preservice preparation, retention, and perceptions of preparedness. We link surveyed teachers to Common Core of Data on their schools and to Barron's ratings of college competitiveness. Data Analysis We use linear and logistic regression with state and district fixed effects, as well as comprehensive controls for school and teacher characteristics, to estimate whether completing more practice teaching and methods-related coursework predicts teachers’ self-perceived instructional preparedness and persistence in the profession. Findings We find that teachers who completed more methods-related coursework and practice teaching felt better prepared and were more likely to stay in teaching. These positive relationships were similar across alternative and traditional routes and tended to be greater among graduates from competitive colleges, males, and mathematics and science teachers, as well as teachers in urban, rural, and secondary schools. Conclusions Our study provides some of the best suggestive evidence to date that teacher education programs, and certification policies that influence them, can improve teachers’ preparedness and persistence by increasing requirements for practice teaching and methods-related coursework. Policy makers often consider reducing preparation requirements to increase the supply of academically talented and underrepresented teacher groups. Finding these groups to be at least as, and usually more, responsive to additional preparation raises some concern that reducing requirements could have negative consequences for their preparedness and retention.

Drawing from psychological and sociological fields, this study examines how teachers transform subject con-tent for student learning in a classroom situation. Research on understanding teaching has downplayed the framing of macro-regulative contexts in shaping teachers’ thinking and thereby pedagogy. Vygotsky [75; 76] brought to focus the teacher’s role in mediating learning in classrooms through the use of psychological tools but could not fully, in his lifespan, attend to the sociocultural contexts that impact those who work within them. To address this gap, the study draws on the educational sociologist Bernstein’s social theory [9; 10] which states that the ways in which institutions regulate the social relations within them impact the pedagogic practices in these contexts. A qualitative multicase study was applied and involved several English and mathematics secondary school teach-ers from Oxfordshire, England. The cross-case analysis reveals a connection between the micro-processes of teach-ing and learning and macro regulative discourse; demonstrates that teachers’ pedagogic decisions are influenced by their reflections on their institutional culture within which and using which they work; and reveals an interplay of several processes in the ways in which teachers mediate and shape the quality of their students’ learning.

Many studies have reported on the influence of teachers’ conceptions of variability on different aspects of their professional knowledge for teaching statistics and their classroom practices. However, research on these kind of conceptions is still scarce, particularly in Latin American countries like Venezuela. In an effort to help fill this gap, a qualitative study was conducted that aimed to characterize the different ways in which Venezuelan in-service secondary school mathematics teachers conceptualize variability. For that purpose, a survey instrument was developed and administered to 27 teachers working at the metropolitan area of Caracas. This paper focuses on the participants’ answers to two items in which interpretation of histograms was necessary. It was found that about a third of the participants exhibited a sophisticated recognition of variability (e.g., gave answers connecting both middles and extremes), whereas about half of them exhibited misconceptions of variability, such as acknowledging variability from the viewpoint of idiosyncratic ideas, or the degree of symmetry (or lack thereof) of a histogram. Moreover, it was also found that about two-thirds of the participants were unable to correctly match real-life contexts to their corresponding histograms, while about two-fifths were unable to correctly determine the accuracy or inaccuracy of descriptions of the variability in a histogram. The author discusses possible reasons for the obtained results, in order to identify relevant implictions for teacher education in the area of statistics. Abstract: Spanish Diversos estudios han reportado que las concepciones de los docentes sobre variabilidad influencian tanto su conocimiento profesional para la enseñanza de la estadística, como sus prácticas en el aula. Sin embargo, investigaciones sobre este tipo de concepciones son aún escasas, particularmente en países latinoamericanos como Venezuela. Intentando satisfacer esta necesidad, se condujo un estudio cualitativo para identificar y caracterizar las diferentes maneras en que maestros venezolanos de matemáticas a nivel de secundaria conceptualizan la variabilidad. Con tal propósito, un cuestionario fue desarrollado y administrado a 27 docentes en el área metropolitana de Caracas. Este artículo se centra en las respuestas dadas por los participantes a dos ítems del cuestionario, en los que era necesaria la interpretación de histogramas. Se descubrió que aproximadamente un quinto de los participantes demostró un reconocimiento sofisticado de la variabilidad (e.g., considerar simultáneamente valores centrales y extremos de un histograma), mientras que alreadedor de la mitad exhibió concepciones erróneas, tales como el reconocimiento de la variabilidad a partir de ideas idiosincrásicas, o del grado de simetría de un histograma. Además, unos cuatro quintos de los participantes fueron incapaces de establecer una correspondencia entre contextos de la vida real y sus respectivos histogramas, mientras que unos dos quintos fueron incapaces de determinar si descripciones de la variabilidad en un histograma eran o no correctas. El autor discute las posibles razones de los resultados obtenidos, con el fin de identificar implicaciones relevantes para la formación docente en el área de la estadística.

Students of Elementary School Teacher Education programs must be able to have higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) so that they can train students to have HOTS through learning activities created when they have become elementary school teachers. This study aims to explain students' high-level thinking skills in solving HOTS-oriented questions in Instructional Evaluation courses. This study uses qualitative research methods with data collection techniques using cognitive test instruments in the form of descriptions. Data analysis techniques use simple descriptive statistics. The results showed the level of thinking ability of students in answering HOTS practice questions still needed improvement. Students who have high learning abilities are better at answering HOTS-oriented questions compared to students in the medium and low categories. Recommendations for future research are required learning modules that can facilitate learning activities that lead to HOTS so that students are skilled in answering and making HOTS-oriented practice questions for elementary school students when they become a teacher. References Abdullah, Abdul Halim; Mokhtar, Mahani; Halim, Noor Dayana Abd; Ali, Dayana Farzeeha; Tahir, Lokman Mohd; Kohar, U. H. A. (2017). Mathematics Teachers’ Level of Knowledge and Practice on the Implementation of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00601a Altun, M., & Akkaya, R. (2014). Mathematics teachers’ comments on PISA math questions and our country’s students’ low achievement levels. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 29(1), 19–34. Bakry, & Md Nor Bakar. (2015). The process of thinking among Junior High School students in solving HOTS question. 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Purpose This paper aims to present a novel pedagogical model that aims at bridging creativity with computational thinking (CT) and new media literacy skills at low-technology, information-rich learning environments. As creativity, problem solving and collaboration are among the targeted skills in twenty-first century, this model promotes the acquisition of these skills towards a holistic development of students in primary and secondary school settings. In this direction, teaching students to think like a computer scientist, an economist, a physicist or an artist can be achieved through CT practices, as well as media arts practices. The interface between these practices is imagination, a fundamental concept in the model. Imaginative teaching methods, computer science unplugged approach and low-technology prototyping method are used to develop creativity, CT, collaboration and new media literacy skills in students. Furthermore, cognitive, emotional, physical and social abilities are fostered. Principles and guidelines for the implementation of the model in classrooms are provided by following the design thinking process as a methodological tool, and a real example implemented in a primary school classroom is described. The added value of this paper is that it proposes a pedagogical model that can serve as a pool of pedagogical approaches implemented in various disciplines and grades, as CT curriculum frameworks for K-6 are still in their infancy. Further research is needed to define the point at which unplugged approach should be replaced or even combined with plugged-in approach and how this proposed model can be enriched. Design/methodology/approach This paper presents a pedagogical model that aims at bridging creativity with CT, collaboration and new media literacy skills. Findings The proposed model follows a pedagogy-driven approach rather a technology-driven one as the authors suggest its implementation in low-tech, information-rich learning environments without computers. The added value of this paper is that it proposes a novel pedagogical model that can serve as a pool of pedagogical approaches and as a framework implemented in various disciplines and grades. A CT curriculum framework for K-6 is an area of research that is still in its infancy (Angeli et al., 2016), so this model is intended to provide a holistic perspective over this area by focusing how to approach the convergence among CT, collaboration and creativity skills in practice rather than what to teach. Based on literature, the authors explained how multiple moments impact on CT, creativity and collaboration development and presented the linkages among them. Successful implementation of CT requires not only computer science and mathematics but also imaginative capacities involving innovation and curiosity (The College Board, 2012). It is necessary to understand the CT implications for teaching and learning beyond the traditional applications on computer science and mathematics (Kotsopoulos et al., 2017) and start paying more attention to CT implications on social sciences and non-cognitive skills. Though the presented example (case study) seems to exploit the proposed multiple moments model at optimal level, empirical evidence is needed to show its practical applicability in a variety of contexts and not only in primary school settings. Future studies can extend, enrich or even alter some of its elements through experimental applications on how all these macro/micromoments work in practice in terms of easiness in implementation, flexibility, social orientation and skills improvement. Originality/value The added value of this paper is that it joins learning theories, pedagogical methods and necessary skills acquisition in an integrated manner by proposing a pedagogical model that can orient activities and educational scenarios by giving principles and guidelines for teaching practice.

Background/Context Schools and districts are increasingly emphasizing evidence-based decision making as a means for improving teaching and learning. In response, professional development efforts have shifted toward situated, sustained activities that involve groups of teachers in reflective inquiry about student-learning data, instructional practices, and curricular goals. Although strong evidence exists regarding the benefits of looking at student work, there is little research that investigates how teachers might work together to attain these benefits. Classroom teachers often lack the necessary skills and supports to enact data-based inquiry in a manner that informs and influences classroom practices. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study In response to a need for specific frameworks to support teachers’ collaborative interactions around student-learning data, we have developed a conceptual framework for describing and characterizing key influences on teachers’ actions and interactions. The purpose of this article is to fully describe the two dimensions that constitute the framework, illustrate them with examples from multiple cases, and discuss potential implications of the framework on research and practice. Population/Participants/Subjects This framework was developed from multiyear case analyses of seven professional learning communities (PLCs). The teachers in these PLCs were secondary science and mathematics teachers who were supported by a 3-year professional development project. Research Design We began to derive this conceptual framework using constant comparison in the development of semiannual case studies. Preliminary results and hypotheses on the specific ways in which teacher groups were interacting as they worked with student-learning data led to the need to better conceptualize what was occurring. Building on others’ work related to stance, we used grounded theory methods to construct and refine this framework. Findings/Results A detailed framework and examples are provided regarding collaborative teacher inquiry groups’ inquiry stance along two dimensions: (1) their epistemological stance toward student-learning data, and (2) the nature of their dialogue when using these data in their inquiry process. The first dimension is delineated by four descriptive categories ranging from an improving to a proving stance; the second dimension ranges from sustained negotiation to no negotiation. Conclusions/Recommendations This analysis of inquiry stance in a collaborative group is valuable in providing a detailed tool for empirical analyses of collaborative teacher development in the context of working with student-learning data. Additionally, it provides practical support for facilitators and school leaders by characterizing fundamental and often hidden influences on PLC processes and outcomes.

Access to high quality education is a cornerstone of social, cultural, and economic recovery after any crisis. This is also true of the global COVID-19 pandemic which has disrupted the pedagogical practices of higher education institutions around the world (Butler-Henderson, Crawford, Rudolph, Lalani, & Sabu, 2020). Digital learning has become the new-norm, and tertiary education institutions have been propelled to innovate their teaching methods by integrating digital learning through the adoption of cost-effective (Al-Maroof & Al-Emran, 2018) and adaptable (Bhat et al., 2018) Learning Management Systems (LMS) (Bervell & Umar, 2017; Cigdem & Ozturk, 2016). In these systems, pedagogical technologies are embedded in an infrastructure that enables administration and management of learning contents, communication, assessment, and collaboration (Washington, 2019). Due to the fact that the fundamental task of LMS is to support digital teaching and learning (El Bahsh & Daoud, 2016), they are some of the most extensively used learning technologies in higher education (Abazi-Bexheti, Jajaga, & Abazi-Alili, 2018). LMS technology is now widely adopted to support face-to-face, blended, and online pedagogical practices. In this context, LMS data provides large-scale capture, processing, and analysis of students’ interactions with the system, with each other, and with their teaching support within the system (Chung, 2014). LMS data provides a rich resource through which to investigate online learning technologies and behaviours (see, for example, Chung, 2014). Such work is increasingly being done across multiple domains, however no systematic review has yet been conducted which surveys such work - specifically examining retrospective LMS data. This is the goal of the present paper. A literature review was conducted to examine what data analysis methods have been used to better understand online pedagogy. The review focused specifically on the use of tertiary level retrospective LMS data and was not limited to a specific academic domain. The review was conducted from January - December 2021, with searching being conducted in January 2021. A total of 97 full text articles were included in the literature review. The literature review aimed to identify the kinds of research questions retrospective LMS data is being used to answer, the analytical techniques used to analyse this data, and the types of study designs used in this field of research. The number of students represented in the data and the academic domains were also considered. Quality of data and analytical reporting was assessed in order to interrogate the opportunities and challenges of reproducible research in studies using retrospective LMS data. Finally, the review considered the degree to which the analysis of retrospective LMS data met the needs of the research question. Understanding how retrospective LMS data has been used to examine pedagogical practice in previous research equips us to reorientate Teaching and Learning in the immediate aftermath of COVID-19. This will become increasingly important as we move towards a future characterised by an escalation of remote and online learning opportunities. Through surveying previous research in this area, this paper provides an important foundation for future work utilising retrospective LMS data to understand online Teaching and Learning in the peri-COVID era. References Abazi-Bexheti, L., Kadriu, A., Apostolova-Trpkovska, M., Jajaga, E., & Abazi-Alili, H. (2018). LMS solution: Evidence of Google classroom usage inhigher education. Business Systems Research, 9(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.2478/bsrj-2018-0003 Al-Maroof, R. A. S., & Al-Emran, M. (2018). Students acceptance of Google classroom: An exploratory study using PLS-SEM approach. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (IJET), 13(06), 112. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v13i06.8275 Bahsh, R. El, & Daoud, M. I. (2016). Evaluating the use of Moodle to achieve effective and interactive learning : A case study at the German Jordanian University. In Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on open source software computing (OSSCOM 2016) (pp. 16–20). Beirut, Lebanon: IEEE Bervell, B., & Umar, I. N. (2017). A decade of LMS acceptance and adoption research in sub-Sahara African higher education: A systematic review of models, methodologies, milestones and main challenges. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(11), 7269–7286. https://doi. org/10.12973/ejmste/79444 Bhat, S., Raju, R., Bikramjit, A., & Souza, R. D. (2018). Leveraging e-learning through Google classroom: A usability study. Journal of Engineering Education Transformations, 31(3), 1–7 Butler-Henderson, K., Crawford, J., Rudolph, J., Lalani, K., & Sabu, K.M. (2020). COVID-19 in Higher Education Literature Database (CHELD V1): An open access systematic literature review database with coding rules. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 3(3), DOI:https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2020.3.2.11 Chung, G. K. W. K. (2014). Toward the Relational Management of Educational Measurement Data. Teachers College Record, 116(11), p. 1-16 Cigdem, H., & Ozturk, M. (2016). Factors affecting students’ behavioral intention to use LMS at a Turkish post-secondary vocational school. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2253 Kumar, J. A., Bervell, B., & Osman, S. (2020). Google classroom: insights from Malaysian higher education students’ and instructors’ experiences. Education and Information Technologies, 25(5), pp. 4175-4195. 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e4911050The current situation of planet Earth reiterates the need for a science education capable of promoting active citizenship, based on scientific knowledge, that can contribute to solving social and environmental problems. This case study, of a qualitative nature, aimed to study the perceptions of Biology and Geology students about the educational potential of developing a scientific exhibition on the theme "Anthropic Occupation and Planning Problems" as a strategy of activism. Twenty-five 11th grade students from a public school outside Lisbon (Portugal) participated in this study. The students developed a scientific exhibition during a three weeks project and, at the end, presented that exhibition to the school community for one week. Data was collected, during the week following to the exhibition, through one questionnaire with open-ended and close-ended items. The results indicate that, in the students' opinion, the strategy used allowed the development of competences in the domains of knowledge, reasoning, communication, attitudes, creativity and activism.ResumoA situação atual do planeta Terra reitera a necessidade de uma educação em ciências capaz de promover uma cidadania ativa fundamentada em conhecimento científico que possa contribuir para a resolução de problemas sociais e ambientais. Neste estudo de caso, de natureza qualitativa, pretendeu-se estudar as percepções de alunos de Biologia e Geologia sobre as potencialidades educativas do desenvolvimento de uma exposição científica sobre a temática “Ocupação Antrópica e Problemas de Ordenamento” como estratégia de ativismo. Participaram 25 alunos de uma turma de 11.º ano de uma escola pública dos arredores de Lisboa, Portugal. Os alunos trabalharam em projeto durante três semanas, para planearem e elaborarem uma exposição científica que, por fim, foi aberta à comunidade escolar durante uma semana. No processo de recolha de dados, realizado na semana após a conclusão da exposição, foi utilizado um questionário constituído por itens de resposta fechada e de resposta aberta. As respostas às questões de resposta aberta foram submetidas a análise de conteúdo de tipo categorial. Relativamente às questões fechadas foram calculadas as percentagens das respostas obtidas em cada um dos níveis da escala. Os resultados obtidos indicam que, na opinião dos alunos, a estratégia utilizada permitiu o desenvolvimento de competências nos domínios do conhecimento, raciocínio, comunicação, atitudes, criatividade e ativismo.Palavras-chave: Ativismo, Exposições Científicas, Educação em Ciências.Keywords: Activism, Scientific exhibitions, Science Education.ReferencesALSOP, Steve; BENCZE, Larry. Activism! 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Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic forced many teachers around the world to make a sudden switch from face-to-face to online teaching. This shift in practice has provided an opportunity to reconsider how technology use in mathematics education can be utilised to improve student engagement. In this study, we explore four case studies of Australian secondary mathematics classrooms conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic to examine how teachers are using blended learning approaches and how their students perceive these pedagogical practices. Findings across all four sites indicate that technology use expands student opportunities to engage with mathematics learning through the provision of multiple pathways and methods of access. Specifically, we find evidence supporting the use of blended classroom teaching strategies to provide differentiation and personalised learning approaches; visualisation and dynamic manipulation of mathematics concepts; and alternative methods for teacher-student feedback and communication. We argue that the student learning experience in mathematics can be enhanced through a variety of blended learning approaches by allowing for diverse points of access to learning opportunities which are more closely aligned to individual learning needs and free from the temporal constraints of the classroom.

PurposeThis article aims to analyse how a teacher leads whole-class discussions during and after participating in lesson studies and to what extent that participation influences her teaching practice.Design/methodology/approachThis is a qualitative/interpretative research with a case study design, carried out with a secondary school mathematics teacher who participated in two lesson studies. Data were collected from participant observation, audio recording of lesson study (LS) sessions and discussions with the teacher, video recording of lessons and semi-structured interviews. Frameworks regarding the teachers' actions are used in the analysis.FindingsThe results suggest that in her teaching practice, the teacher led students to explain their strategies with supporting/guiding actions, but she also challenged the students to justify their productions, ensuring that the students' ideas were clear. Additionally, the teacher explored incorrect strategies and disagreements, inviting and challenging other students to intervene or react and involved students in drawing connections, as discussed in the LS. Therefore, the teacher put into practice several actions teachers can do in leading whole-class discussions to promote students' learning. Participating in LS was an opportunity to rethink her teaching practice, as the teacher pointed out, bringing her a new perspective on leading discussions in which students play an active role in learning mathematics, creating opportunities for the students to explain and react to their colleagues' ideas.Originality/valueThis article examines an under-researched issue: the influence of LS on the way a teacher leads whole-class discussions, during and after participating in lesson studies.

The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has led to sudden and unexpected circumstances in education for all the involved people (pupils, teachers, education policymakers, parents). International organizations have paid attention to their responses in crises by using alternative modes of teaching. The typical teaching methods had to be replaced by e-learning processes and all the participants needed to adjust themselves and adapt innovative methods. Most studies concentrated on teachers' and students' difficulties, barriers and new challenges. However, a different role was given to parents as well, especially in the case of primary and the first grades of secondary education, as they were asked to facilitate their children to use the e-learning processes and support them during the learning process. The present study examined the change of parental involvement during the pandemic in comparison to the previous situation in the case of mathematical subject. A questionnaire was constructed and administered to parents from Cyprus at the first days of the school year 2019-2020 in order to examine their beliefs and self-efficacy beliefs about their parental role and involvement during homework at their children's mathematical understanding and the development of their children's perseverance strategies during mathematical problem solving. The same questionnaire was administered to them at the end of the e-learning teaching processes in May 2020, after they had alternative experiences in order to identify any differences at their respective beliefs. Only the sample of parents who took part at both phases of the study was used for the comparative analyses. Results indicated that parents, especially in primary education, had the willingness to support their children's learning under the different teaching and learning processes; however they needed training in order to develop appropriate knowledge, relevant experiences, positive beliefs and self-efficacy beliefs.

AbstractAdvocacy is an emergent dimension of teacher leadership, given its growing importance in shaping policy and facilitating reform efforts in American K-12 education. In 2014, the National Academies called for advancing advocacy-based activities and leadership among K-12 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) teachers, who are presently understudied. The purpose of this embedded single-case case study was to explore STEM teachers’ development of self-efficacy in advocacy for STEM education. Contextualizing the case, participants consisted of 11 STEM teacher leaders who were part of the STEM Teacher Ambassadors (STA) program, a year-long advocacy-focused leadership development fellowship program, jointly sponsored by the National Science Teaching Association and National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Employing case study research methodology, primary data were collected using semi-structured interviews, while secondary data were sourced via focus group interview and documents to triangulate interview data. Utterances (i.e., participant statements, groups of statements, or segments of statements) from transcribed data were coded a priori and analyzed via four constructs of self-efficacy theory: enactive master experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. Results revealed 157 utterances coded to self-efficacy building within STEM education advocacy. Findings suggest that STEM teacher leaders’ participation in professional development programs that specifically focus on development of policy knowledge and advocacy activities help to develop and sustain STEM teacher leaders’ advocacy self-efficacy, given that participating teachers have numerous opportunities to fully engage in mastery experiences in STEM education advocacy. Implications and recommendations for policy and suggestions for further studies are discussed.

Background: Although large-scale research over the last 15 years demonstrates the positive effects of Black teachers for Black students on various student outcomes, these studies focus on average effects. This leaves space to examine classroom practices to detail how the positive effects may be realized through the everyday interactions between Black teachers and their Black students, specifically in mathematics. To conceptualize the mathematics classroom we draw on hooks’s (2001) concept of “Homeplace” as a site where one is humanized in resistance to broader contexts of power, as a “haven” free from negative dominant discourses. Focus of Study: This research documents the classroom practices of successful Black mathematics teachers who are affirming students’ identities through their classroom practices: How do successful Black mathematics teachers enact affirming mathematics classrooms with their Black students? Setting: This research was a secondary analysis of videos collected as part of the Gates-funded Understanding Teaching Quality (UTQ) project. All of the schools in the UTQ study were located in one metropolitan area. Case Study Selection: The study used MANOVA to quantitatively select teachers based on mathematics achievement and quality of relational interactions. Two teachers were selected and, although not part of the selection criteria, both mathematics teachers identified as Black. Research Design: The study used a case study design to describe the mathematics practices of two Black teachers. Data Collection and Analysis: The dataset included four lessons per teacher with two cameras for each lesson. Open coding was used to identify the practices used by teachers drawing on Homeplace as an orienting concept. Findings: The classrooms enacted Homeplace through affirming students’ humanity and communicating a sense of belonging in three ways: building collective responsibility for the mathematics, framing students as mathematically capable, and relating to students’ lives. In addition to the themes, undercurrents of care, humor, praise, and the use of Black Language were clearly visible. Conclusions: Although the classrooms did not display the sociopolitical consciousness foundational to culturally relevant pedagogy, the Black teachers did create an environment consistent with Homeplace. Through cultivating a classroom that affirmed Black students’ humanity and dignity and communicated to them a sense of belonging, they resisted negative racialized narratives and increased students’ mathematics achievement.

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While the term “visual literacy” has grown in popularity in the last 50 years, its meaning remains nebulous. It is described variously as: a vehicle for aesthetic appreciation, a means of defence against visual manipulation, a sorting mechanism for an increasingly data-saturated age, and a prerequisite to civic inclusion (Fransecky 23; Messaris 181; McTigue and Flowers 580). Scholars have written extensively about the first three subjects but there has been less research on how visual literacy frames civic life and how it might help the public as a tool to address disadvantage and assist in removing social and cultural barriers. This article examines a forerunner to visual literacy in the push to create an international symbol language born out of popular education movements, a project that fell short of its goals but still left a considerable impression on graphic media. This article, then, presents an analysis of visual literacy campaigns in the early postwar era. These campaigns did not attempt to invent a symbolic language but posited that images themselves served as a universal language in which students could receive training. Of particular interest is how the concept of visual literacy has been mobilised as a pedagogical tool in design, digital humanities and in broader civic education initiatives promoted by Third Space institutions. Behind the creation of new visual literacy curricula is the idea that images can help anchor a world community, supplementing textual communication. Figure 1: Visual Literacy Yearbook. Montebello Unified School District, USA, 1973. Shedding Light: Origins of the Visual Literacy Frame The term “visual literacy” came to the fore in the early 1970s on the heels of mass literacy campaigns. The educators, creatives and media theorists who first advocated for visual learning linked this aim to literacy, an unassailable goal, to promote a more radical curricular overhaul. They challenged a system that had hitherto only acknowledged a very limited pathway towards academic success; pushing “language and mathematics”, courses “referred to as solids (something substantial) as contrasted with liquids or gases (courses with little or no substance)” (Eisner 92). This was deemed “a parochial view of both human ability and the possibilities of education” that did not acknowledge multiple forms of intelligence (Gardner). This change not only integrated elements of mass culture that had been rejected in education, notably film and graphic arts, but also encouraged the critique of images as a form of good citizenship, assuming that visually literate arbiters could call out media misrepresentations and manipulative political advertising (Messaris, “Visual Test”). This movement was, in many ways, reactive to new forms of mass media that began to replace newspapers as key forms of civic participation. Unlike simple literacy (being able to decipher letters as a mnemonic system), visual literacy involves imputing meanings to images where meanings are less fixed, yet still with embedded cultural signifiers. Visual literacy promised to extend enlightenment metaphors of sight (as in the German Aufklärung) and illumination (as in the French Lumières) to help citizens understand an increasingly complex marketplace of images. The move towards visual literacy was not so much a shift towards images (and away from books and oration) but an affirmation of the need to critically investigate the visual sphere. It introduced doubt to previously upheld hierarchies of perception. Sight, to Kant the “noblest of the senses” (158), was no longer the sense “least affected” by the surrounding world but an input centre that was equally manipulable. In Kant’s view of societal development, the “cosmopolitan” held the key to pacifying bellicose states and ensuring global prosperity and tranquillity. The process of developing a cosmopolitan ideology rests, according to Kant, on the gradual elimination of war and “the education of young people in intellectual and moral culture” (188-89). Transforming disparate societies into “a universal cosmopolitan existence” that would “at last be realised as the matrix within which all the original capacities of the human race may develop” and would take well-funded educational institutions and, potentially, a new framework for imparting knowledge (Kant 51). To some, the world of the visual presented a baseline for shared experience. Figure 2: Exhibition by the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum in Vienna, photograph c. 1927. An International Picture Language The quest to find a mutually intelligible language that could “bridge worlds” and solder together all of humankind goes back to the late nineteenth century and the Esperanto movement of Ludwig Zamenhof (Schor 59). The expression of this ideal in the world of the visual picked up steam in the interwar years with designers and editors like Fritz Kahn, Gerd Arntz, and Otto and Marie Neurath. Their work transposing complex ideas into graphic form has been rediscovered as an antecedent to modern infographics, but the symbols they deployed were not to merely explain, but also help education and build international fellowship unbounded by spoken language. The Neuraths in particular are celebrated for their international picture language or Isotypes. These pictograms (sometimes viewed as proto-emojis) can be used to represent data without text. Taken together they are an “intemporal, hieroglyphic language” that Neutrath hoped would unite working-class people the world over (Lee 159). The Neuraths’ work was done in the explicit service of visual education with a popular socialist agenda and incubated in the social sphere of Red Vienna at the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum (Social and Economic Museum) where Otto served as Director. The Wirtschaftsmuseum was an experiment in popular education, with multiple branches and late opening hours to accommodate the “the working man [who] has time to see a museum only at night” (Neurath 72-73). The Isotype contained universalist aspirations for the “making of a world language, or a helping picture language—[that] will give support to international developments generally” and “educate by the eye” (Neurath 13). Figure 3: Gerd Arntz Isotype Images. (Source: University of Reading.) The Isotype was widely adopted in the postwar era in pre-packaged sets of symbols used in graphic design and wayfinding systems for buildings and transportation networks, but with the socialism of the Neuraths’ peeled away, leaving only the system of logos that we are familiar with from airport washrooms, charts, and public transport maps. Much of the uptake in this symbol language could be traced to increased mobility and tourism, particularly in countries that did not make use of a Roman alphabet. The 1964 Olympics in Tokyo helped pave the way when organisers, fearful of jumbling too many scripts together, opted instead for black and white icons to represent the program of sports that summer. The new focus on the visual was both technologically mediated—cheaper printing and broadcast technologies made the diffusion of image increasingly possible—but also ideologically supported by a growing emphasis on projects that transcended linguistic, ethnic, and national borders. The Olympic symbols gradually morphed into Letraset icons, and, later, symbols in the Unicode Standard, which are the basis for today’s emojis. Wordless signs helped facilitate interconnectedness, but only in the most literal sense; their application was limited primarily to sports mega-events, highway maps, and “brand building”, and they never fulfilled their role as an educational language “to give the different nations a common outlook” (Neurath 18). Universally understood icons, particularly in the form of emojis, point to a rise in visual communication but they have fallen short as a cosmopolitan project, supporting neither the globalisation of Kantian ethics nor the transnational socialism of the Neuraths. Figure 4: Symbols in use. Women's bathroom. 1964 Tokyo Olympics. (Source: The official report of the Organizing Committee.) Counter Education By mid-century, the optimism of a universal symbol language seemed dated, and focus shifted from distillation to discernment. New educational programs presented ways to study images, increasingly reproducible with new technologies, as a language in and of themselves. These methods had their roots in the fin-de-siècle educational reforms of John Dewey, Helen Parkhurst, and Maria Montessori. As early as the 1920s, progressive educators were using highly visual magazines, like National Geographic, as the basis for lesson planning, with the hopes that they would “expose students to edifying and culturally enriching reading” and “develop a more catholic taste or sensibility, representing an important cosmopolitan value” (Hawkins 45). The rise in imagery from previously inaccessible regions helped pupils to see themselves in relation to the larger world (although this connection always came with the presumed superiority of the reader). “Pictorial education in public schools” taught readers—through images—to accept a broader world but, too often, they saw photographs as a “straightforward transcription of the real world” (Hawkins 57). The images of cultures and events presented in Life and National Geographic for the purposes of education and enrichment were now the subject of greater analysis in the classroom, not just as “windows into new worlds” but as cultural products in and of themselves. The emerging visual curriculum aimed to do more than just teach with previously excluded modes (photography, film and comics); it would investigate how images presented and mediated the world. This gained wider appeal with new analytical writing on film, like Raymond Spottiswoode's Grammar of the Film (1950) which sought to formulate the grammatical rules of visual communication (Messaris 181), influenced by semiotics and structural linguistics; the emphasis on grammar can also be seen in far earlier writings on design systems such as Owen Jones’s 1856 The Grammar of Ornament, which also advocated for new, universalising methods in design education (Sloboda 228). The inventorying impulse is on display in books like Donis A. Dondis’s A Primer of Visual Literacy (1973), a text that meditates on visual perception but also functions as an introduction to line and form in the applied arts, picking up where the Bauhaus left off. Dondis enumerates the “syntactical guidelines” of the applied arts with illustrations that are in keeping with 1920s books by Kandinsky and Klee and analyse pictorial elements. However, at the end of the book she shifts focus with two chapters that examine “messaging” and visual literacy explicitly. Dondis predicts that “an intellectual, trained ability to make and understand visual messages is becoming a vital necessity to involvement with communication. It is quite likely that visual literacy will be one of the fundamental measures of education in the last third of our century” (33) and she presses for more programs that incorporate the exploration and analysis of images in tertiary education. Figure 5: Ideal spatial environment for the Blueprint charts, 1970. (Image: Inventory Press.) Visual literacy in education arrived in earnest with a wave of publications in the mid-1970s. They offered ways for students to understand media processes and for teachers to use visual culture as an entry point into complex social and scientific subject matter, tapping into the “visual consciousness of the ‘television generation’” (Fransecky 5). Visual culture was often seen as inherently democratising, a break from stuffiness, the “artificialities of civilisation”, and the “archaic structures” that set sensorial perception apart from scholarship (Dworkin 131-132). Many radical university projects and community education initiatives of the 1960s made use of new media in novel ways: from Maurice Stein and Larry Miller’s fold-out posters accompanying Blueprint for Counter Education (1970) to Emory Douglas’s graphics for The Black Panther newspaper. Blueprint’s text- and image-dense wall charts were made via assemblage and they were imagined less as charts and more as a “matrix of resources” that could be used—and added to—by youth to undertake their own counter education (Cronin 53). These experiments in visual learning helped to break down old hierarchies in education, but their aim was influenced more by countercultural notions of disruption than the universal ideals of cosmopolitanism. From Image as Text to City as Text For a brief period in the 1970s, thinkers like Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan et al., Massage) and artists like Bruno Munari (Tanchis and Munari) collaborated fruitfully with graphic designers to create books that mixed text and image in novel ways. Using new compositional methods, they broke apart traditional printing lock-ups to superimpose photographs, twist text, and bend narrative frames. The most famous work from this era is, undoubtedly, The Medium Is the Massage (1967), McLuhan’s team-up with graphic designer Quentin Fiore, but it was followed by dozens of other books intended to communicate theory and scientific ideas with popularising graphics. Following in the footsteps of McLuhan, many of these texts sought not just to explain an issue but to self-consciously reference their own method of information delivery. These works set the precedent for visual aids (and, to a lesser extent, audio) that launched a diverse, non-hierarchical discourse that was nonetheless bound to tactile artefacts. In 1977, McLuhan helped develop a media textbook for secondary school students called City as Classroom: Understanding Language and Media. It is notable for its direct address style and its focus on investigating spaces outside of the classroom (provocatively, a section on the third page begins with “Should all schools be closed?”). The book follows with a fine-grained analysis of advertising forms in which students are asked to first bring advertisements into class for analysis and later to go out into the city to explore “a man-made environment, a huge warehouse of information, a vast resource to be mined free of charge” (McLuhan et al., City 149). As a document City as Classroom is critical of existing teaching methods, in line with the radical “in the streets” pedagogy of its day. McLuhan’s theories proved particularly salient for the counter education movement, in part because they tapped into a healthy scepticism of advertisers and other image-makers. They also dovetailed with growing discontent with the ad-strew visual environment of cities in the 1970s. Budgets for advertising had mushroomed in the1960s and outdoor advertising “cluttered” cities with billboards and neon, generating “fierce intensities and new hybrid energies” that threatened to throw off the visual equilibrium (McLuhan 74). Visual literacy curricula brought in experiential learning focussed on the legibility of the cities, mapping, and the visualisation of urban issues with social justice implications. The Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute (DGEI), a “collective endeavour of community research and education” that arose in the aftermath of the 1967 uprisings, is the most storied of the groups that suffused the collection of spatial data with community engagement and organising (Warren et al. 61). The following decades would see a tamed approach to visual literacy that, while still pressing for critical reading, did not upend traditional methods of educational delivery. Figure 6: Beginning a College Program-Assisting Teachers to Develop Visual Literacy Approaches in Public School Classrooms. 1977. ERIC. Searching for Civic Education The visual literacy initiatives formed in the early 1970s both affirmed existing civil society institutions while also asserting the need to better inform the public. Most of the campaigns were sponsored by universities, major libraries, and international groups such as UNESCO, which published its “Declaration on Media Education” in 1982. They noted that “participation” was “essential to the working of a pluralistic and representative democracy” and the “public—users, citizens, individuals, groups ... were too systematically overlooked”. Here, the public is conceived as both “targets of the information and communication process” and users who “should have the last word”. To that end their “continuing education” should be ensured (Study 18). Programs consisted primarily of cognitive “see-scan-analyse” techniques (Little et al.) for younger students but some also sought to bring visual analysis to adult learners via continuing education (often through museums eager to engage more diverse audiences) and more radical popular education programs sponsored by community groups. By the mid-80s, scores of modules had been built around the comprehension of visual media and had become standard educational fare across North America, Australasia, and to a lesser extent, Europe. There was an increasing awareness of the role of data and image presentation in decision-making, as evidenced by the surprising commercial success of Edward Tufte’s 1982 book, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Visual literacy—or at least image analysis—was now enmeshed in teaching practice and needed little active advocacy. Scholarly interest in the subject went into a brief period of hibernation in the 1980s and early 1990s, only to be reborn with the arrival of new media distribution technologies (CD-ROMs and then the internet) in classrooms and the widespread availability of digital imaging technology starting in the late 1990s; companies like Adobe distributed free and reduced-fee licences to schools and launched extensive teacher training programs. Visual literacy was reanimated but primarily within a circumscribed academic field of education and data visualisation. Figure 7: Visual Literacy; What Research Says to the Teacher, 1975. National Education Association. USA. Part of the shifting frame of visual literacy has to do with institutional imperatives, particularly in places where austerity measures forced strange alliances between disciplines. What had been a project in alternative education morphed into an uncontested part of the curriculum and a dependable budget line. This shift was already forecasted in 1972 by Harun Farocki who, writing in Filmkritik, noted that funding for new film schools would be difficult to obtain but money might be found for “training in media education … a discipline that could persuade ministers of education, that would at the same time turn the budget restrictions into an advantage, and that would match the functions of art schools” (98). Nearly 50 years later educators are still using media education (rebranded as visual or media literacy) to make the case for fine arts and humanities education. While earlier iterations of visual literacy education were often too reliant on the idea of cracking the “code” of images, they did promote ways of learning that were a deep departure from the rote methods of previous generations. Next-gen curricula frame visual literacy as largely supplemental—a resource, but not a program. By the end of the 20th century, visual literacy had changed from a scholarly interest to a standard resource in the “teacher’s toolkit”, entering into school programs and influencing museum education, corporate training, and the development of public-oriented media (Literacy). An appreciation of image culture was seen as key to creating empathetic global citizens, but its scope was increasingly limited. With rising austerity in the education sector (a shift that preceded the 2008 recession by decades in some countries), art educators, museum enrichment staff, and design researchers need to make a case for why their disciplines were relevant in pedagogical models that are increasingly aimed at “skills-based” and “job ready” teaching. Arts educators worked hard to insert their fields into learning goals for secondary students as visual literacy, with the hope that “literacy” would carry the weight of an educational imperative and not a supplementary field of study. Conclusion For nearly a century, educational initiatives have sought to inculcate a cosmopolitan perspective with a variety of teaching materials and pedagogical reference points. Symbolic languages, like the Isotype, looked to unite disparate people with shared visual forms; while educational initiatives aimed to train the eyes of students to make them more discerning citizens. The term ‘visual literacy’ emerged in the 1960s and has since been deployed in programs with a wide variety of goals. Countercultural initiatives saw it as a prerequisite for popular education from the ground up, but, in the years since, it has been formalised and brought into more staid curricula, often as a sort of shorthand for learning from media and pictures. The grand cosmopolitan vision of a complete ‘visual language’ has been scaled back considerably, but still exists in trace amounts. Processes of globalisation require images to universalise experiences, commodities, and more for people without shared languages. Emoji alphabets and globalese (brands and consumer messaging that are “visual-linguistic” amalgams “increasingly detached from any specific ethnolinguistic group or locality”) are a testament to a mediatised banal cosmopolitanism (Jaworski 231). In this sense, becoming “fluent” in global design vernacular means familiarity with firms and products, an understanding that is aesthetic, not critical. It is very much the beneficiaries of globalisation—both state and commercial actors—who have been able to harness increasingly image-based technologies for their benefit. To take a humorous but nonetheless consequential example, Spanish culinary boosters were able to successfully lobby for a paella emoji (Miller) rather than having a food symbol from a less wealthy country such as a Senegalese jollof or a Morrocan tagine. This trend has gone even further as new forms of visual communication are increasingly streamlined and managed by for-profit media platforms. The ubiquity of these forms of communication and their global reach has made visual literacy more important than ever but it has also fundamentally shifted the endeavour from a graphic sorting practice to a critical piece of social infrastructure that has tremendous political ramifications. Visual literacy campaigns hold out the promise of educating students in an image-based system with the potential to transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries. This cosmopolitan political project has not yet been realised, as the visual literacy frame has drifted into specialised silos of art, design, and digital humanities education. It can help bridge the “incomplete connections” of an increasingly globalised world (Calhoun 112), but it does not have a program in and of itself. Rather, an evolving visual literacy curriculum might be seen as a litmus test for how we imagine the role of images in the world. 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Welcome to Volume 51.2 of The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education. This is our second volume since our shift to being an open access journal. We are very pleased that AJIE has recently been accepted into the Directory of Open Access Journals and was awarded the DOAJ Seal for best practice in open access. DOAJ is an extensive index of diverse open access journals internationally and their aim is to increase the visibility, accessibility, reputation, usage and impact of quality, peer-reviewed, open access scholarly research journals globally. We are also excited that since the journal became open access in August 2022 there has been over 20,000 views of whole articles and over 24,000 views of abstracts on our new open access website. This is a larger volume of AJIE than usual, and we thank the authors and reviewers for their contributions. You play a vital role in ensuring the quality of the journal. We would also like to thank Michelle James for her detailed and astute copyediting for the journal. Special thanks to Senior Publications Officer Sonia Nitchell for her continuing work on importing the large AJIE archive onto the new platform. The first suite of articles in this volume focuses on the early childhood context with articles by Locke and Webb providing us with insights into the inclusion of Indigenous knowledges and perspectives in early education and care settings in the first paper and how Aboriginal educators integrated their cultural knowledge and experiences to develop Aboriginal children’s skills in the second. In a South Saami context, Kroik explores preschool teachers’ identity as linguistic role models by means of analysing their own descriptions of language learning. In Canada, Schroeder et al. demonstrate the importance of making curricula relevant to Indigenous children by including content that is culturally relevant and developmentally appropriate. The interrelationships between language, identity and culture from Māori kaumātua (elders both male and female) and whānau (parents and extended family members) from Aotearoa (New Zealand) is explored by Berryman et al. The second suite of papers take us into the context of schools. Johnson and Flückiger explore the important role for Aboriginal Education Workers in remote Australian communities, while Goodall et al. draw on student and teacher memories of the early days of Indigenous-controlled adult education provider Tranby Aboriginal Co-operative Ltd. The paper by Guenther et al. analyses My School data for Very Remote Aboriginal schools, showing how the Remote School Attendance Strategy school attendance results compare with similar non-Remote School Attendance Strategy schools. Their findings raise ethical and accountability concerns about the Remote School Attendance Strategy, which they argue lacks evidence of attendance improvement, and which potentially causes harm. Whitau et al. also examine school attendance but in relation to Western Australian Aboriginal young women and the links between racism, teacher–student relationships, and peer connectedness, and how these were related to participant attendance and engagement at school. Moore et al. discuss the Whole of Community Engagement (WCE) initiative, which sought to identify barriers and enablers in Aboriginal students’ pathways to post-compulsory education in six remote communities in Arnhem Land and central Australia. They describe the features that led them to characterise the initiative and the remote community and school context as intercultural and complex. Also in relation to the Whole of Community Engagement initiative, Moore et al. propose an intercultural perspective as a refinement to the both-ways approach to remote education. Osborne et al. focus on aspirations of students, their families and communities at Nyangatjatjara College an independent Aboriginal school distributed across three campuses in the southern region of the Northern Territory. Macdonald and Gringart present a new measurement instrument, the Multi-Dimensional Student Perceptions of School Questionnaire (MSPSQ), validated with a moderate-sized sample of Indigenous and non-Indigenous secondary students in Western Australia. The next suite of papers has an international focus with papers from Canada, Aotearoa (New Zealand), Brazil, and Tonga. Stavrou and Murphy explore tensions surrounding Indigenising school mathematics in a Western Canadian prairie province conducted with three Cree elementary school teachers while Denston et al. examine teachers’ perceptions and experiences of a collaborative case study to adapt a literacy approach originally designed for an Aotearoa (New Zealand) English-medium context. Ioris et al. explore the main trends and pending gaps related to indigenous education in Brazil while Fonua et al. shares the stories of 26 successful Tongan science learners who participated in talanoa (open discussion without an agenda) about their engagement, enjoyment, and success in secondary and university science education in Aotearoa (New Zealand). The final papers in this volume shift to the university context with Hogarth exploring a small pilot study conducted at a Queensland university examining how academics perceive the inclusion of Indigenous Knowledges within institutional and professional contexts and initial teacher education programs. Forsyth et al. speak to the importance of employing Indigenous methodologies when conducting Indigenous research to improve dental and medical health outcomes for Indigenous peoples. Hook and Jessen reflect on the contentious nature of non-Indigenous academics teaching Indigenous Studies and draw on student survey data to illustrate the conflict between their pedagogic practices, student expectations and the structural impediments to their teaching aims. Smith et al. also provide a personal reflection on the higher education context by discussing the need to have institutional conversations about coloniality, institutional racism and white fragility within tertiary institutions. The final paper in this volume by Gibbs et al. explores the relationships between racism, cultural resilience, and educational engagement and academic outcomes for Aboriginal tertiary students. They highlight that cultural resilience and support is critical to Aboriginal student success within universities. Racism continues to be particularly important to address because, as the 2022 Australian Reconciliation Barometer recently highlighted, experiences of racial prejudice have increased for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people over the last two years and certainly there is much work needed to improve relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. We hope you enjoy reading the articles in this volume and hope the articles lead to further dialogue and discussion about Indigenous educational success both in Australia and internationally. Bronwyn Fredericks, Martin Nakata, and Katelyn Barney

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At one point in Victor Hugo’s novel, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, the archdeacon, Claude Frollo, looked up from a book on his table to the edifice of the gothic cathedral, visible from his canon’s cell in the cloister of Notre Dame: “Alas!” he said, “this will kill that” (146). Frollo’s lament, that the book would destroy the edifice, captures the medieval cleric’s anxiety about the way in which Gutenberg’s print technology would become the new universal means for recording and communicating humanity’s ideas and artistic expression, replacing the grand monuments of architecture, human engineering, and craftsmanship. For Hugo, architecture was “the great handwriting of humankind” (149). The cathedral as the material outcome of human technology was being replaced by the first great machine—the printing press. At this point in the third millennium, some people undoubtedly have similar anxieties to Frollo: is it now the book’s turn to be destroyed by yet another great machine? The inclusion of “post print” in our title is not intended to sound the death knell of the book. Rather, we contend that despite the enduring value of print, digital publishing is “present and active” and is changing the way in which research, particularly in the humanities, is being undertaken. Our approach has three related parts. First, we consider how digital technologies are changing the way in which content is constructed, customised, modified, disseminated, and accessed within a global, distributed network. This section argues that the transition from print to electronic or digital publishing means both losses and gains, particularly with respect to shifts in our approaches to textuality, information, and innovative publishing. Second, we discuss the Children’s Literature Digital Resources (CLDR) project, with which we are involved. This case study of a digitising initiative opens out the transformative possibilities and challenges of digital publishing and e-scholarship for research communities. Third, we reflect on technology’s capacity to bring about major changes in the light of the theoretical and practical issues that have arisen from our discussion. I. Digitising in a “post-print age” We are living in an era that is commonly referred to as “the late age of print” (see Kho) or the “post-print age” (see Gunkel). According to Aarseth, we have reached a point whereby nearly all of our public and personal media have become more or less digital (37). As Kho notes, web newspapers are not only becoming increasingly more popular, but they are also making rather than losing money, and paper-based newspapers are finding it difficult to recruit new readers from the younger generations (37). Not only can such online-only publications update format, content, and structure more economically than print-based publications, but their wide distribution network, speed, and flexibility attract advertising revenue. Hype and hyperbole aside, publishers are not so much discarding their legacy of print, but recognising the folly of not embracing innovative technologies that can add value by presenting information in ways that satisfy users’ needs for content to-go or for edutainment. As Kho notes: “no longer able to satisfy customer demand by producing print-only products, or even by enabling online access to semi-static content, established publishers are embracing new models for publishing, web-style” (42). Advocates of online publishing contend that the major benefits of online publishing over print technology are that it is faster, more economical, and more interactive. However, as Hovav and Gray caution, “e-publishing also involves risks, hidden costs, and trade-offs” (79). The specific focus for these authors is e-journal publishing and they contend that while cost reduction is in editing, production and distribution, if the journal is not open access, then costs relating to storage and bandwith will be transferred to the user. If we put economics aside for the moment, the transition from print to electronic text (e-text), especially with electronic literary works, brings additional considerations, particularly in their ability to make available different reading strategies to print, such as “animation, rollovers, screen design, navigation strategies, and so on” (Hayles 38). Transition from print to e-text In his book, Writing Space, David Bolter follows Victor Hugo’s lead, but does not ask if print technology will be destroyed. Rather, he argues that “the idea and ideal of the book will change: print will no longer define the organization and presentation of knowledge, as it has for the past five centuries” (2). As Hayles noted above, one significant indicator of this change, which is a consequence of the shift from analogue to digital, is the addition of graphical, audio, visual, sonic, and kinetic elements to the written word. A significant consequence of this transition is the reinvention of the book in a networked environment. Unlike the printed book, the networked book is not bound by space and time. Rather, it is an evolving entity within an ecology of readers, authors, and texts. The Web 2.0 platform has enabled more experimentation with blending of digital technology and traditional writing, particularly in the use of blogs, which have spawned blogwriting and the wikinovel. Siva Vaidhyanathan’s The Googlization of Everything: How One Company is Disrupting Culture, Commerce and Community … and Why We Should Worry is a wikinovel or blog book that was produced over a series of weeks with contributions from other bloggers (see: http://www.sivacracy.net/). Penguin Books, in collaboration with a media company, “Six Stories to Start,” have developed six stories—“We Tell Stories,” which involve different forms of interactivity from users through blog entries, Twitter text messages, an interactive google map, and other features. For example, the story titled “Fairy Tales” allows users to customise the story using their own choice of names for characters and descriptions of character traits. Each story is loosely based on a classic story and links take users to synopses of these original stories and their authors and to online purchase of the texts through the Penguin Books sales website. These examples of digital stories are a small part of the digital environment, which exploits computer and online technologies’ capacity to be interactive and immersive. As Janet Murray notes, the interactive qualities of digital environments are characterised by their procedural and participatory abilities, while their immersive qualities are characterised by their spatial and encyclopedic dimensions (71–89). These immersive and interactive qualities highlight different ways of reading texts, which entail different embodied and cognitive functions from those that reading print texts requires. As Hayles argues: the advent of electronic textuality presents us with an unparalleled opportunity to reformulate fundamental ideas about texts and, in the process, to see print as well as electronic texts with fresh eyes (89–90). The transition to e-text also highlights how digitality is changing all aspects of everyday life both inside and outside the academy. Online teaching and e-research Another aspect of the commercial arm of publishing that is impacting on academe and other organisations is the digitising and indexing of print content for niche distribution. Kho offers the example of the Mark Logic Corporation, which uses its XML content platform to repurpose content, create new content, and distribute this content through multiple portals. As the promotional website video for Mark Logic explains, academics can use this service to customise their own textbooks for students by including only articles and book chapters that are relevant to their subject. These are then organised, bound, and distributed by Mark Logic for sale to students at a cost that is generally cheaper than most textbooks. A further example of how print and digital materials can form an integrated, customised source for teachers and students is eFictions (Trimmer, Jennings, & Patterson). eFictions was one of the first print and online short story anthologies that teachers of literature could customise to their own needs. Produced as both a print text collection and a website, eFictions offers popular short stories in English by well-known traditional and contemporary writers from the US, Australia, New Zealand, UK, and Europe, with summaries, notes on literary features, author biographies, and, in one instance, a YouTube movie of the story. In using the eFictions website, teachers can build a customised anthology of traditional and innovative stories to suit their teaching preferences. These examples provide useful indicators of how content is constructed, customised, modified, disseminated, and accessed within a distributed network. However, the question remains as to how to measure their impact and outcomes within teaching and learning communities. As Harley suggests in her study on the use and users of digital resources in the humanities and social sciences, several factors warrant attention, such as personal teaching style, philosophy, and specific disciplinary requirements. However, in terms of understanding the benefits of digital resources for teaching and learning, Harley notes that few providers in her sample had developed any plans to evaluate use and users in a systematic way. In addition to the problems raised in Harley’s study, another relates to how researchers can be supported to take full advantage of digital technologies for e-research. The transformation brought about by information and communication technologies extends and broadens the impact of research, by making its outputs more discoverable and usable by other researchers, and its benefits more available to industry, governments, and the wider community. Traditional repositories of knowledge and information, such as libraries, are juggling the space demands of books and computer hardware alongside increasing reader demand for anywhere, anytime, anyplace access to information. Researchers’ expectations about online access to journals, eprints, bibliographic data, and the views of others through wikis, blogs, and associated social and information networking sites such as YouTube compete with the traditional expectations of the institutions that fund libraries for paper-based archives and book repositories. While university libraries are finding it increasingly difficult to purchase all hardcover books relevant to numerous and varied disciplines, a significant proportion of their budgets goes towards digital repositories (e.g., STORS), indexes, and other resources, such as full-text electronic specialised and multidisciplinary journal databases (e.g., Project Muse and Proquest); electronic serials; e-books; and specialised information sources through fast (online) document delivery services. An area that is becoming increasingly significant for those working in the humanities is the digitising of historical and cultural texts. II. Bringing back the dead: The CLDR project The CLDR project is led by researchers and librarians at the Queensland University of Technology, in collaboration with Deakin University, University of Sydney, and members of the AustLit team at The University of Queensland. The CLDR project is a “Research Community” of the electronic bibliographic database AustLit: The Australian Literature Resource, which is working towards the goal of providing a complete bibliographic record of the nation’s literature. AustLit offers users with a single entry point to enhanced scholarly resources on Australian writers, their works, and other aspects of Australian literary culture and activities. AustLit and its Research Communities are supported by grants from the Australian Research Council and financial and in-kind contributions from a consortium of Australian universities, and by other external funding sources such as the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy. Like other more extensive digitisation projects, such as Project Gutenberg and the Rosetta Project, the CLDR project aims to provide a centralised access point for digital surrogates of early published works of Australian children’s literature, with access pathways to existing resources. The first stage of the CLDR project is to provide access to digitised, full-text, out-of-copyright Australian children’s literature from European settlement to 1945, with selected digitised critical works relevant to the field. Texts comprise a range of genres, including poetry, drama, and narrative for young readers and picture books, songs, and rhymes for infants. Currently, a selection of 75 e-texts and digital scans of original texts from Project Gutenberg and Internet Archive have been linked to the Children’s Literature Research Community. By the end of 2009, the CLDR will have digitised approximately 1000 literary texts and a significant number of critical works. Stage II and subsequent development will involve digitisation of selected texts from 1945 onwards. A precursor to the CLDR project has been undertaken by Deakin University in collaboration with the State Library of Victoria, whereby a digital bibliographic index comprising Victorian School Readers has been completed with plans for full-text digital surrogates of a selection of these texts. These texts provide valuable insights into citizenship, identity, and values formation from the 1930s onwards. At the time of writing, the CLDR is at an early stage of development. An extensive survey of out-of-copyright texts has been completed and the digitisation of these resources is about to commence. The project plans to make rich content searchable, allowing scholars from children’s literature studies and education to benefit from the many advantages of online scholarship. What digital publishing and associated digital archives, electronic texts, hypermedia, and so forth foreground is the fact that writers, readers, publishers, programmers, designers, critics, booksellers, teachers, and copyright laws operate within a context that is highly mediated by technology. In his article on large-scale digitisation projects carried out by Cornell and University of Michigan with the Making of America collection of 19th-century American serials and monographs, Hirtle notes that when special collections’ materials are available via the Web, with appropriate metadata and software, then they can “increase use of the material, contribute to new forms of research, and attract new users to the material” (44). Furthermore, Hirtle contends that despite the poor ergonomics associated with most electronic displays and e-book readers, “people will, when given the opportunity, consult an electronic text over the print original” (46). If this preference is universally accurate, especially for researchers and students, then it follows that not only will the preference for electronic surrogates of original material increase, but preference for other kinds of electronic texts will also increase. It is with this preference for electronic resources in mind that we approached the field of children’s literature in Australia and asked questions about how future generations of researchers would prefer to work. If electronic texts become the reference of choice for primary as well as secondary sources, then it seems sensible to assume that researchers would prefer to sit at the end of the keyboard than to travel considerable distances at considerable cost to access paper-based print texts in distant libraries and archives. We considered the best means for providing access to digitised primary and secondary, full text material, and digital pathways to existing online resources, particularly an extensive indexing and bibliographic database. Prior to the commencement of the CLDR project, AustLit had already indexed an extensive number of children’s literature. Challenges and dilemmas The CLDR project, even in its early stages of development, has encountered a number of challenges and dilemmas that centre on access, copyright, economic capital, and practical aspects of digitisation, and sustainability. These issues have relevance for digital publishing and e-research. A decision is yet to be made as to whether the digital texts in CLDR will be available on open or closed/tolled access. The preference is for open access. As Hayles argues, copyright is more than a legal basis for intellectual property, as it also entails ideas about authorship, creativity, and the work as an “immaterial mental construct” that goes “beyond the paper, binding, or ink” (144). Seeking copyright permission is therefore only part of the issue. Determining how the item will be accessed is a further matter, particularly as future technologies may impact upon how a digital item is used. In the case of e-journals, the issue of copyright payment structures are evolving towards a collective licensing system, pay-per-view, and other combinations of print and electronic subscription (see Hovav and Gray). For research purposes, digitisation of items for CLDR is not simply a scan and deliver process. Rather it is one that needs to ensure that the best quality is provided and that the item is both accessible and usable by researchers, and sustainable for future researchers. Sustainability is an important consideration and provides a challenge for institutions that host projects such as CLDR. Therefore, items need to be scanned to a high quality and this requires an expensive scanner and personnel costs. Files need to be in a variety of formats for preservation purposes and so that they may be manipulated to be useable in different technologies (for example, Archival Tiff, Tiff, Jpeg, PDF, HTML). Hovav and Gray warn that when technology becomes obsolete, then content becomes unreadable unless backward integration is maintained. The CLDR items will be annotatable given AustLit’s NeAt funded project: Aus-e-Lit. The Aus-e-Lit project will extend and enhance the existing AustLit web portal with data integration and search services, empirical reporting services, collaborative annotation services, and compound object authoring, editing, and publishing services. For users to be able to get the most out of a digital item, it needs to be searchable, either through double keying or OCR (optimal character recognition). The value of CLDR’s contribution The value of the CLDR project lies in its goal to provide a comprehensive, searchable body of texts (fictional and critical) to researchers across the humanities and social sciences. Other projects seem to be intent on putting up as many items as possible to be considered as a first resort for online texts. CLDR is more specific and is not interested in simply generating a presence on the Web. Rather, it is research driven both in its design and implementation, and in its focussed outcomes of assisting academics and students primarily in their e-research endeavours. To this end, we have concentrated on the following: an extensive survey of appropriate texts; best models for file location, distribution, and use; and high standards of digitising protocols. These issues that relate to data storage, digitisation, collections, management, and end-users of data are aligned with the “Development of an Australian Research Data Strategy” outlined in An Australian e-Research Strategy and Implementation Framework (2006). CLDR is not designed to simply replicate resources, as it has a distinct focus, audience, and research potential. In addition, it looks at resources that may be forgotten or are no longer available in reproduction by current publishing companies. Thus, the aim of CLDR is to preserve both the time and a period of Australian history and literary culture. It will also provide users with an accessible repository of rare and early texts written for children. III. Future directions It is now commonplace to recognize that the Web’s role as information provider has changed over the past decade. New forms of “collective intelligence” or “distributed cognition” (Oblinger and Lombardi) are emerging within and outside formal research communities. Technology’s capacity to initiate major cultural, social, educational, economic, political and commercial shifts has conditioned us to expect the “next big thing.” We have learnt to adapt swiftly to the many challenges that online technologies have presented, and we have reaped the benefits. As the examples in this discussion have highlighted, the changes in online publishing and digitisation have provided many material, network, pedagogical, and research possibilities: we teach online units providing students with access to e-journals, e-books, and customized archives of digitised materials; we communicate via various online technologies; we attend virtual conferences; and we participate in e-research through a global, digital network. In other words, technology is deeply engrained in our everyday lives. In returning to Frollo’s concern that the book would destroy architecture, Umberto Eco offers a placatory note: “in the history of culture it has never happened that something has simply killed something else. Something has profoundly changed something else” (n. pag.). Eco’s point has relevance to our discussion of digital publishing. The transition from print to digital necessitates a profound change that impacts on the ways we read, write, and research. As we have illustrated with our case study of the CLDR project, the move to creating digitised texts of print literature needs to be considered within a dynamic network of multiple causalities, emergent technological processes, and complex negotiations through which digital texts are created, stored, disseminated, and used. Technological changes in just the past five years have, in many ways, created an expectation in the minds of people that the future is no longer some distant time from the present. 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