Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Mass and count nouns'

Esta tese investiga a denotação dos nomes comuns nas línguas naturais. De forma mais específica enfoca a denotação dos nomes comuns no português brasileiro (PB). O objetivo é investigar os mecanismos que licenciam contabilidade no PB. Primeiramente investiga-se a denotação dos nomes no PB frente à proposta de Borer (2005). A autora defende que interpretações contáveis são licenciadas estruturalmente, mas que interpretações massivas não, e, nesse sentido, interpretações massivas são default. Segundo Borer (2005), o plural, em línguas como o inglês, e os classificadores, em línguas como o chinês, são sintagmas de classificação que originam interpretações contáveis, cujo núcleo tem um valor aberto div, onde DIV é um operador de divisão. A ausência desses sintagmas confere uma interpretação massiva aos nomes. Diferentemente da maioria das línguas germânicas e românicas que permitem a ocorrência do plural nu, mas não permitem a ocorrência do singular nu, no PB, o singular nu é extremamente produtivo. Assim, se Borer (2005) estiver certa, no PB os nomes são massivos, pois os nomes nessa língua podem ocorrer sem nenhuma estrutura que os divida, denotando uma massa amorfa, sem divisão. No entanto, a análise dos dados do PB mostra, contra as previsões de Borer (2005), que a denotação default dos nomes, independentemente de ser indeterminada para número, pode ser massiva ou contável e que tais nomes já vêm com essa denotação marcada do léxico. Em segundo lugar, investiga-se a denotação dos nomes lexicalmente contáveis em estruturas não marcadas para contabilidade. Como Rullmann e You (2003) defendem para o chinês, o PB é uma língua em que os nomes possuem número geral, isto é, não são singular nem plural, são neutros para número, como defendem Müller (2001) e Schmitt e Munn (1999, 2002) para o PB. Línguas que possuem número geral geralmente não possuem morfologia de número, entretanto, o PB é um exemplo de língua que possui número geral, classificação e morfologia de número. Em terceiro lugar, investiga-se a denotação dos nomes segundo a proposta de Rothstein (2007). A autora defende que interpretações contáveis são licenciadas por um mecanismo de contabilidade gramatical. Segundo Rothstein (2007), o singular em línguas como o inglês e os classificadores numéricos em línguas como o chinês são operações gramaticais que licenciam interpretações contáveis. Como o PB é uma língua que possui número geral, classificadores numéricos e morfologia de número, defende-se a tese de que nessa língua o que licencia contabilidade são as operações de número e de classificação.
This thesis investigates common noun denotations in natural languages. To be more specific, it encompasses common noun denotations in Brazilian Portuguese (BP). Its objective is to investigate the mechanisms which licence countability in BP. Firstly, noun denotation in BP is investigated according to Borers proposal (2005). The author argues that count interpretations are structurally licensed, while mass interpretations are not, thus in this sense, mass interpretations are default. According to Borer (2005), the plural morphology, in languages such as English, and the classifiers, in languages such as Chinese, are classifiers phrases which originate count interpretations with opened value nucleus div, where DIV is a division operator. The absence of these classifiers phrases bestows mass interpretation to the nouns. Contrary to most Germanic and Romance languages which permit bare plurals, but do not permit bare singulars, in BP, the bare singular is extremely productive. Thus, if Borer (2005) is right, nouns are mass-denoting in BP since they can occur without any distinctive structure, denoted amorphous mass, undivided. However, data analysis in BP opposes the predictions of Borer (2005) that a default noun denotation, regardless of being indeterminate in number, can be a mass or count denotation, and that such nouns already have this lexical denotation. Secondly, lexical denotation of count nouns in unmarked structures is investigated for countability. As Rullman and Aili You (2003) defend Chinese, BP is a language in which nouns have general number, that is, they are neither singular nor plural, they are neutral for number, as defended by Müller (2001) and Schmitt e Munn (1999, 2002). Languages with general number do not have plural morphology, but BP is an example of a language that has general number, numeral classifier and plural morpheme. Thirdly, denotation of names according to Rothstein (2007) is investigated. The author argues that countable interpretations are licensed by a mechanism of grammatical countability. According to Rothstein (2007), singular morphology in languages such as English and numeral classifiers in languages such as Chinese are grammatical operations which licence count interpretations. Since BP is a language that has general number, numeral classifiers and plural morphology, the thesis that, in this language, number and classification operations licence countability is defended.

Esta dissertação investiga nomes nus e classificadores numerais do chinês mandarim, assim como a distinção lexical entre nomes contáveis e massivos do chinês. O objetivo deste trabalho é estudar e avaliar as possíveis denotações dos nominais do chinês mandarim. O texto é divido em três partes. Na primeira, investigam-se nomes nus do chinês mandarim, que manifestam número geral. Defende-se que o número geral não ocorre em sintagmas nominais em que existe numeral. No Chinês mandarim, nomes nus podem ser interpretados como indefinidos, definidos e genéricos de acordo com suas posições sintáticas e contextos em que ocorrem. A hipótese defendida na segunda parte da dissertação é a de que, no chinês mandarim, há distinção lexical entre nomes contáveis e massivos. Um fator importante na distinção contável-massivo do chinês mandarim é a presença de classificadores e suas relações com os nomes. Defende-se que a combinação entre os nomes e os classificadores é seletiva e, com base nisso, os nomes comuns do chinês podem ser divididos em nomes contáveis, nomes massivos, nomes coletivos, nomes abstratos e nomes próprios. Além de classificador, mais uma evidência para a contabilidade dos nomes do chinês é o morfema men. A terceira parte da dissertação avalia a presença de classificador nos sintagmas nominais com numerais. Defende-se que diferentes grupos de classificadores possuem diferentes funções: classificadores individuais são marcadores gramaticais de contabilidade e não têm a função individualizadora e, os outros grupos têm suas restrições na combinação com os nomes. A combinação entre numeral e classificador pode ser tratada como um núcleo complexo que ocorre morfologicamente como um item lexical, mas o numeral pode-se omitir dentro deste complexo e classificador não. Sendo assim, Os classificadores devem ser tratados como um sufixo na sua ocorrência dentro do complexo [Num-CL], mas como um clítico em outras ocorrências.
This dissertation investigates bare nouns and numeral classifiers in Mandarin Chinese, as well as the lexical distinction between count and mass nouns of Chinese. The goal of this work is to study and assess the possible denotations of nominals in Mandarin Chinese. The dissertation is divided in three parts. In the first part, the bare nominals in Mandarin Chinese will be investigated and they have general number. We argue that the general number can not happen in noun phrases when they contain numerals. In Mandarin Chinese, the bare nouns can be interpreted as indefinites, definites and generics, according to their syntactic positions and contexts in that they happen. The hypothesis presented in the second part of this dissertation is that in Mandarin Chinese, there is the lexical distinction between count and mass nouns. One important factor in this count-mass distinction of Mandarin Chinese is the presence of classifiers and their relationships with the nouns. We argue that, based on the selective combination between names and classifiers, the common nouns of Chinese can be divided in count nouns, mass nouns, collective nouns, abstract nouns and proper nouns. Besides the classifier, one more evidence for the accounting of Chinese\'s names is the morpheme men. The third part of the dissertation assesses the classifiers presence in the noun phrases with numerals. We argue that, different groups of classifiers have different functions: the individual classifiers are grammatical markers of accounting and they do not have the individualizing function, while the other groups have their restrictions in the combination with the nouns. The combination between the numeral and the classifier can be treated as a complex head that happens morphologically as a lexical item, but the numeral in which can be omitted in some contexts and the classifier can not. Thus, the classifiers should be treated as a suffix in his occurrence with the complex [Num-CL], but as a clitic in other occurrences.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates the mass nouns in Tshivenda. The specific mass nouns in each nominal class will then be investigated to see whether they have certain morphological and syntactic features which are different from count nouns. Chapter one is the introduction of this study. It describes the aim, organisation and method of the study. Chapter two is the overview of the literature on mass nouns. It gives overview of the most prominent words on mass nouns in general. Some of the prominent works on this alternation include the following: Pelletier (1979a, 1979b,); Ware (1979), Cartwright (1979), McCawley (1979) Chierchia (1982), Link (1983) and Eschenbach (1993). Chapter three investigates which nouns may be mass nouns, the purpose of the classification of nouns in wordnet, nominal classes in Tshivenda and the morphological and syntactic features of mass and count nouns. Chapter four is the conclusion of the study, the summary as well as investigation into the morphological, syntactic and semantic feature of plurality.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die meervoudige naamwoorde in Tshivenda. Die spesifieke meervoudige naamwoorde sal elkeen in sy normale klas geondersoek word om te sien of hulle sekere morfologiese en sintaktiese eienskappe het, wat nie ooreen stem met tel naamwoorde. Hoofstuk 1 is die inleiding van hierdie studie. Dit beskryf die doelwit, organisasie en metode van die studie. Hoofstuk 2 is ‘n oorsig van die literatuur aangaande meervoudige naamwoorde. Hierdie is ‘n oorsig van die mees prominente meervoudige naamwoorde in die algemeen. Sommige van die prominente werke van hierdie nasie sluit die volgende in: Pelletier 91979a; 1979b), Ware (1979), Cartwright (1979), McCawley (1979), Chierchia (1982), Link (1983) en Eschenbach (1993). Hoofstuk 3 identifiseer meervoudige naamwoorde. Die doel van die klasifikasie van naamwoorde in woordnet, normale klassie in Tshivenda en die morfologiese en sintaktiese eienskappe van meervoudigheid. Hoofstuk 4 is die konklusie van die studie, die opsomming as ook die ondersoek in die morfologiese, sinktaktiese en semantieke eienskappe van meervoudigheid.

This study investigated the effects of input enhancement in isolation and in combination with output elaboration tasks on the accuracy of count and noncount nouns and text comprehension in English as a Second Language. Participants were twenty-three Spanish adult ESL learners who were divided into one control and two intervention groups. The intervention lasted two weeks, and learners were required to read materials with input enhancement and to participate in classroom tasks that elicited output practice. Pre- and post-tests included a grammaticality judgment task, a written task and a decontextualized task. A note-taking activity along with questionnaire and interview materials provided qualitative support for the data analyzed quantitatively.Results from a two-factor ANOVA with repeated measures revealed the following: (a) no significant effect in regard to participants' mean scores on the grammaticality judgment tasks for Group, Time, or the Group x Time interaction; (b) participants' mean scores on the writing tasks showed a significant effect for Time, irrespective of group. Findings from the decontextualized task were not analyzed statistically, but they suggest beneficial effects on the performance of the intervention groups. Finally, findings from this study demonstrated improvement in text comprehension over time, irrespective of group (and no Group x Time interaction), which provided empirical support that this type of treatment is relatively unobtrusive to comprehension.
Cette étude portrait sur les effets de la mise en évidence visuelle seule et en combinaison avec les tâches de production langagière sur la précision des noms comptables et des noms massifs et de la compréhension des textes en anglais comme langue seconde.La cohorte de participants était composée de vingt-cinq hispanophones adultes apprenants en ALS divisés en un groupe-témoin et deux groupes expérimentaux. L'intervention a duré deux semaines et les apprenants devaient lire des documents avec une mise en évidence visuelle de la structure langagière et participer à des tâches en salle de cours qui requéraient des exercices de production langagière. Des tests avant et après l'intervention incluaient des tâches de jugement grammatical, des tâches écrites et une tâche décontextualisée. Les documents pour la prise de notes, les questionnaires et les entrevues fournissaient le support qualitatif pour les données analysées quantitativement.Les résultats d'une ANOVA (analyse de variance) à deux facteurs avec mesures répétées ont révélé ce qui suit : (a) aucun effet significatif quant aux scores moyens des participants pour les tâches de jugement grammatical pour le Groupe, le Temps ou l'interaction Groupe x Temps; (b) les scores moyens des participants pour les tâches d'écriture ont donné un effet significatif pour le Temps, mais sans égard au Groupe. Les constatations de la tâche décontextualisée n'ont pas été analysées statistiquement, mais elles suggèrent des effets bénéfiques à en juger par la performance des groupes d'intervention. Enfin, les constatations de cette étude ont démontré une amélioration de la compréhension du texte avec le Temps, mais sans égard au Groupe (et aucune interaction Groupe x Temps), ce qui représente une preuve empirique indiquant que ce type de traitement n'a pas d'effet néfaste sur la compréhension.

The acquisition of the English article system by speakers of article-less first languages (L1s) has been the subject of considerable research. Much of that research focuses on the extent to which second language (L2) learners interpret articles as markers of definiteness or specificity, and make use of semantic context to determine article choice (Ion in, Ko, & Wexler, 2004; Trenkic, 2008 among many others). The present thesis focuses on the role that noun type (count - mass - dual) plays as one of several factors determining the use of English articles by L2 learners whose Ll is Japanese (a language that lacks articles). Three experiments and a corpus-based frequency study are reported. The first experiment, a lexical decision task undertaken in Japanese with predominantly monolingual speakers of Japanese, aimed to determine how nouns are organised in the Japanese mental lexicon. From the findings it is argued that Japanese nouns are not specified for the mass-count distinction, although noun classifiers are. In the second experiment, a lexical decision task undertaken in English with Japanese L2 learners, it is shown that their English mental lexicons are organised in a similar way to native speakers. It is argued that this is the result of Japanese speakers using the mass-count distinction encoded by classifiers in the Ll to categorize nouns in the L2. The third experiment - a forced-choice article elicitation task - shows that the mass-count distinction is one of a number of factors that determine article choice, along with definiteness, specificity and plural marking. The weight given to each of these factors can vary from individual to individual. A final, corpus-based study of the distribution of article-NP combinations in native English usage (established through a search of the British National Corpus) suggests that the frequency of such combinations may also be a factor in determining article use by Japanese L2 speakers. It is concluded that the use of English articles by L2 speakers from an article-less L1 like Japanese is intricate, but not random, and can be explained by combinations of factors that are theoretically motivated.

This thesis investigates the function of number marking in Persian, within the framework of principles and parameters (P&P), and its relationship to inflectional and derivational number marking. Following the assumption in Distributed Morphology that inflectional and derivational morphology are not distinct, the distribution and properties of number marking in Persian provide evidence for both inflectional and derivational number marking. Assuming the two parameters of number marking (Wiltschko, 2007, 2008), number marking as a functional head and number marking as a modifier, I propose that number marking in Persian is mainly inflectional while number functions as a functional head; moreover, I propose that number marking in Persian can be derivational while number functions as a modifier. This explains that number morphology in Persian is not split to either inflectional or derivational. Rather, following Booij’s (1993, 1995) claim that inflectional morphology can be used contextually as well as inherently, I propose that number morphology in Persian is inflectional while number is a functional head; however, it has inherent residues as a modifier. Considering the functions of inflectional plural morphology in Persian, I argue that the functional category Number Phrase (NumP) is projected in Persian, and number is generated in the head of this functional category. Besides, Persian is a classifier language in which classifiers are in complementary distribution with plural marking. Following Borer’s (2005) discussion of the complementary distribution of plural marking and classifiers in Armenian, I argue that the head of NumP in Persian is either occupied by the plural maker or by full/empty classifiers. Moreover, I show that the presence of bare singulars/plurals in certain syntactic positions in Persian is related to the projection/non-projection of NumP.

Vehicle emitted particles are of significant concern based on their potential to influence local air quality and human health. Transport microenvironments usually contain higher vehicle emission concentrations compared to other environments, and people spend a substantial amount of time in these microenvironments when commuting. Currently there is limited scientific knowledge on particle concentration, passenger exposure and the distribution of vehicle emissions in transport microenvironments, partially due to the fact that the instrumentation required to conduct such measurements is not available in many research centres. Information on passenger waiting time and location in such microenvironments has also not been investigated, which makes it difficult to evaluate a passenger’s spatial-temporal exposure to vehicle emissions. Furthermore, current emission models are incapable of rapidly predicting emission distribution, given the complexity of variations in emission rates that result from changes in driving conditions, as well as the time spent in driving condition within the transport microenvironment. In order to address these scientific gaps in knowledge, this work conducted, for the first time, a comprehensive statistical analysis of experimental data, along with multi-parameter assessment, exposure evaluation and comparison, and emission model development and application, in relation to traffic interrupted transport microenvironments. The work aimed to quantify and characterise particle emissions and human exposure in the transport microenvironments, with bus stations and a pedestrian crossing identified as suitable research locations representing a typical transport microenvironment. Firstly, two bus stations in Brisbane, Australia, with different designs, were selected to conduct measurements of particle number size distributions, particle number and PM2.5 concentrations during two different seasons. Simultaneous traffic and meteorological parameters were also monitored, aiming to quantify particle characteristics and investigate the impact of bus flow rate, station design and meteorological conditions on particle characteristics at stations. The results showed higher concentrations of PN20-30 at the station situated in an open area (open station), which is likely to be attributed to the lower average daily temperature compared to the station with a canyon structure (canyon station). During precipitation events, it was found that particle number concentration in the size range 25-250 nm decreased greatly, and that the average daily reduction in PM2.5 concentration on rainy days compared to fine days was 44.2 % and 22.6 % at the open and canyon station, respectively. The effect of ambient wind speeds on particle number concentrations was also examined, and no relationship was found between particle number concentration and wind speed for the entire measurement period. In addition, 33 pairs of average half-hourly PN7-3000 concentrations were calculated and identified at the two stations, during the same time of a day, and with the same ambient wind speeds and precipitation conditions. The results of a paired t-test showed that the average half-hourly PN7-3000 concentrations at the two stations were not significantly different at the 5% confidence level (t = 0.06, p = 0.96), which indicates that the different station designs were not a crucial factor for influencing PN7-3000 concentrations. A further assessment of passenger exposure to bus emissions on a platform was evaluated at another bus station in Brisbane, Australia. The sampling was conducted over seven weekdays to investigate spatial-temporal variations in size-fractionated particle number and PM2.5 concentrations, as well as human exposure on the platform. For the whole day, the average PN13-800 concentration was 1.3 x 104 and 1.0 x 104 particle/cm3 at the centre and end of the platform, respectively, of which PN50-100 accounted for the largest proportion to the total count. Furthermore, the contribution of exposure at the bus station to the overall daily exposure was assessed using two assumed scenarios of a school student and an office worker. It was found that, although the daily time fraction (the percentage of time spend at a location in a whole day) at the station was only 0.8 %, the daily exposure fractions (the percentage of exposures at a location accounting for the daily exposure) at the station were 2.7% and 2.8 % for exposure to PN13-800 and 2.7% and 3.5% for exposure to PM2.5 for the school student and the office worker, respectively. A new parameter, “exposure intensity” (the ratio of daily exposure fraction and the daily time fraction) was also defined and calculated at the station, with values of 3.3 and 3.4 for exposure to PN13-880, and 3.3 and 4.2 for exposure to PM2.5, for the school student and the office worker, respectively. In order to quantify the enhanced emissions at critical locations and define the emission distribution in further dispersion models for traffic interrupted transport microenvironments, a composite line source emission (CLSE) model was developed to specifically quantify exposure levels and describe the spatial variability of vehicle emissions in traffic interrupted microenvironments. This model took into account the complexity of vehicle movements in the queue, as well as different emission rates relevant to various driving conditions (cruise, decelerate, idle and accelerate), and it utilised multi-representative segments to capture the accurate emission distribution for real vehicle flow. This model does not only helped to quantify the enhanced emissions at critical locations, but it also helped to define the emission source distribution of the disrupted steady flow for further dispersion modelling. The model then was applied to estimate particle number emissions at a bidirectional bus station used by diesel and compressed natural gas fuelled buses. It was found that the acceleration distance was of critical importance when estimating particle number emission, since the highest emissions occurred in sections where most of the buses were accelerating and no significant increases were observed at locations where they idled. It was also shown that emissions at the front end of the platform were 43 times greater than at the rear of the platform. The CLSE model was also applied at a signalled pedestrian crossing, in order to assess increased particle number emissions from motor vehicles when forced to stop and accelerate from rest. The CLSE model was used to calculate the total emissions produced by a specific number and mix of light petrol cars and diesel passenger buses including 1 car travelling in 1 direction (/1 direction), 14 cars / 1 direction, 1 bus / 1 direction, 28 cars / 2 directions, 24 cars and 2 buses / 2 directions, and 20 cars and 4 buses / 2 directions. It was found that the total emissions produced during stopping on a red signal were significantly higher than when the traffic moved at a steady speed. Overall, total emissions due to the interruption of the traffic increased by a factor of 13, 11, 45, 11, 41, and 43 for the above 6 cases, respectively. In summary, this PhD thesis presents the results of a comprehensive study on particle number and mass concentration, together with particle size distribution, in a bus station transport microenvironment, influenced by bus flow rates, meteorological conditions and station design. Passenger spatial-temporal exposure to bus emitted particles was also assessed according to waiting time and location along the platform, as well as the contribution of exposure at the bus station to overall daily exposure. Due to the complexity of the interrupted traffic flow within the transport microenvironments, a unique CLSE model was also developed, which is capable of quantifying emission levels at critical locations within the transport microenvironment, for the purpose of evaluating passenger exposure and conducting simulations of vehicle emission dispersion. The application of the CLSE model at a pedestrian crossing also proved its applicability and simplicity for use in a real-world transport microenvironment.

Simple content analysis methods, such as the Bechdel test and measuring percentage of female talk time or characters, have seen a surge of attention from mainstream media and in social media the last couple of years. Underlying assumptions are generally shared with the gender role socialization model and consequently, an importance is stated, due to a high degree to which impressions from media shape in particular young children’s identification processes. For young girls, the Disney Princesses franchise (with Frozen included) stands out as the number one player commercially as well as in customer awareness. The vertical lineup of Disney princesses spans from the passive and domestic working Snow White in 1937 to independent and super-power wielding princess Elsa in 2013, which makes the line of films an optimal test subject in evaluating above-mentioned simple content analysis methods. As a control, a meta-study has been conducted on previous academic studies on the same range of films. The sampled research, within fields spanning from qualitative content analysis and semiotics to coded content analysis, all come to the same conclusions regarding the general changes over time in representations of female characters. The objective of this thesis is to answer whether or not there is a correlation between these changes and those indicated by the simple content analysis methods, i.e. whether or not the simple popular methods are in general coherence with the more intricate academic methods.

Betyg VG (skala IG-VG)

碩士
淡江大學
英文學系碩士班
97
Teaching English count-mass concept has been a challenge in foreign language classrooms. It seems that both traditional grammatical and ontological explanations fail to help learners construct systematic and consistent knowledge about the correct use of these two senses. As Lakoff (1986) suggests, language is a result of human cognition, the count-mass distinction should be best envisaged as a conceptual activity through which nouns are categorized. This statement has led to an alternative pedagogy proposed in this study to better interpret the count-mass distinction. This study is to investigate the effect of cognitive instruction by using schematic categorization models on EFL college learners’ acquisition of count-mass common nouns. A reliability-and-validity-tested item bank of 41 questions was established as a source of tests to gauge subjects’ progress. 21 out of the 41 questions were designed with the proto meaning while the rest 20 with the extended. A pilot study carried out to test the viability of the new method reported significant progress over two weeks. The main study consisted of 60 freshmen of low intermediate English proficiency throughout a treatment of four weeks plus an interval of 4 more weeks for the delayed post-test. Subjects randomly signed up for one group taught with a new methodology termed Cognitive Instruction Method (CIM) and the other Grammar Translation Method (GTM). During the treatment, the CIM group received 7 sets of image schemas with each set referring to one category of nouns along with conceptual explanation while the GTM group received 7 images with each denoting one category of nouns along with grammatical explanation and translation. The results showed that both the CIM and GTM groups report significant progress. However, the CIM group outperformed the GTM group in the post-test and the delayed post-test significantly. This suggests that the cognitive instruction can prominently enhance subjects’ performance in learning count-mass nouns and help retain knowledge longer than the grammar translation method. In terms of the learning of proto and extended meanings, the CIM group again improved considerably more than the GTM group, but regressed significantly in extended learning by comparing with the scores of their immediate post-test. Both protocol and interview data reveal a frequent use of ontological explanations among subjects of both groups to understand the distinction between count and mass nouns. This study serves as a pilot experiment into the pedagogical application of cognitive instruction to the learning of count and mass nouns. Implications drawn from this study indicate a potent viability of applying the cognitive instruction method to foreign language classrooms. Some suggestions are further discussed for future research.

Huang, Aijun.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 157-166).
Abstract also in Chinese.
Acknowledgement --- p.i
List of tables and figures --- p.vi
Abstract --- p.viii
摘要 --- p.x
Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Outline of the thesis --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Organization of the thesis --- p.9
Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- Count-mass distinction and acquisition issues --- p.12
Chapter 2.0 --- Introduction --- p.12
Chapter 2.1 --- "Syntactic, semantic and ontological aspects of the count-mass distinction" --- p.12
Chapter 2.2 --- Semantic account of the count-mass distinction --- p.17
Chapter 2.3 --- Syntactic account of the count-mass distinction --- p.19
Chapter 2.4 --- Acquisition of the count-mass distinction --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Semantic account of the acquisition of the count-mass distinction --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Syntactic account of the acquisition of the count-mass distinction --- p.26
Chapter 2.4.3 --- Excursion into the syntactic account of the acquisition of the count-mass distinction --- p.31
Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- Interpretation of bare nouns and classifiers in Chinese and review of the acquisition of Chinese classifiers --- p.39
Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.39
Chapter 3.2 --- Interpretation of bare nouns in Chinese --- p.39
Chapter 3.2.1 --- Bare nouns in Chinese are unspecified in number and individuation --- p.39
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Arguments against a lexically-based count-mass distinction in Chinese nouns --- p.43
Chapter 3.3 --- Dimensions of classifiers --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Taxonomy of classifiers --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Quantification function of classifiers: classifiers as units of measures --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Individuation function of classifiers: a distinction between individuating classifiers and non-individuating classifiers --- p.54
Chapter 3.3.4 --- Classification function of classifiers --- p.58
Chapter 3.3.5 --- "Relation between the quantification, individuation and classification functions of classifiers" --- p.60
Chapter 3.4 --- Arguments against Cheng and Sybesma´ةs (1998，1999，2005) account of the count- mass distinction in Chinese --- p.62
Chapter 3.5 --- Review of the acquisition of Chinese classifiers --- p.68
Chapter 3.5.1 --- Preponderant use of the general classifier ge: early acquisition of the quantification function of classifiers --- p.69
Chapter 3.5.2 --- Delayed mastery of specific classifiers --- p.70
Chapter 3.5.3 --- Acquisition order of individual classifiers and non-individual classifiers --- p.73
Chapter 3.5.4 --- Experiments on children´ةs sensitivity to the distinction between count classifiers and mass classifiers --- p.75
Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- Experiments on the acquisition of individual classifiers and container classifiers --- p.86
Chapter 4.0 --- Setting the stage --- p.86
Chapter 4.1 --- General introduction of research questions and experimental design --- p.88
Chapter 4.2 --- Experiment 1: Acquisition of individual classifiers and bare nouns --- p.95
Chapter 4.2.1 --- "Subjects, Material and test items" --- p.95
Chapter 4.2.2 --- Procedures --- p.101
Chapter 4.2.3 --- Findings in Experiment 1 --- p.105
Chapter 4.2.3.1 --- Interpretation of number and quantification function of classifiers in the individual classifier and the bare noun contexts --- p.105
Chapter 4.2.3.2 --- Interpretation of partial object situations in the individual classifier and the bare noun contexts --- p.109
Chapter 4.3 --- Experiment 2: Acquisition of container classifiers --- p.116
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Method --- p.117
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Findings in Experiment 2 --- p.124
Chapter 4.3.2.1 --- Interpretation of the quantification function of container classifiers --- p.124
Chapter 4.3.2.2 --- Interpretation of noun denotation in the container classifier context --- p.127
Chapter 4.4 --- Experiment 3: Acquisition the general classifier ge paired with substance situations --- p.131
Chapter 4.4.1 --- Method --- p.132
Chapter 4.4.2 --- Findings in Experiment 3 --- p.134
Chapter 4.5 --- Summary of the findings in Experiment 1，Experiment 2 and Experiment 3 --- p.139
Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- General discussion --- p.144
Chapter 5.1 --- Count-mass distinction in Chinese revisited --- p.145
Chapter 5.2 --- Quantification and individuation in the acquisition of noun denotations --- p.150
Chapter 5.3 --- Further research --- p.155
References --- p.157
Appendix 1 List of test sentences used in Experiment 1 --- p.167
Appendix 2 List of test sentences used in Experiment 2 --- p.170
Appendix 3 List of test sentences used in Experiment 3 --- p.172
Appendix 4 Pictures of whole and partial objects paired with individual classifiers and bare nouns in Experiment 1 --- p.173
Appendix 5 Pictures of whole and partial objects and substances paired with container classifiers used in Experiment 2 --- p.174
Appendix 6 Picture of substance situations with or without a container paired with the general classifier ge in Experiment 3 --- p.175

The general purpose of this study was to investigate infants' understanding of objects as individuals and as category members by examining their understanding of proper names and count nouns. Forty-eight infants participated in one of two experiments. In both experiments, infants were taught a novel word for a stuffed animal presented on a puppet stage. The novel word was presented syntactically either as a proper name (e.g., " He's called DAXY") or as a count noun (e.g., "He's called a DAXY"). The animal was moved to a new location on the stage, and a second identical-looking animal was placed where the first toy was originally located. Infants were then asked to look at one of the objects as a referent for the novel word. Infants' looking behaviour was recorded. At 20 months (Experiment 1), but not at 16 months (Experiment 2), infants were more likely to look at the labeled object as a referent for the novel word in a condition in which they heard a proper name than in either a condition in which they heard a count noun or a baseline condition in which they heard no word. By 20 months of age, infants thus used syntactic information to distinguish appropriately between proper names, referring to objects as individuals, and count nouns, referring to objects as category members.

This paper attempts to clarify the role mass nouns play in our language, including what they designate and how they designate it. In particular, this paper focuses on demonstrating that mass nouns do not individuate the stuff they designate and consequences for this non-individuative theory. In order to demonstrate that mass nouns do not individuate, I examine grammatical rules for mass nouns and contrast them with rules for singular and plural count nouns. Furthermore, I examine several possible truth conditions for sentences involving mass nouns and demonstrate that no truth conditions which individuate are acceptable. Once this lack of individuation has been demonstrated, I examine issues that arise in language and metaphysics. This examination is necessary because most of our understanding of language and metaphysics centers around medium sized objects. Since mass nouns do not individuate, they are not designating medium sized objects. When examining developments in language, I suggest that the term “the” does not imply uniqueness but rather exhaustiveness and there is already an intuitive way to capture this in first order logic using universals. Furthermore, I suggest that stuff designated by mass nouns cannot be directly referred to and hence cannot occur in a singular term in first-order logic. Finally, I suggest that identity statements should be treated without the identity relation and instead using a biconditional and a universal. When examining developments in metaphysics, I suggest that there cannot be a criterion of identity for stuff because a criterion of identity asks what a single instance is and stuff does not occur in individual instances. Furthermore, I suggest that identity and persistence conditions differentiate for stuff in a way that they do not for individual things. Finally, I address what more must be done in order to have a complete treatment of mass nouns and stuff. This section focuses primarily on first-order logic and how to make stuff a value of a variable while maintaining ontological import. Work in this area still needs to be done and is, I believe, of significant importance.
Thesis (Master, Philosophy) -- Queen's University, 2007-09-27 08:36:48.049

When and how do infants learn the distinction between count nouns (CNs) and proper names (PNs)? In a seminal study, Katz, Baker, and Macnamara (1974) found that 17-month-old girls restricted a novel PN to a labeled doll but generalized a novel CN to a second doll contrasting in colour. Recent studies have replicated the original finding using identical-looking dolls, but no younger than 20 to 23 months (e.g., Hall, Lee, & Bélanger, 2001; Bélanger & Hall, 2006). Experiments 1 and 2 sought to clarify this age discrepancy by examining 14-, 17-, 20-, and 23-month-olds’ interpretations of CNs and PNs in a task involving either contrasting or identical-looking dolls. Infants heard a novel CN or PN for a doll. The labeled doll was paired with another contrasting or identical doll, and infants were asked to select a referent of the label. Results indicated that by 17 months, infants showed an understanding of the CN/PN distinction when the dolls looked different. It was only at 23 months that infants reliably mapped a PN onto an individual doll when it was paired with an identical-looking doll. What kinds of cues do infants use to learn the CN/PN distinction? In previous research, children interpreted a PN appropriately if it labeled a doll or familiar stuffed animal but not an artifact or unfamiliar animal. Yet questions remain about infants’ understanding of proper-nameable things. In Experiment 3, the same task was used to teach 23-month-olds a PN for a doll, stuffed rabbit, toy airplane, or novel monster. Results indicated that 23-month-olds used animate/human properties and familiarity of a labeled object when interpreting a novel PN. They interpreted the label as a PN when the object was an animate surrogate and familiar object (doll, stuffed rabbit), but not when it was an inanimate surrogate or unfamiliar object (toy airplane, novel monster). Together, these experiments document the emergence of infants’ understanding of the CN/PN distinction and reveal some cues that infants might use to learn PNs as distinct from CNs. A discussion of how the findings constrain theorizing about the developmental origins of the CN/PN distinction is presented.
Arts, Faculty of
Psychology, Department of
Graduate

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
英語學系
95
ABSTRACT The present study aims to explore Chinese children’s acquisition of the count and mass classifiers by conducting an experiment with two tasks, a comprehension task (i.e., the Picture Identification Task), and a production task (i.e., the Picture Description Task). The experiment was designed to investigate issues in the count-mass distinction, age effect, task effect, hierarchy of difficulty in children’s acquisition of classifiers, and their misuse of the classifier ge. Forty-five Chinese-speaking preschoolers participated in the experiment, and they were further divided into three groups according to their age: Group 1 (3-year-olds), Group 2 (4-year-olds), and Group 3 (5-year-olds). The major findings of the present study are as follows. First, our children had performed significantly better on count classifiers than on mass classifiers (p<0.05). Second, age effects were found significant in subjects’ responses to overall count and mass classifiers (p<0.05). The Scheffe post hoc further indicated that a significant difference existed between Group 1 and Group 2, between Group 1 and Group 3, not between Group 2 and Group 3 (p>0.05). In other words, the age between three and four was found to be a critical stage in Chinese children’s classifier development. Third, there was a significant difference between the subjects’ comprehension and production (p<0.05). Our subjects showed better abilities in comprehension than in production of classifiers. Fourth, the results indicated that ge was the earliest acquired classifier whereas standard measures caused our children major difficulties, and thus they were acquired latest. Finally, the children’s misuse of the classifier ge exhibited overgeneralization. Our subjects predominately used ge to classify objects regardless of different semantic meanings. Their overwhelming use of ge indicated that ge was considered UNMARKED by our subjects.

In traditional forensic DNA casework, the inclusion or exclusion of individuals who may have contributed to an item of evidence may be dependent upon the assumption on the number of individuals from which the evidence arose. Typically, the determination of the minimum number of contributors (NOC) to a mixture is achieved by counting the number of alleles observed above a given analytical threshold (AT); this technique is known as maximum allele count (MAC). However, advances in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) chemistries and improvements in analytical sensitivities have led to an increase in the detection of complex, low template DNA (LtDNA) mixtures for which MAC is an inadequate means of determining the actual NOC. Despite the addition of highly polymorphic loci to multiplexed PCR kits and the advent of interpretation softwares which deconvolve DNA mixtures, a gap remains in the DNA analysis pipeline, where an effective method of determining the NOC needs to be established. The emergence of NOCIt -- a computational tool which provides the probability distribution on the NOC, may serve as a promising alternative to traditional, threshold- based methods. Utilizing user-provided calibration data consisting of single source samples of known genotype, NOCIt calculates the a posteriori probability (APP) that an evidentiary sample arose from 0 to 5 contributors. The software models baseline noise, reverse and forward stutter proportions, stutter and allele dropout rates, and allele heights. This information is then utilized to determine whether the evidentiary profile originated from one or many contributors. In short, NOCIt provides information not only on the likely NOC, but whether more than one value may be deemed probable. In the latter case, it may be necessary to modify downstream interpretation steps such that multiple values for the NOC are considered or the conclusion that most favors the defense is adopted. Phase I of this study focused on establishing the minimum number of single source samples needed to calibrate NOCIt. Once determined, the performance of NOCIt was evaluated and compared to that of two other methods: the maximum likelihood estimator (MLE) -- accessed via the forensim R package, and MAC. Fifty (50) single source samples proved to be sufficient to calibrate NOCIt, and results indicate NOCIt was the most accurate method of the three. Phase II of this study explored the effects of template mass and sample complexity on the accuracy of NOCIt. Data showed that the accuracy decreased as the NOC increased: for 1- and 5-contributor samples, the accuracy was 100% and 20%, respectively. The minimum template mass from any one contributor required to consistently estimate the true NOC was 0.07 ng -- the equivalent of approximately 10 cells' worth of DNA. Phase III further explored NOCIt and was designed to assess its robustness. Because the efficacy of determining the NOC may be affected by the PCR kit utilized, the results obtained from NOCIt analysis of 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-contributor mixtures amplified with AmpFlstr® Identifiler® Plus and PowerPlex® 16 HS were compared. A positive correlation was observed for all NOCIt outputs between kits. Additionally, NOCIt was found to result in increased accuracies when analyzed with 1-, 3-, and 4-contributor samples amplified with Identifiler® Plus and with 5-contributor samples amplified with PowerPlex® 16 HS. The accuracy rates obtained for 2-contributor samples were equivalent between kits; therefore, the effect of amplification kit type on the ability to determine the NOC was not substantive. Cumulatively, the data indicate that NOCIt is an improvement to traditional methods of determining the NOC and results in high accuracy rates with samples containing sufficient quantities of DNA. Further, the results of investigations into the effect of template mass on the ability to determine the NOC may serve as a caution that forensic DNA samples containing low-target quantities may need to be interpreted using multiple or different assumptions on the number of contributors, as the assumption on the number of contributors is known to affect the conclusion in certain casework scenarios. As a significant degree of inaccuracy was observed for all methods of determining the NOC at severe low template amounts, the data presented also challenge the notion that any DNA sample can be utilized for comparison purposes. This suggests that the ability to detect extremely complex, LtDNA mixtures may not be commensurate with the ability to accurately interpret such mixtures, despite critical advances in software-based analysis. In addition to the availability of advanced comparison algorithms, limitations on the interpretability of complex, LtDNA mixtures may also be dependent on the amount of biological material present on an evidentiary substrate.