Journal articles: 'Matching unfamiliar faces'

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Megreya, Ahmed M., and A. Mike Burton. "Unfamiliar faces are not faces: Evidence from a matching task." Memory & Cognition 34, no. 4 (June 2006): 865–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03193433.

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Clutterbuck, Ruth, and Robert A. Johnston. "Exploring Levels of Face Familiarity by Using an Indirect Face-Matching Measure." Perception 31, no. 8 (August 2002): 985–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p3335.

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An experiment is reported in which participants matched complete images of unfamiliar, moderately familiar, and highly familiar faces with simultaneously presented images of internal and external features. Participants had to decide if the two images depicted same or different individuals. Matches to internal features were made faster to highly familiar faces than both to moderately familiar and to unfamiliar faces, and matches to moderately familiar faces were made faster than to unfamiliar faces. For external feature matches, this advantage was only found for “different” decision matches to highly familiar faces compared to unfamiliar faces. The results indicate that the differences in familiar and unfamiliar face processing are not the result of all-or-none effects, but seem to have a graded impact on matching performance. These findings extend the earlier work of Young et al (1985 Perception14 737–746), and we discuss the possibility of using the matching task as an indirect measure of face familiarity.

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Young, A. W., K. H. McWeeny, D. C. Hay, and A. W. Ellis. "Matching familiar and unfamiliar faces on identity and expression." Psychological Research 48, no. 2 (August 1986): 63–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00309318.

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Kramer, Robin S. S., and Michael G. Reynolds. "Unfamiliar Face Matching With Frontal and Profile Views." Perception 47, no. 4 (February 5, 2018): 414–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0301006618756809.

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Research has systematically examined how laboratory participants and real-world practitioners decide whether two face photographs show the same person or not using frontal images. In contrast, research has not examined face matching using profile images. In Experiment 1, we ask whether matching unfamiliar faces is easier with frontal compared with profile views. Participants completed the original, frontal version of the Glasgow Face Matching Test, and also an adapted version where all face pairs were presented in profile. There was no difference in performance across the two tasks, suggesting that both views were similarly useful for face matching. Experiments 2 and 3 examined whether matching unfamiliar faces is improved when both frontal and profile views are provided. We compared face matching accuracy when both a frontal and a profile image of each face were presented, with accuracy using each view alone. Surprisingly, we found no benefit when both views were presented together in either experiment. Overall, these results suggest that either frontal or profile views provide substantially overlapping information regarding identity or participants are unable to utilise both sources of information when making decisions. Each of these conclusions has important implications for face matching research and real-world identification development.

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Young, Andrew W., Dennis C. Hay, Kathryn H. McWeeny, Brenda M. Flude, and Andrew W. Ellis. "Matching Familiar and Unfamiliar Faces on Internal and External Features." Perception 14, no. 6 (December 1985): 737–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p140737.

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Hole, Graham J. "Configurational Factors in the Perception of Unfamiliar Faces." Perception 23, no. 1 (January 1994): 65–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p230065.

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Young et al (1987) have demonstrated that the juxtaposition of top and bottom halves of different faces produces a powerful impression of a novel face. It is difficult to isolate perceptually either half of the ‘new’ face. Inversion of the stimulus, however, makes this task easier. Upright chimeric faces appear to evoke strong and automatic configurational processing mechanisms which interfere with selective piecemeal processing. In this paper three experiments are described in which a matching paradigm was used to show that Young et al's findings apply to unfamiliar as well as to familiar faces. The results highlight the way in which minor procedural differences may alter the way in which subjects perform face-recognition tasks.

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Bruce, Vicki, Zoë Henderson, Craig Newman, and A. Mike Burton. "Matching identities of familiar and unfamiliar faces caught on CCTV images." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 7, no. 3 (2001): 207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1076-898x.7.3.207.

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Favelle, Simone, Harold Hill, and Peter Claes. "About Face: Matching Unfamiliar Faces Across Rotations of View and Lighting." i-Perception 8, no. 6 (November 29, 2017): 204166951774422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2041669517744221.

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Clutterbuck, R., and R. A. Johnston. "Demonstrating how unfamiliar faces become familiar using a face matching task." European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 17, no. 1 (January 2005): 97–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09541440340000439.

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Barrett, Sarah E., Michael D. Rugg, and David I. Perrett. "Event-related potentials and the matching of familiar and unfamiliar faces☆." Neuropsychologia 26, no. 1 (1988): 105–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(88)90034-6.

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Young, Andrew W., Hadyn D. Ellis, T. Krystyna Szulecka, and Karel W. De Pauw. "Face Processing Impairments and Delusional Misidentification." Behavioural Neurology 3, no. 3 (1990): 153–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/1990/598170.

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We report detailed investigations of the face processing abilities of four patients who had shown symptoms involving delusional misidentification. One (GC) was diagnosed as a Frégoli case, and the other three (SL, GS, and JS) by symptoms of intermetamorphosis. The face processing tasks examined their ability to recognize emotional facial expressions, identify familiar faces, match photographs of unfamiliar faces, and remember photographs of faces of unfamiliar people. The Frégoli patient (GC) was impaired at identifying familiar faces, and severely impaired at matching photographs of unfamiliar people wearing different disguises to undisguised views. Two of the intermetamorphosis patients (SL and GS) also showed impaired face processing abilities, but the third US) performed all tests at a normal level. These findings constrain conceptions of the relation between delusional misidentification, face processing impairment, and brain injury.

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Megreya, Ahmed M. "Feature-by-feature comparison and holistic processing in unfamiliar face matching." PeerJ 6 (February 26, 2018): e4437. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4437.

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Identity comparisons of photographs of unfamiliar faces are prone to error but imperative for security settings, such as the verification of face identities at passport control. Therefore, finding techniques to improve face-matching accuracy is an important contemporary research topic. This study investigates whether matching accuracy can be enhanced by verbal instructions that address feature comparisons or holistic processing. Findings demonstrate that feature-by-feature comparison strategy had no effect on face matching. In contrast, verbal instructions focused on holistic processing made face matching faster, but they impaired accuracy. Given the recent evidence for the heredity of face perception and the previously reported small or no improvements of face-matching ability, it seems reasonable to suggest that improving unfamiliar face matching is not an easy task, but it is presumably worthwhile to explore new methods for improvement nonetheless.

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Bortolon, Catherine, Siméon Lorieux, and Stéphane Raffard. "Self- or familiar-face recognition advantage? New insight using ambient images." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 71, no. 6 (January 1, 2018): 1396–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2017.1327982.

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Self-face recognition has been widely explored in the past few years. Nevertheless, the current literature relies on the use of standardized photographs which do not represent daily-life face recognition. Therefore, we aim for the first time to evaluate self-face processing in healthy individuals using natural/ambient images which contain variations in the environment and in the face itself. In total, 40 undergraduate and graduate students performed a forced delayed-matching task, including images of one’s own face, friend, famous and unknown individuals. For both reaction time and accuracy, results showed that participants were faster and more accurate when matching different images of their own face compared to both famous and unfamiliar faces. Nevertheless, no significant differences were found between self-face and friend-face and between friend-face and famous-face. They were also faster and more accurate when matching friend and famous faces compared to unfamiliar faces. Our results suggest that faster and more accurate responses to self-face might be better explained by a familiarity effect – that is, (1) the result of frequent exposition to one’s own image through mirror and photos, (2) a more robust mental representation of one’s own face and (3) strong face recognition units as for other familiar faces.

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Woźniak, Mateusz, and Günther Knoblich. "Self-prioritization of fully unfamiliar stimuli." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72, no. 8 (March 5, 2019): 2110–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021819832981.

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Recently, Sui and colleagues introduced an experimental task to investigate prioritization of arbitrary stimuli associated with the self. They demonstrated that after being told to associate three identities (self, friend, stranger) with three arbitrary stimuli (geometrical shapes), participants were faster in a perceptual matching task to recognise matching pairs of self-associated shape with self-label, than respective friend or stranger-related pairings. They interpreted this as evidence that a brief self-association is sufficient to facilitate processing of previously neutral stimuli. However, in the matching trials of the self-prioritization task, participants are processing not only self-associated arbitrary stimuli but also familiar verbal labels with an established meaning. Therefore, the self-advantage may be caused by familiarity of the labels, rather than self-association of the shapes. To test whether self-prioritization can be elicited in a task employing exclusively neutral stimuli, we asked participants to associate avatar faces with three identities (self, name of best friend, and stranger) and replaced labels with unfamiliar abstract symbols that were associated to the words (you, friend, stranger) before the actual experiment started. The results presented the usual pattern of self-prioritization showing that this effect does not critically depend on the presence of familiar labels and that it can be elicited in the absence of any familiar stimuli.

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Young, Andrew W., Brenda M. Flude, and Andrew W. Ellis. "Delusional Misidentification Incident in a Right Hemisphere Stroke Patient." Behavioural Neurology 4, no. 2 (1991): 81–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/1991/316241.

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We report a delusional misidentification incident lasting some hours in which a man who had suffered a right hemisphere stroke, HW, mistook a student for his daughter. Investigation of HW's face processing abilities showed unimpaired ability to recognize familiar faces and match facial expressions, but severe impairments of unfamiliar face matching both on the Benton test and a task requiring the matching of disguised and undisguised faces. The incident shows some similarity to the Frégoli delusion, which has also been noted following brain injury affecting the right cerebral hemisphere.

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Micheletta, Jérôme, Jamie Whitehouse, Lisa A. Parr, Paul Marshman, Antje Engelhardt, and Bridget M. Waller. "Familiar and unfamiliar face recognition in crested macaques ( Macaca nigra )." Royal Society Open Science 2, no. 5 (May 2015): 150109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150109.

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Many species use facial features to identify conspecifics, which is necessary to navigate a complex social environment. The fundamental mechanisms underlying face processing are starting to be well understood in a variety of primate species. However, most studies focus on a limited subset of species tested with unfamiliar faces. As well as limiting our understanding of how widely distributed across species these skills are, this also limits our understanding of how primates process faces of individuals they know, and whether social factors (e.g. dominance and social bonds) influence how readily they recognize others. In this study, socially housed crested macaques voluntarily participated in a series of computerized matching-to-sample tasks investigating their ability to discriminate (i) unfamiliar individuals and (ii) members of their own social group. The macaques performed above chance on all tasks. Familiar faces were not easier to discriminate than unfamiliar faces. However, the subjects were better at discriminating higher ranking familiar individuals, but not unfamiliar ones. This suggests that our subjects applied their knowledge of their dominance hierarchies to the pictorial representation of their group mates. Faces of high-ranking individuals garner more social attention, and therefore might be more deeply encoded than other individuals. Our results extend the study of face recognition to a novel species, and consequently provide valuable data for future comparative studies.

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Mugavin, Samantha, Simone Favelle, Amy Chan, and Niamh Kirk. "The Effect of Image Variability on Matching Unfamiliar Own and Other-Race Faces." Journal of Vision 21, no. 9 (September 27, 2021): 2082. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.21.9.2082.

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Bobes, Maria A., Francisco Lopera, Mauricio Garcia, Lourdes Déaz-Comas, Lidice Galan, and Mitchell Valdes-Sosa. "Covert Matching of Unfamiliar Faces in a Case of Prosopagnosia: an ERP Study." Cortex 39, no. 1 (January 2003): 41–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70073-x.

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Sugimura, Tomoko. "Young children’s difficulty in disregarding information from external features when matching unfamiliar faces." Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 116, no. 2 (October 2013): 296–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.06.011.

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Riby, Deborah M., Leigh M. Riby, and Jonathon L. Reay. "Differential Sensitivity to Rotations of Facial Features in the Thatcher Illusion." Psychological Reports 105, no. 3 (December 2009): 721–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.105.3.721-726.

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A developmental study is presented in which participants must detect the Thatcher illusion in order to match unfamiliar faces on identity. 114 participants between 6 and 67 years of age completed a matching task whereby face pairs were presented upright or under inversion. At all ages, participants were more accurate matching upright than inverted faces. In an altered version of the Thatcher task, where only the eyes or mouth were inverted, all participants were more accurate and faster to detect eye manipulations than mouth manipulations. The results are discussed in terms of the developmental significance of face inversion, the Thatcher illusion, and the salience for protection from the Thatcher illusion.

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Simic, Nevena, Sarah Khan, and Joanne Rovet. "Visuospatial, Visuoperceptual, and Visuoconstructive Abilities in Congenital Hypothyroidism." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 19, no. 10 (October 15, 2013): 1119–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355617713001136.

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AbstractIndividuals with congenital hypothyroidism (CH), even those diagnosed and treated early, experience selective cognitive deficits, the most striking of which involves the visuocognitive domain. However, the range and nature of their visuocognitive disturbances is not fully understood. We assessed a range of higher-order visuocognitive abilities in 19 children and adolescents with CH and 19 age- and sex-matched typically developing peers (TD) using a battery of neuropsychological tests and a novel self-report measure of sense of direction. CH scored lower than TD on direct tests of visuocognitive function (judging line orientation, parts-to-whole localization, copying three-dimensional block towers, discriminating designs, and matching unfamiliar faces in ¾ profile-view) as well as on self-reported problems in spatial ability. Visuocognitive problems were not global as CH and TD did not differ at copying two-dimensional block designs, mentally rotating and matching abstract shapes, or at matching unfamiliar front-view faces, design features, or designs that engaged either figure-ground segregation, visual constancy, or closure. Early and concurrent thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels were associated with visuocognitive ability, although attention and working memory were not. Individuals with CH exhibit selective visuocognitive weaknesses, some of which are related to early and concurrent TSH levels. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–9)

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Campbell, Ruth, Barbara Brooks, Edward de Haan, and Tony Roberts. "Dissociating Face Processing Skills: Decisions about Lip read Speech, Expression, and Identity." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 49, no. 2 (May 1996): 295–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713755619.

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The separability of different subcomponents of face processing has been regularly affirmed, but not always so clearly demonstrated. In particular, the ability to extract speech from faces (lip-reading) has been shown to dissociate doubly from face identification in neurological but not in other populations. In this series of experiments with undergraduates, the classification of speech sounds (lip-reading) from personally familiar and unfamiliar face photographs was explored using speeded manual responses. The independence of lip-reading from identity-based processing was confirmed. Furthermore, the established pattern of independence of expression-matching from, and dependence of identity-matching on, face familiarity was extended to personally familiar faces and “difficult”-emotion decisions. The implications of these findings are discussed.

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Levy, Yonata, and Shlomo Bentin. "Interactive Processes in Matching Identity and Expressions of Unfamiliar Faces: Evidence for Mutual Facilitation Effects." Perception 37, no. 6 (January 2008): 915–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p5925.

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Kramer, Robin S. S., Jerrica Mulgrew, and Michael G. Reynolds. "Unfamiliar face matching with photographs of infants and children." PeerJ 6 (June 11, 2018): e5010. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5010.

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Background Infants and children travel using passports that are typically valid for five years (e.g. Canada, United Kingdom, United States and Australia). These individuals may also need to be identified using images taken from videos and other sources in forensic situations including child exploitation cases. However, few researchers have examined how useful these images are as a means of identification. Methods We investigated the effectiveness of photo identification for infants and children using a face matching task, where participants were presented with two images simultaneously and asked whether the images depicted the same child or two different children. In Experiment 1, both images showed an infant (<1 year old), whereas in Experiment 2, one image again showed an infant but the second image of the child was taken at 4–5 years of age. In Experiments 3a and 3b, we asked participants to complete shortened versions of both these tasks (selecting the most difficult trials) as well as the short version Glasgow face matching test. Finally, in Experiment 4, we investigated whether information regarding the sex of the infants and children could be accurately perceived from the images. Results In Experiment 1, we found low levels of performance (72% accuracy) for matching two infant photos. For Experiment 2, performance was lower still (64% accuracy) when infant and child images were presented, given the significant changes in appearance that occur over the first five years of life. In Experiments 3a and 3b, when participants completed both these tasks, as well as a measure of adult face matching ability, we found lowest performance for the two infant tasks, along with mixed evidence of within-person correlations in sensitivities across all three tasks. The use of only same-sex pairings on mismatch trials, in comparison with random pairings, had little effect on performance measures. In Experiment 4, accuracy when judging the sex of infants was at chance levels for one image set and above chance (although still low) for the other set. As expected, participants were able to judge the sex of children (aged 4–5) from their faces. Discussion Identity matching with infant and child images resulted in low levels of performance, which were significantly worse than for an adult face matching task. Taken together, the results of the experiments presented here provide evidence that child facial photographs are ineffective for use in real-world identification.

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Kramer, Robin S. S., Zoi Manesi, Alice Towler, Michael G. Reynolds, and A. Mike Burton. "Familiarity and Within-Person Facial Variability: The Importance of the Internal and External Features." Perception 47, no. 1 (August 13, 2017): 3–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0301006617725242.

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As faces become familiar, we come to rely more on their internal features for recognition and matching tasks. Here, we assess whether this same pattern is also observed for a card sorting task. Participants sorted photos showing either the full face, only the internal features, or only the external features into multiple piles, one pile per identity. In Experiments 1 and 2, we showed the standard advantage for familiar faces—sorting was more accurate and showed very few errors in comparison with unfamiliar faces. However, for both familiar and unfamiliar faces, sorting was less accurate for external features and equivalent for internal and full faces. In Experiment 3, we asked whether external features can ever be used to make an accurate sort. Using familiar faces and instructions on the number of identities present, we nevertheless found worse performance for the external in comparison with the internal features, suggesting that less identity information was available in the former. Taken together, we show that full faces and internal features are similarly informative with regard to identity. In comparison, external features contain less identity information and produce worse card sorting performance. This research extends current thinking on the shift in focus, both in attention and importance, toward the internal features and away from the external features as familiarity with a face increases.

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Feng, Xinran, and A. Mike Burton. "Identity Documents Bias Face Matching." Perception 48, no. 12 (September 24, 2019): 1163–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0301006619877821.

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Unfamiliar face matching is a difficult task. In typical experiments, viewers see isolated face pairs and have to decide whether they show the same or different people. Recent research shows that embedding faces into passports introduces a response bias, such that viewers are more likely to accept two pictures as showing the same person. Here, we investigate the cause of this bias. In a series of experiments, we vary the apparent authority of the identity documents, testing passports, driving licences, and student ID. By comparison to isolated face matching, the results show a bias towards responding same person for each document type. However, when ID information (name, date of birth, etc.) was removed from documents, the induced bias disappeared. We conclude that bias does not rely on perceived authority, but instead seems to occur only in the presence of identifying information, despite that being task irrelevant.

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Young, Andrew W., Ian Reid, Simon Wright, and Deborah J. Hellawell. "Face-Processing Impairments and the Capgras Delusion." British Journal of Psychiatry 162, no. 5 (May 1993): 695–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.162.5.695.

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Investigations of two cases of the Capgras delusion found that both patients showed face-processing impairments encompassing identification of familiar faces, recognition of emotional facial expressions, and matching of unfamiliar faces. In neither case was there any impairment of recognition memory for words. These findings are consistent with the idea that the basis of the Capgras delusion lies in damage to neuro-anatomical pathways responsible for appropriate emotional reactions to familiar visual stimuli. The delusion would then represent the patient's attempt to make sense of the fact that these visual stimuli no longer have appropriate affective significance.

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Estudillo, Alejandro J., Ye Ji Lee, Juan A. Álvarez-Montesinos, and Javier García-Orza. "High-frequency transcranial random noise stimulation enhances unfamiliar face matching of high resolution and pixelated faces." Brain and Cognition 165 (February 2023): 105937. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2022.105937.

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Prete, Giulia, Daniele Marzoli, and Luca Tommasi. "Upright or inverted, entire or exploded: right-hemispheric superiority in face recognition withstands multiple spatial manipulations." PeerJ 3 (December 1, 2015): e1456. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1456.

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Background.The ability to identify faces has been interpreted as a cerebral specialization based on the evolutionary importance of these social stimuli, and a number of studies have shown that this function is mainly lateralized in the right hemisphere. The aim of this study was to assess the right-hemispheric specialization in face recognition in unfamiliar circumstances.Methods.Using a divided visual field paradigm, we investigated hemispheric asymmetries in the matching of two subsequent faces, using two types of transformation hindering identity recognition, namely upside-down rotation and spatial “explosion” (female and male faces were fractured into parts so that their mutual spatial relations were left intact), as well as their combination.Results.We confirmed the right-hemispheric superiority in face processing. Moreover, we found a decrease of the identity recognition for more extreme “levels of explosion” and for faces presented upside-down (either as sample or target stimuli) than for faces presented upright, as well as an advantage in the matching of female compared to male faces.Discussion.We conclude that the right-hemispheric superiority for face processing is not an epiphenomenon of our expertise, because we are not often exposed to inverted and “exploded” faces, but rather a robust hemispheric lateralization. We speculate that these results could be attributable to the prevalence of right-handedness in humans and/or to early biases in social interactions.

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Johnson, Justine, Carolyn McGettigan, and Nadine Lavan. "Comparing unfamiliar voice and face identity perception using identity sorting tasks." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 73, no. 10 (July 11, 2020): 1537–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021820938659.

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Identity sorting tasks, in which participants sort multiple naturally varying stimuli of usually two identities into perceived identities, have recently gained popularity in voice and face processing research. In both modalities, participants who are unfamiliar with the identities tend to perceive multiple stimuli of the same identity as different people and thus fail to “tell people together.” These similarities across modalities suggest that modality-general mechanisms may underpin sorting behaviour. In this study, participants completed a voice sorting and a face sorting task. Taking an individual differences approach, we asked whether participants’ performance on voice and face sorting of unfamiliar identities is correlated. Participants additionally completed a voice discrimination (Bangor Voice Matching Test) and a face discrimination task (Glasgow Face Matching Test). Using these tasks, we tested whether performance on sorting related to explicit identity discrimination. Performance on voice sorting and face sorting tasks was correlated, suggesting that common modality-general processes underpin these tasks. However, no significant correlations were found between sorting and discrimination performance, with the exception of significant relationships for performance on “same identity” trials with “telling people together” for voices and faces. Overall, any reported relationships were however relatively weak, suggesting the presence of additional modality-specific and task-specific processes.

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Alekseeva, D. S., V. V. Babenko, and D. V. Yavna. "The Order of Information Transfer into Short- Term Memory from Visual Pathways with Different Spatial-Frequency Tunings." Experimental Psychology (Russia) 13, no. 2 (2020): 72–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.17759/exppsy.2020130206.

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Visual perceptual representations are formed from the results of processing the input image in parallel pathways with different spatial-frequency tunings. It is known that these representations are created gradually, starting from low spatial frequencies. However, the order of information transfer from the perceptual representation to short-term memory has not yet been determined. The purpose of our study is to determine the principle of entering information of different spatial frequencies in the short-term memory. We used the task of unfamiliar faces matching. Digitized photographs of faces were filtered by six filters with a frequency tuning step of 1 octave. These filters reproduced the spatial-frequency characteristics of the human visual pathways. In the experiment, the target face was shown first. Its duration was variable and limited by a mask. Then four test faces were presented. Their presentation was not limited in time. The observer had to determine the face that corresponds to the target one. The dependence of the accuracy of the solution of the task on the target face duration for different ranges of spatial frequencies was determined. When the target stimuli were unfiltered (broadband) faces, the filtered faces were the test ones, and vice versa. It was found that the short-term memory gets information about an unfamiliar face in a certain order, starting from the medium spatial frequencies, and this sequence does not depend on the processing method (holistic or featural).

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Jenkins, Rob, and A. Mike Burton. "Stable face representations." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1571 (June 12, 2011): 1671–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0379.

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Photographs are often used to establish the identity of an individual or to verify that they are who they claim to be. Yet, recent research shows that it is surprisingly difficult to match a photo to a face. Neither humans nor machines can perform this task reliably. Although human perceivers are good at matching familiar faces, performance with unfamiliar faces is strikingly poor. The situation is no better for automatic face recognition systems. In practical settings, automatic systems have been consistently disappointing. In this review, we suggest that failure to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar face processing has led to unrealistic expectations about face identification in applied settings. We also argue that a photograph is not necessarily a reliable indicator of facial appearance, and develop our proposal that summary statistics can provide more stable face representations. In particular, we show that image averaging stabilizes facial appearance by diluting aspects of the image that vary between snapshots of the same person. We review evidence that the resulting images can outperform photographs in both behavioural experiments and computer simulations, and outline promising directions for future research.

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White, David, P. Jonathon Phillips, Carina A. Hahn, Matthew Hill, and Alice J. O'Toole. "Perceptual expertise in forensic facial image comparison." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1814 (September 7, 2015): 20151292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.1292.

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Forensic facial identification examiners are required to match the identity of faces in images that vary substantially, owing to changes in viewing conditions and in a person's appearance. These identifications affect the course and outcome of criminal investigations and convictions. Despite calls for research on sources of human error in forensic examination, existing scientific knowledge of face matching accuracy is based, almost exclusively, on people without formal training. Here, we administered three challenging face matching tests to a group of forensic examiners with many years' experience of comparing face images for law enforcement and government agencies. Examiners outperformed untrained participants and computer algorithms, thereby providing the first evidence that these examiners are experts at this task. Notably, computationally fusing responses of multiple experts produced near-perfect performance. Results also revealed qualitative differences between expert and non-expert performance. First, examiners' superiority was greatest at longer exposure durations, suggestive of more entailed comparison in forensic examiners. Second, experts were less impaired by image inversion than non-expert students, contrasting with face memory studies that show larger face inversion effects in high performers. We conclude that expertise in matching identity across unfamiliar face images is supported by processes that differ qualitatively from those supporting memory for individual faces.

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Smith, Harriet M. J., Andrew K. Dunn, Thom Baguley, and Paula C. Stacey. "The effect of inserting an inter-stimulus interval in face–voice matching tasks." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 71, no. 2 (January 1, 2018): 424–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1253758.

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Voices and static faces can be matched for identity above chance level. No previous face–voice matching experiments have included an inter-stimulus interval (ISI) exceeding 1 s. We tested whether accurate identity decisions rely on high-quality perceptual representations temporarily stored in sensory memory, and therefore whether the ability to make accurate matching decisions diminishes as the ISI increases. In each trial, participants had to decide whether an unfamiliar face and voice belonged to the same person. The face and voice stimuli were presented simultaneously in Experiment 1, and there was a 5-s ISI in Experiment 2, and a 10-s interval in Experiment 3. The results, analysed using multilevel modelling, revealed that static face–voice matching was significantly above chance level only when the stimuli were presented simultaneously (Experiment 1). The overall bias to respond same identity weakened as the interval increased, suggesting that this bias is explained by temporal contiguity. Taken together, the findings highlight that face–voice matching performance is reliant on comparing fast-decaying, high-quality perceptual representations. The results are discussed in terms of social functioning.

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Parr, Lisa A., Tara Dove, and William D. Hopkins. "Why Faces May Be Special: Evidence of the Inversion Effect in Chimpanzees." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 10, no. 5 (September 1998): 615–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/089892998563013.

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Five chimpanzees were tested on their ability to discriminate faces and automobiles presented in both their upright and inverted orientations. The face stimuli consisted of 30 black and white photographs, 10 each of unfamiliar chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), brown capuchins (Cebus apella), and humans (Homo sapiens). Ten black and white photographs of automobiles were also used. The stimuli were presented in a sequential matching-to-sample (SMTS) format using a computerized joystick-testing apparatus. Subjects performed better on upright than inverted stimuli in all classes. Performance was significantly better on upright than inverted presentations of chimpanzee and human faces but not on capuchin monkey faces or automobiles. These data support previous studies in humans that suggest the inversion effect occurs for stimuli for which subjects have developed an expertise. Alternative explanations for the inversion effect based on the type of spatial frequency contained in the stimuli are also discussed. These data are the first to provide evidence for the inversion effect using several classes of face stimuli in a great ape species.

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D. Frowd, Charlie, David White, Richard I. Kemp, Rob Jenkins, Kamran Nawaz, and Kate Herold. "Constructing faces from memory: the impact of image likeness and prototypical representations." Journal of Forensic Practice 16, no. 4 (November 4, 2014): 243–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jfp-08-2013-0042.

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Purpose – Research suggests that memory for unfamiliar faces is pictorial in nature, with recognition negatively affected by changes to image-specific information such as head pose, lighting and facial expression. Further, within-person variation causes some images to resemble a subject more than others. Here, the purpose of this paper is to explore the impact of target-image choice on face construction using a modern evolving type of composite system, EvoFIT. Design/methodology/approach – Participants saw an unfamiliar target identity and then created a single composite of it the following day with EvoFIT by repeatedly selecting from arrays of faces with “breeding”, to “evolve” a face. Targets were images that had been previously categorised as low, medium or high likeness, or a face prototype comprising averaged photographs of the same individual. Findings – Identification of composites of low likeness targets was inferior but increased as a significant linear trend from low to medium to high likeness. Also, identification scores decreased when targets changed by pose and expression, but not by lighting. Similarly, composite identification from prototypes was more accurate than those from low likeness targets, providing some support that image averages generally produce more robust memory traces. Practical implications – The results emphasise the potential importance of matching a target's pose and expression at face construction; also, for obtaining image-specific information for construction of facial-composite images, a result that would appear to be useful to developers and researchers of composite software. Originality/value – This current project is the first of its kind to formally explore the potential impact of pictorial properties of a target face on identifiability of faces created from memory. The design followed forensic practices as far as is practicable, to allow good generalisation of results.

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Tüttenberg, Simone C., and Holger Wiese. "Learning own- and other-race facial identities from natural variability." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72, no. 12 (July 9, 2019): 2788–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021819859840.

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Exposure to multiple varying face images of the same person encourages the formation of identity representations which are sufficiently robust to allow subsequent recognition from new, never-before seen images. While recent studies suggest that identity information is initially harder to perceive in images of other- relative to own-race identities, it remains unclear whether these difficulties propagate to face learning, that is, to the formation of robust face representations. We report two experiments in which Caucasian and East Asian participants sorted multiple images of own- and other-race persons according to identity in an implicit learning task and subsequently either matched novel images of learnt and previously unseen faces for identity (Experiment 1) or made old/new decisions for new images of learnt and unfamiliar identities (Experiment 2). Caucasian participants demonstrated own-race advantages during sorting, matching, and old/new recognition, while corresponding effects were absent in East Asian participants with substantial other-race expertise. Surprisingly, East Asian participants showed enhanced learning for other-race identities during matching in Experiment 1, which may reflect their increased motivation to individuate other-race faces. Thus, our results highlight the importance of perceptual expertise for own- and other-race processing, but may also lend support to recent suggestions on how expertise and socio-cognitive factors can interact.

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Hacker, Catrina M., Irving Biederman, Tianyi Zhu, Miles Nelken, and Emily X. Meschke. "The sizable difficulty in matching unfamiliar faces differing only moderately in orientation in depth is a function of image dissimilarity." Vision Research 194 (May 2022): 107959. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2021.09.005.

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Bruce, Vicki, Patrick Healey, Mike Burton, Tony Doyle, Anne Coombes, and Alf Linney. "Recognising Facial Surfaces." Perception 20, no. 6 (December 1991): 755–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p200755.

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The extent to which faces depicted as surfaces devoid of pigmentation and with minimal texture cues (‘head models’) could be matched with photographs (when unfamiliar) and identified (when familiar) was examined in three experiments. The head models were obtained by scanning the three-dimensional surface of the face with a laser, and by displaying the surface measured in this way by using standard computer-aided design techniques. Performance in all tasks was above chance but far from ceiling. Experiment 1 showed that matching of unfamiliar head models with photographs was affected by the resolution with which the surface was displayed, suggesting that subjects based their decisions, at least in part, on three-dimensional surface structure. Matching accuracy was also affected by other factors to do with the viewpoints shown in the head models and test photographs, and the type of lighting used to portray the head model. In experiment 2 further evidence for the importance of the nature of the illumination used was obtained, and it was found that the addition of a hairstyle (not that of the target face) did not facilitate matching. In experiment 3 identification of the head models by colleagues of the people shown was compared with identification of photographs where the hair was concealed and eyes were closed. Head models were identified less well than these photographs, suggesting that the difficulties in their recognition are not solely due to the lack of hair. Women's heads were disproportionately difficult to recognise from the head models. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the use of such three-dimensional head models in forensic and surgical applications.

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Dube, William V., Rachel S. Farber, Marlana R. Mueller, Eileen Grant, Lucy Lorin, and Curtis K. Deutsch. "Stimulus Overselectivity in Autism, Down Syndrome, and Typical Development." American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 121, no. 3 (May 1, 2016): 219–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-121.3.219.

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Abstract Stimulus overselectivity refers to maladaptive narrow attending that is a common learning problem among children with intellectual disabilities and frequently associated with autism. The present study contrasted overselectivity among groups of children with autism, Down syndrome, and typical development. The groups with autism and Down syndrome were matched for intellectual level, and all three groups were matched for developmental levels on tests of nonverbal reasoning and receptive vocabulary. Delayed matching-to-sample tests presented color/form compounds, printed words, photographs of faces, Mayer-Johnson Picture Communication Symbols, and unfamiliar black forms. No significant differences among groups emerged for test accuracy scores. Overselectivity was not statistically overrepresented among individuals with autism in contrast to those with Down syndrome or typically developing children.

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Robertson, David J., Jet G. Sanders, Alice Towler, Robin S. S. Kramer, Josh Spowage, Ailish Byrne, A. Mike Burton, and Rob Jenkins. "Hyper-realistic Face Masks in a Live Passport-Checking Task." Perception 49, no. 3 (February 3, 2020): 298–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0301006620904614.

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Hyper-realistic face masks have been used as disguises in at least one border crossing and in numerous criminal cases. Experimental tests using these masks have shown that viewers accept them as real faces under a range of conditions. Here, we tested mask detection in a live identity verification task. Fifty-four visitors at the London Science Museum viewed a mask wearer at close range (2 m) as part of a mock passport check. They then answered a series of questions designed to assess mask detection, while the masked traveller was still in view. In the identity matching task, 8% of viewers accepted the mask as matching a real photo of someone else, and 82% accepted the match between masked person and masked photo. When asked if there was any reason to detain the traveller, only 13% of viewers mentioned a mask. A further 11% picked disguise from a list of suggested reasons. Even after reading about mask-related fraud, 10% of viewers judged that the traveller was not wearing a mask. Overall, mask detection was poor and was not predicted by unfamiliar face matching performance. We conclude that hyper-realistic face masks could go undetected during live identity checks.

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De Haan, Edward H. F., Andrew W. Young, and Freda Newcombe. "Neuropsychological Impairment of Face Recognition Units." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 44, no. 1 (January 1992): 141–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14640749208401287.

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Despite the absence of “conscious”, overt identification, some patients with face recognition impairments continue covertly to process information regarding face familiarity. The fact that by no means all patients show these covert effects has led to the suggestion that indirect recogntion tasks may help in identifying different types of face recognition impairment. The present report describes a number of experiments with the patient NR, who, after a closed head injury, has been severely impaired at recognizing familiar faces. Investigations mostly failed to show overt or covert face recognition, but NR performed at an above-chance level in selecting the familiar face on a task requiring a forced-choice between a familiar and an unfamiliar face. This discrepancy between a degree of rudimentary overt recognition and absence of covert effects on most indirect tests was addressed using a cross-domaim identity priming paradigm. This examined separately the possibility of preserved recognition for faces that NR consistently chose correctly in a forced-choice familiarity decision and those on which he performed at chance level. Priming effects were apparent only for the faces that were consistently chosen as “familiar” in forced-choice. We suggest that NR's stored representations of familiar faces are degraded, so that face recognition is possible only via a limited set of relatively preserved representations able to support a rudimentary form of overt recognition and to facilitate performance in matching and priming tasks.

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Walløe, Solveig, Heidi Thomsen, Thorsten J. Balsby, and Torben Dabelsteen. "Differences in short-term vocal learning in parrots, a comparative study." Behaviour 152, no. 11 (2015): 1433–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003286.

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Parrots are renowned for their vocal learning abilities. Yet only few parrot species have been investigated and empirically proven to possess vocal learning abilities. The aim of this study was to investigate if short-term vocal learning may be a widespread phenomenon among Psittaciformes. Through an interactive experiment we compare the ability of four parrot species, the peach-fronted conure (Aratinga aurea), the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), the peach-faced lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis) and the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), to vocally match playback of contact calls. All four species made an overall change to their contact call in response to the playback, and they also varied the degree of similarity with the playback call throughout the playback experiment. The peach-fronted conure showed the biggest overall changes to their contact calls by vocally matching the playback call and the budgerigar showed the least change. The cockatiel and the peach-faced lovebird showed intermediary levels of change making their calls overall less similar to the playback call. The peach-fronted conure responded with highest similarity to familiar individuals and the cockatiel responded with an overall higher similarity to female playback stimuli. Cockatiel males and budgerigar males responded with a higher call rate to playback than female conspecifics. Peach-faced lovebirds responded fastest to unfamiliar males. Based on the results we conclude that short-term vocal learning is a widespread phenomenon among parrots. The way short-term vocal learning is used however, differs between species suggesting that short-term vocal learning have different functions in different species.

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Jeong, Woo Sik. "The Formation Process and Trend of City Pop in the 21st Century: Focusing on the Opinions of Domestic City Pop Mediators." Korean Association for the Study of Popular Music 29 (May 31, 2022): 231–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.36775/kjpm.2022.29.231.

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This study provides an in-depth examination of the concept of Japanese City Pop, its historical formation process, and the urban pop trend in the 21st century. Individual interviews were conducted with domestic City Pop mediators, who served as City Pop guides. Qualitative research was conducted on the contents of individual interviews, focusing on City Pop guides, papers, newspapers, magazines, record guides, and online websites. First, City Pop basically pursued Western- and American-oriented musicality, but songs focused on the relationship with the space they felt and faced through Japanese singing. Here, space is a Japanese city, and more precisely, the lifestyle of Tokyo, a city on the border between daily life and leisure, with skyscrapers and resorts, is the subject of the song. Based on the abundance and stability brought by the economic boom in the 80s, City Pop demonstrates attempts to break the boundaries between daily life and leisure by responding to consumerism. At the same time, City Pop praises the sophisticated yet snob-like lifestyle, gaining sympathy from city life and young listeners who longed for urban life at the time. Even from the current viewpoint, this characteristic can be evaluated as the direction and identity of City Pop. Next, through a review of the 21st century trend of City Pop, young listeners can guess that City Pop is matching keywords such as abundance, relaxation, romance, and sophistication enjoyed by Japan in the 1980s. The keywords of City Pop they matched are of a nature that is hard to realize with the sensitivity of the current 2020s, and the scenery of the Japanese city that City Pop evokes is also unfamiliar. Hence, in the City Pop released 30-40 years ago, they discovered the consumerist North Talge language brought by the bubble economy, and it can be interpreted as enjoying it from the current perspective. In addition, while the sophisticated melody and arrangement of AOR advocated by City Pop display similarities to Western pop songs, it is interpreted that young listeners now recognize the characteristics of Japanese singing as a cool sound that feels new rather than uncomfortable. Therefore, from the perspective of current young listeners, City Pop is given the status of an old future and a new popular music. By examining Japan’s economic and cultural background that brought the City Pop trend, this study explored the concept and historical formation process of City Pop as a type of J-Pop and the identity and image of City Pop. In addition, the review of the trend of City Pop in the 21st century revealed it seeks the possibility of a new popular music and is created from the current perspective beyond the meaning of the revival of music from the past.

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Feng, Xinran, and Anthony Michael Burton. "EXPRESS: Understanding the document bias in face matching." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, April 29, 2021, 174702182110179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/17470218211017902.

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Matching unfamiliar faces is a well-studied task, apparently capturing important everyday decisions such as ID checks. In typical lab studies participants make same/different judgements to pairs of faces, presented in isolation and without context. However, it has recently become clear that matching faces embedded in documents (e.g. passports and driving licences) induces a bias, resulting in elevated levels of ‘same person’ responses. While practically important, it remains unclear whether this bias arises due to expectations induced by the ID cards or interference between textual information and faces. Here we observe the same bias when faces are embedded in blank (i.e. non-authoritative) cards carrying basic personal information, but not when the same information is presented alongside a face without the card (Experiments 1 & 2). Cards bearing unreadable text (blurred or in an unfamiliar alphabet) do not induce the bias but those bearing arbitrary (non-biographical) words do (Experiments 3 and 4). The results suggest a complex basis for the effect, relying on multiple factors which happen to converge in photo-ID.

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Carragher, Daniel J., and Peter J. B. Hancock. "Surgical face masks impair human face matching performance for familiar and unfamiliar faces." Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications 5, no. 1 (November 19, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00258-x.

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AbstractIn response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments around the world now recommend, or require, that their citizens cover the lower half of their face in public. Consequently, many people now wear surgical face masks in public. We investigated whether surgical face masks affected the performance of human observers, and a state-of-the-art face recognition system, on tasks of perceptual face matching. Participants judged whether two simultaneously presented face photographs showed the same person or two different people. We superimposed images of surgical masks over the faces, creating three different mask conditions: control (no masks), mixed (one face wearing a mask), and masked (both faces wearing masks). We found that surgical face masks have a large detrimental effect on human face matching performance, and that the degree of impairment is the same regardless of whether one or both faces in each pair are masked. Surprisingly, this impairment is similar in size for both familiar and unfamiliar faces. When matching masked faces, human observers are biased to reject unfamiliar faces as “mismatches” and to accept familiar faces as “matches”. Finally, the face recognition system showed very high classification accuracy for control and masked stimuli, even though it had not been trained to recognise masked faces. However, accuracy fell markedly when one face was masked and the other was not. Our findings demonstrate that surgical face masks impair the ability of humans, and naïve face recognition systems, to perform perceptual face matching tasks. Identification decisions for masked faces should be treated with caution.

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Hunnisett, Niamh, and Simone Favelle. "Within-person variability can improve the identification of unfamiliar faces across changes in viewpoint." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, April 17, 2021, 174702182110097. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/17470218211009771.

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Unfamiliar face identification is concerningly error prone, especially across changes in viewing conditions. Within-person variability has been shown to improve matching performance for unfamiliar faces, but this has only been demonstrated using images of a front view. In this study, we test whether the advantage of within-person variability from front views extends to matching to target images of a face rotated in view. Participants completed either a simultaneous matching task (Experiment 1) or a sequential matching task (Experiment 2) in which they were tested on their ability to match the identity of a face shown in an array of either one or three ambient front-view images, with a target image shown in front, three-quarter, or profile view. While the effect was stronger in Experiment 2, we found a consistent pattern in match trials across both experiments in that there was a multiple image matching benefit for front, three-quarter, and profile-view targets. We found multiple image effects for match trials only, indicating that providing observers with multiple ambient images confers an advantage for recognising different images of the same identity but not for discriminating between images of different identities. Signal detection measures also indicate a multiple image advantage despite a more liberal response bias for multiple image trials. Our results show that within-person variability information for unfamiliar faces can be generalised across views and can provide insights into the initial processes involved in the representation of familiar faces.

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Noyes, Eilidh, Josh P. Davis, Nikolay Petrov, Katie L. H. Gray, and Kay L. Ritchie. "The effect of face masks and sunglasses on identity and expression recognition with super-recognizers and typical observers." Royal Society Open Science 8, no. 3 (March 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201169.

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Face masks present a new challenge to face identification (here matching) and emotion recognition in Western cultures. Here, we present the results of three experiments that test the effect of masks, and also the effect of sunglasses (an occlusion that individuals tend to have more experienced with) on (i) familiar face matching, (ii) unfamiliar face matching and (iii) emotion categorization. Occlusion reduced accuracy in all three tasks, with most errors in the mask condition; however, there was little difference in performance for faces in masks compared with faces in sunglasses. Super-recognizers, people who are highly skilled at matching unconcealed faces, were impaired by occlusion, but at the group level, performed with higher accuracy than controls on all tasks. Results inform psychology theory with implications for everyday interactions, security and policing in a mask-wearing society.

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Fysh, Matthew C., and Markus Bindemann. "EXPRESS: Understanding face matching." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, May 19, 2022, 174702182211044. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/17470218221104476.

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Many security settings rely on the identity matching of unfamiliar people, which has led this task to be studied extensively in Cognitive Psychology. In these experiments, observers typically decide whether pairs of faces depict one person (an identity match) or two different people (an identity mismatch). The visual similarity of the to-be-compared faces must play a primary role in how observers accurately resolve this task, but the nature of this similarity-accuracy relationship is unclear. The current study investigated the association between accuracy and facial similarity at the level of individual items (Experiment 1 and 2) and facial features (Experiment 3 and 4). All experiments demonstrate a strong link between similarity and matching accuracy, indicating that this forms the basis of identification decisions. At a feature level, however, similarity exhibited distinct relationships with match and mismatch accuracy. In matches, similarity information was generally shared across the features of a face pair under comparison, with greater similarity linked to higher accuracy. Conversely, features within mismatching face pairs exhibited greater variation in similarity information. This indicates that identity matches and mismatches are characterised by different similarity profiles, which present distinct challenges to the cognitive system. We propose that these identification decisions can be resolved through the accumulation of convergent featural information in matches and the evaluation of divergent featural information in mismatches.

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Sliwinska, Magdalena W., Lydia R. Searle, Megan Earl, Daniel O’Gorman, Giusi Pollicina, A. Mike Burton, and David Pitcher. "Face learning via brief real-world social interactions includes changes in face-selective brain areas and hippocampus." Perception, May 11, 2022, 030100662210987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/03010066221098728.

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Making new acquaintances requires learning to recognise previously unfamiliar faces. In the current study, we investigated this process by staging real-world social interactions between actors and the participants. Participants completed a face-matching behavioural task in which they matched photographs of the actors (whom they had yet to meet), or faces similar to the actors (henceforth called foils). Participants were then scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while viewing photographs of actors and foils. Immediately after exiting the scanner, participants met the actors for the first time and interacted with them for 10 min. On subsequent days, participants completed a second behavioural experiment and then a second fMRI scan. Prior to each session, actors again interacted with the participants for 10 min. Behavioural results showed that social interactions improved performance accuracy when matching actor photographs, but not foil photographs. The fMRI analysis revealed a difference in the neural response to actor photographs and foil photographs across all regions of interest (ROIs) only after social interactions had occurred. Our results demonstrate that short social interactions were sufficient to learn and discriminate previously unfamiliar individuals. Moreover, these learning effects were present in brain areas involved in face processing and memory.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Matching unfamiliar faces'

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