Relevant bibliographies by topics / Marxism in politics, economy and philosophy / Criticism

Academic literature on the topic 'Marxism in politics, economy and philosophy / Criticism'

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Published: 2 March 2023

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Contents

  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters

Journal articles on the topic "Marxism in politics, economy and philosophy / Criticism":

1

Kuzmin, P. V. "МАРКСИЗМ: РАЗМЫШЛЕНИЯ ОБ ИСТОРИЧЕСКОЙ РОЛИ И ОГРАНИЧЕННОСТИ." Konfliktologia 14, no. 2 (July 28, 2019): 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.31312/2310-6085-2019-14-2-82-95.

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The article comprehends Marxist views in the field of philosophy, political economy, socio-political sphere. It is shown that Marxism is not a monolith. Along with the undoubted advantages, the social doctrine of Marxism contains ideas and provisions that have not stood the test of time. But the costs of Marxism are not the supporting structures of this doctrine. The author is of the opinion that not confirmation of a number of provisions of authentic Marxism by socio - political practice of the XX-th and the passed years of the XXI-th century is connected with the fact that any social theory “works” in this way, as the implementation of such a theory takes place in line with the coherent concept of truth. Marxist doctrine was created in the era of early capitalism, which did not yet contain the necessary material for more accurate scientific positions and forecasts. In the article the author comes to the conclusion that a number of Marxist views, provided their authentic interpretation, remain relevant in our time. These include: unsurpassed by anyone criticism of capitalism; conclusion on the growth of inequality and income inequality between the strata of society; regulations on the adaptation of production relations to changing productive forces, on ensuring the basic needs of people with the help of new technologies, the development of social and industrial democracy; ideas about the dependence of material production on scientific knowledge, creative, spiritual activity of people, on the progress of technology; humanistic position of Marxism, expressed in the ideas of human liberation, social equality, justice, solidarity. The author believes that the urgent task of the intelligentsia is to preserve Marxism as an integral part of intellectual and political culture, as well as the development of Marxist doctrine in creative competition with other trends of social thought.
2

Tolkachev, Petr, and Tsolak Agasovich Davtyan. "Althusser’s turn in Marxism and its meaning for the social theory." Философская мысль, no. 7 (July 2020): 59–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-8728.2020.7.33462.

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Rehabilitation of Marxist thought present in Althusser’s compilation of the articles titled by catching appeal “For Marx” is carried out in two directions: general – when theoretical line of understanding of the society and history is derived out of Marxism as political ideology; specific – when revealing the “ rational kernel” of Marxist philosophy of history or society, Althusser extracts dialectical contradiction rooted it his methodology of basis and superstructure. The subject of this research is the hermeneutic project of Althusser aimed at new interpretation of the Marxist philosophy of history, as well as elucidation of the “absence” of dialectical turn in Marx’s continuity of Hegel’s philosophy. The object of this article is the new methodology of social research oriented towards finding additional meanings of the principle of overdetermination, which allows Althusser to reconsider the Marxist method of basis and superstructure in a structuralistic way. The essence of its rehabilitation criticism (criticism of elimination of false understanding of Marxist philosophy) consists in the fact that the latter contributed to neglecting the superstructure and led the research to acknowledgement of its nature as a nonexistent phantom, illusion, behind which lies the only true reality resembled by the determinant of economic formations.
3

Petersen, Matias. "The epistemological crisis of Marxian economic theory." Prometeica - Revista de Filosofía y Ciencias, no. 20 (January 21, 2020): 18–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.34024/prometeica.2020.20.10021.

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In Ethics in the Conflicts of Modernity, MacIntyre argues that neo-Aristotelians have much to learn from Marx’s economic theory, not only for understanding the nature of capitalism, but also for thinking about alternative social and political institutions. This article outlines the arguments given by MacIntyre for embracing Marxian economic theory and argues that if Marxian economics is a tradition of enquiry, in the MacIntyrean sense of the term, we should take seriously the debates within this tradition in order to conclude whether it has been able to withstand internal and external criticism. I argue that Marxian economic theory, as a tradition of enquiry, has been defeated by its opponents and that a synthesis between Aristotelian moral philosophy and Marxian economics is an obstacle to the development of MacIntyre’s political philosophy.
4

Junger, Mykhailo. "“Process of Philosophers” in 1973 as an Attempt to Stop the Development of the Dissent in Hungary." Mìžnarodnì zv’âzki Ukraïni: naukovì pošuki ì znahìdki, no. 26 (November 27, 2017): 290–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/mzu2017.26.290.

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The aim of the article is to examine the little-known in the Ukrainian historiography moments of the Hungarian-Soviet relations, which have been linked with a critical perception of the economic reform in Hungary in 1968 by the Soviet Union Communist Party. Following the crackdown on the Prague Spring, Hungary remained the only one among member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which continued to reform the economy for higher living standards in 1969–1972. It evokes a negative reaction of the SUCP leadership, which J. Kádár could not ignore. One of the indirect consequences of the Kremlin demands to stop the economic reform was the “philosophers’s process” 1973. The paper considers the Hungarian Socialist Worker’s Party’s response to ideological criticism of the Hungarian scientists conserning philosophical foundations of socialism in general and the political consequences of its implementation in particular. It provides the evaluation of HSWP analysts on key provisions of leading representatives of the Budapest school of philosophy: G. Márkus, A. Heller, M. Vajda, sociologist A. Hegedüs. In these papers argued that don’t exist authentic marxism, socialist revolution is not led to radical changes in the forms of social life, so there were no revolutions, revolutionary nature of the working class and the labor movement in socialist countries were questionable, socialism is not built, however modernization was implemented. This article demonstrates the nature of the personal position of J. Kádár, whish consists of balance between the demands of the Kremlin and the needs of Hungarian social development. It was found that the future leaders of the urban opposition group J. Kis and G. Bence were among philosophers, who were expelled from the HSWP or subjected to administrative pressure. It was their first conflict with the state power, which promoted awareness of the need of conversion into opposition activity. Article first time in Ukrainian historiography gives a complete picture of the conditions under which formed critical views of the scientific community in Hungary to socialism. The Hungarian archival materials unknown by this time were used.
5

Mitropoulos, Angela. "Oikonomia." Philosophy Today 63, no. 4 (2019): 1025–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/philtoday2020124309.

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This article outlines the limits of Marx’s critique of political economy by underscoring the grounding of economics in the nomos of the oikos—law of the household, or oikonomia. It traces the racial-gendered limits on concepts of equality and justice that have shaped neoliberalism, economic nationalism, and their contemporary criticism.
6

Šiliņa, Zane. "TREATMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE COMMON PEOPLE IN THE CREATIVE THOUGHTS OF RAINIS’S PLAYS." Culture Crossroads 8 (November 13, 2022): 207–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.55877/cc.vol8.179.

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Rainis’s world outlook has been strongly influenced by the Marxist philosophy, yet his attitude towards this doctrine is rather complicated. On the one hand, the poet was attracted by the idea of changing the world, voiced by Marxism, and he was fascinated by the personality of Karl Marx, in whom he saw a brave and talented reformer of the society; yet, on the other hand, Rainis has severely criticised a number of ideas propagated by Marxism which have been proposed as the foundation of socialism. Firstly, the distinctly materialistic orientation of the Marxist doctrine and the social and political movements associated with it is incompatible with Rainis’s artistic endeavours and his conviction that the decisive role in the development of the society is played by the enhancement of the man’s spiritual world rather than by the economic conditions and their transformation. Secondly, Marxism is unable to solve the contradiction that occurs between the necessity to act in the name of the interests of the overwhelming majority and, simultaneously, to guarantee a free development of every individual. One could even assert that Marxism tries to bypass the potential conflict between the individual freedom and mass interests. On the other hand, Rainis, who had a high regard for the individuality and wanted to harmonise the collective potential for the development of the society with the free development of the personality, is particularly sensitive to the contradictions existing between the individual and the society and strives to address them in his literary works. The issues outlined above in relation to the treatment of the individual and the mass specific of Rainis’s literary works have been analysed in this article in the context of the working notes of Rainis’s unfinished play “Īliņš (Kurbads)”.
7

Rebrov, Sergey. "LOUIS ALTHUSSER’S CRITIQUE OF THE POLITICAL THEORY." Political Expertise: POLITEX 18, no. 2 (2022): 199–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu23.2022.206.

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The article analyzes various projects of hybridization of materialism and political theory in one conceptual system. Special attention is paid to the critical analysis of the phenomenon of economic materialism of the nineteenth century, which for a long time remained the only example of a materialistic analysis of politics. The subsequent development of materialism that became a new limit of economic determinism, put new problems in the context of the capabilities of materialistic policy. The author proposes to follow the argument of the French philosopher Louis Althusser as a philosophy of aleatory materialism created by the thinker himself, including to substantiate the variations of materialistic understanding of the political. The article consistently disassembled the prerequisites for the crisis of the Marxist economic interpretation of history, which, at the original stage of its own formation, had extremely few common with philosophical materialism. The further struggle of new materialists with the idea of a universal explanatory principle ultimately allowed them to create a new type of philosophical knowledge that is not related to the idea of universal history. The focus in this case is chained to the political aspect of Althusser's Materialism regarding the theory of conjuncture as a genuine object of any materialistic politics. Finally, the author compares aleatory materialism with a number of other directions of post-modern materialistic ontology, whose representatives direct their own criticism towards the anthropological component of the political theory, which, however, leads to the denial of this discipline in principle. Thus, it is Althuserianism that in couple with Schmitterism, are the only examples of a successful project to create a materialistic theory of politics.
8

Breitenstein, Peggy H. "Zerschlagen des Scheins der Naturwüchsigkeit." Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie 69, no. 6 (December 1, 2021): 1036–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/dzph-2021-0082.

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Abstract Natural history is a key concept in Adorno’s philosophy of history. In the second model of Negative Dialectics, he develops this concept following Marx’s critique of political economy, which, as a critique of ideology, criticises the appearance of natural necessity of social practices and relations. Starting from an irritation concerning a note by Adorno in which he reproaches Marx for “language mannerisms” and conceptual inability, this article argues that Adorno’s critique is based on a one-sided reading, preventing him from adequately considering the critical-emancipatory potential of the concept of natural history. This potential is not independent of linguistic and aesthetic mediation. Rather, Marx uses metaphors, caricatures, etc. in his depiction of social practices as natural history, enabling him to convey more than theoretical knowledge. His critical theory is emancipatory precisely in that it compels agents to self-criticism, which is a necessary condition for sustainably shattering the appearance of natural necessity.
9

Keikhaee, Aidin. "Adorno, Marx, dialectic." Philosophy & Social Criticism 46, no. 7 (November 21, 2019): 829–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0191453719866234.

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This essay revisits Adorno’s relation to Marx through a reading of his recently translated seminar on Marx (1962) within the broader context of the two thinkers’ views on the dialectic. While Adorno’s critical comments in the seminar seem to be applicable to some of Marx’s bold assertions about Hegel’s dialectic, taken in isolation, they fail to challenge Marx’s more rigorous analysis of the dialectic, as presented in his introduction to the Grundrisse. Nevertheless, read alongside Adorno’s mature critique of identity, the text of the seminar could be interpreted as pointing to a much more serious criticism of Marx, that is, the criticism of the primacy of economy that animates Marx’s dialectic from within. The essay is concluded with a warning against reducing Adorno’s position on Marx to his criticism of the primacy of economy, followed by a brief reference to the fundamentally transitory character of critical theory.
10

Makarova, Anna F. "Criticism of capitalism and socialism in the philosophy of Nikolai Berdyaev." Izvestiya of Saratov University. New Series. Series: Philosophy. Psychology. Pedagogy 21, no. 3 (September 24, 2021): 263–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.18500/1819-7671-2021-21-3-263-267.

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Philosophical understanding of the economy and economics is not the main, but significant topic of the reflections of Russian religious philosophers. It is important to trace the specifics of the formation of the Russian view on the economy and economics, on the basic principles of the economic systems’ structure (among which we can single out capitalism and socialism), since the interpretation of Russian thinkers, including N. А. Berdyaev, cannot be included in the mainstream of Western economic thought. The article examines the criticism of capitalism and socialism in the post-revolutionary works of Nikolai Berdyaev, highlights the key contradictions of the two basic principles of economic organization with the post-revolutionary views of the thinker, which were significantly strengthened after the revolutionary events of 1917; these views can be conditionally called socialist-personalistic. Inheriting the tradition of Russian thought, Berdyaev unequivocally rejects the capitalist principles (in many respects this attitude was formed by the period of his legal Marxism), while he assesses socialist concepts ambiguously, with a certain amount of sympathy for the very socialist formulation of the problem of justice and the fight against “slavery”, exploitation of a man by a man. The article indicates the main line of criticism of Christian socialism by Berdyaev, and also describes his preferred variant of socialism, that he called “social personalism”.
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Journal articles

Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Marxism in politics, economy and philosophy / Criticism":

1

Mata, Vilson Aparecido da. "Human Emancipation and Education in Marx: For criticism on the bourgeois formation in the horizon of social inequality." Universidade Federal do CearÃ, 2014. http://www.teses.ufc.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=15637.

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico
A tese apresentada trata das relaÃÃes entre emancipaÃÃo humana e educaÃÃo, a partir dos escritos originais de Marx. A utilizaÃÃo de categorias que tÃm sua origem em Marx de modo esvaziado e impreciso tem dado lugar a especulaÃÃes sobre a educaÃÃo como instÃncia que possibilita ao indivÃduo ascender socialmente a partir de sua inclusÃo âqualificadaâ no mercado de trabalho capitalista. Assim, reformas educacionais sÃo propostas com objetivo de adequar melhor a educaÃÃo ao desenvolvimento socioeconÃmico. O aprofundamento do estudo sobre as categorias do pensamento de Marx formam a base para a compreensÃo da emancipaÃÃo humana como transformaÃÃo profunda da sociedade e do papel da educaÃÃo nesse processo. O problema fundamental constatado na pesquisa em relaÃÃo Ãs reformas educacionais à que elas ignoram, por completo, o duplo carÃter da educaÃÃo (afirmaÃÃo e negaÃÃo do humano) na sociedade capitalista. Esse duplo carÃter nÃo pode ser ignorado em uma perspectiva educacional que pressuponha o pensamento marxiano. Por isso, neste trabalho, categorias fundamentais de Marx, como o trabalho em seu duplo carÃter (ontolÃgico e estranhado) na sociedade capitalista, a polÃtica, a emancipaÃÃo, o estranhamento, foram retomadas, bem como o estudo do mÃtodo marxiano como instrumento que nÃo se reduz à compreensÃo da economia polÃtica, mas como mÃtodo de apreensÃo do real e, portanto, formativo tanto em seu momento de investigaÃÃo como no momento da exposiÃÃo. O objetivo à fundamentar e delimitar as possibilidades e os problemas para uma concepÃÃo educacional com base no materialismo histÃrico e dialÃtico diante da contradiÃÃo entre a parcialidade da emancipaÃÃo polÃtica e a universalidade da emancipaÃÃo humana que se expressa na sociedade capitalista e que desfigura a educaÃÃo como potencializadora do ser humano. Tal objetivo sà pode ser atingido atravÃs da retomada, ao longo da tese, das categorias fundamentais em Marx. O quadro atual da educaÃÃo, que a expÃe como instÃncia justificadora e naturalizadora da atual forma societÃria demanda o estudo das bases da emancipaÃÃo em Marx, bem como os escritos do filÃsofo alemÃo sobre a educaÃÃo. As consideraÃÃes finais indicam que uma concepÃÃo marxiana para a educaÃÃo nÃo pode prescindir de seu duplo carÃter, bem como demanda uma subjetividade rica e o conhecimento do homem que se pretende como projeto de uma educaÃÃo que contribua efetivamente para a transformaÃÃo profunda da sociedade.
The current thesis deals with the relations between the human emancipation and education, from Marxâs original manuscripts. The use of categories which draw their origin from Marx in an empty and innacurate way has given place to speculations about education as instance which enables the individual to ascend socially from their skilled inclusion in the capitalist labor market. Therefore, the educational reforms are proposed with the objective of better adequating the education to the social economic development. The study deepening concerning Marxâs thought categories compose the basis for the comprehension of the human emancipation as a deep transformation of society and the education role in this process. The essential issue determined in the research in relation to the educational reforms is that they completely ignore the double nature of education (affirmation and denial of the human) in the capitalist society. This double nature cannot be ignored in an educational perspective which presupposes the marxisist thought. For this reason, in this work, Marx fundamental categories, as the work in its double nature (ontological and questioned) in the capitalist society, the politics, the emancipation, the questioning, have been taken over, as well as the study of the marxisist method as an instrument which is not limited to the comprehension of the political economy, but as a method of apprehension of what is real and, therefore, formative both in its investigation moment and its exhibition moment. The objective is to base and delimit the possibilities and problems for an educational conception based on the dialectical and historical materialism in face of the contradiction between the partiality of the political emancipation and the universality of the human emancipation which is expressed in the capitalist society and which disfigures the education as a driving force of the human being. Such objective can only be achieved through the recovery, throughout this thesis, from the fundamental categories in Marx. The current education framework, which exposes it as a justifying and naturalizing of the current contractual form demands the basis study of the emancipation in Marx, as well as through manuscripts of this German philosopher about education. The final considerations indicate that a marxisist conception for the education cannot prescind from its double nature, and it also demands a substantial subjectivity and the manâs knowledge which is intended as project of an education which effectively contributes to a profound transformation of society.
2

Senger, Saesha. "Gender, Politics, Market Segmentation, and Taste: Adult Contemporary Radio at the End of the Twentieth Century." UKnowledge, 2019. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/music_etds/150.

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This dissertation explores issues of gender politics, market segmentation, and taste through an examination of the contributions of several artists who have achieved Adult Contemporary (AC) chart success. The scope of the project is limited to a period when many artists who figured prominently in both the broader mainstream of American popular music and the more specific Adult Contemporary category were most commercially viable: from the mid-1980s through the 1990s. My contention is that, as gender politics and gendered social norms continued to change in the United States at this time, Adult Contemporary – the chart, the format, and the associated music – was an important, if overlooked or even trivialized, arena in which these shifting gender dynamics played out. This dissertation explores the significance of the Adult Contemporary format at the end of the twentieth century through analysis of chart performance, artist image, musical works, marketing, and contextual factors. By documenting these relevant social, political, economic, and musical factors, the notable role of a format and of artists neglected by scholars becomes clear. I explore these issues in the form of lengthy case studies. Examinations of how Adult Contemporary artists such as Michael Bolton, Wilson Phillips, Matchbox Twenty, David Gray, and Mariah Carey were produced and marketed, and how their music was disseminated, illustrate record and radio industry strategies for negotiating the musical, political, and social climate of this period. Significantly, musical and lyrical analyses of songs successful on AC stations, and many of their accompanying promotional videos highlight messages about musical genre, gender, race, and age. This dissertation ultimately demonstrates that Adult Contemporary-oriented music figured significantly in the culture wars, second and third wave feminism, expressions of masculinity, Generation-X struggles, postmodern identity, and market segmentation. This study also illustrates how the record and radio industries have managed audience composition and behavior to effectively and more predictably produce and market music in the United States. This dissertation argues that, amid broader social determinations for taste, the record industry, radio programmers, and Billboard chart compilers and writers have helped to make and reinforce certain assumptions about who listens to which music and why they do so. In addition, critics have weighed in on what different musical genres and artists have offered and for whom, often assigning higher value to music associated with certain genres, socio-political associations, and listeners while claiming over-commercialization, irrelevance, aesthetic insignificance, and bad taste for much other music.

Books on the topic "Marxism in politics, economy and philosophy / Criticism":

1

Coombes, Sam. The early Sartre and Marxism. Oxford: Peter Lang, 2008.

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Leo, Tolstoy. An anthology of Tolstoy's spiritual economics. Rochester, N.Y: University of Rochester Press, 1997.

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Dimitrakaki, Angela, and Kirsten Lloyd. Economy: Art, Production and the Subject in the 21st Century. Liverpool University Press, 2015.

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Dimitrakaki, Angela, and Kirsten Lloyd. Economy: Art, Production and the Subject in the 21st Century. Liverpool University Press, 2021.

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Rubin, Isaak Ilʹich, and I. I. Rusin. Essays on Marx's Theory of Value (Trans from Russian). Black Rose Books, 1996.

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Rubin, Isaak Ilʹich, and Fredy Perlman. Essays on Marx's Theory of Value (Trans from Russian). Black Rose Books, 1996.

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A French Restoration. How To Books, 2006.

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Wenzer, Kenneth C. An Anthology of Tolstoy's Spiritual Economics (Vol. 2 Henry George Centennial) (George, Henry, Selections. V. 2.). University of Rochester Press, 1997.

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Book chapters on the topic "Marxism in politics, economy and philosophy / Criticism":

1

Trommer, Silke. "5. The Evolution of the Global Trade Regime." In Global Political Economy, 111–39. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198820642.003.0005.

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This chapter details the history, politics, and recent trends and challenges of the multilateral trade system. The twentieth century witnessed a remarkable emergence of international institutions, and nowhere was their impact greater than in international trade. Following decades of depression and war, a global trading regime was initiated with the creation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947, which expanded steadily in both scope and membership through the twentieth century and culminated in the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. Underpinned by the philosophy that open markets and non-discriminatory trade policies promote the prosperity of all countries, and issued with a powerful dispute settlement mechanism, the WTO has been hailed as the most prominent example of cooperation between countries. At the same time, however, the WTO has been subject to internal and external criticism and now faces a number of difficulties.
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Lovibond, Sabina. "Iris Murdoch and the Quality of Consciousness." In Essays on Ethics and Culture, 184–99. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192856166.003.0012.

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Abstract Murdoch’s moral philosophy lays stress on the need to resist our natural tendency to self-absorption and turn our attention outward, so as to appreciate the value present in nature, art, and (above all) other persons. In this way, she argues, we can work to amend the quality of our states of consciousness, and hence (indirectly) of our actions. By way of commentary on this view, the present essay suggests that Murdoch’s early apprenticeship in Marxist politics—and her subsequent rejection of Marxism—may have left a trace both in the idea that ‘our states of consciousness differ in quality’ (and thus admit of improvement); and also in the specific, distinctively ‘idealist’ course indicated by her mature philosophy for the project of moral self-criticism.
3

Brooke, Christopher. "Epilogue." In Philosophic Pride. Princeton University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691152080.003.0010.

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This concluding chapter argues that the three intellectual streams that fed into what was eventually to become Marxism took shape not only as partial appropriations and transformations of Rousseau's ideas but each also embodied a continuing engagement with Stoicism. It reveals that what eventually crystallized under the banner of Marxism was in an important sense a putting together, as well as a radical transformation, of major elements of German idealist philosophy, especially Hegel; of the classical political economy that reaches back to Adam Smith; and of the radical French politics that unfolded over the course of the Revolutionary decade of the 1790s.
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Snir, Reuven. "Outlines of Diachronic Intersystemic Development." In Modern Arabic Literature. Edinburgh University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474420518.003.0004.

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This chapter presents some outlines of the diachronic intersystemic development of the modern Arabic literary system. The space between the text, its author, and the reader is understood as constituting both an economic environment (e.g. literary markets, publishing) and a sociocommunicative system that passes the meaning potential of the text through various filters (e.g. criticism, literary circles, groups, salons, public opinion) in order to concretize and realize it. All other spaces related to literary production and consumption, including the linguistic, spiritual, social, national, and economic spaces, are also considered, together with looking at the interaction of literature with, for example, religion, territory, state nationalism, language, politics, economy, gender, electronic media, and philosophy, as well as foreign literatures and cultures and examples of reciprocal interference between Arabic and Western literatures in the twentieth century and the start of the twenty-first century.
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"was seen (as he often still is) as characteristically ‘heavy’, boring and lacking in a sense of humour, or at least irony – in fact the kind of playwright he himself deplored in his own, rational theatre. Furthermore, he was a Marxist and thus his ideas were (and are) unlikely to be suited to the mainly bourgeois institution of British theatre and theatregoers. Since Brecht’s ideology has so often been a barrier to a full appreciation of his work in Britain, and consequently appears regularly in this book, it is worth briefly spelling out here the basis and implications of his political beliefs. Brecht’s commitment to the classic Marxist tradition of ‘dialectical materialism’ (the idea that the individual is created by socio-political and economic factors and is, therefore, able to change his circumstances and environment) provided a ‘legitimacy’ (in his view at least) for an interventionist form of theatre. Brecht’s ‘discovery’ of Marxism (in 1928/9) confirmed his already well-developed idea that theatre should have a social function. As he said, he ‘had written a whole pile of Marxist plays without knowing it’ (Völker, 1979, p. 110). His ‘epic theatre’ was based on the concept of the primary importance of production in social life and it was intended to demonstrate socialism as the constant revolutionising of the forces and relations within the processes of production. Brecht often spoke of his form of theatre as one designed to make a contribution to ‘the full unfettering of everybody’s productivity’ (Suvin, 1984, p.20). He would admit, however, that in order for epic theatre to work fully, the actors involved in the production needed to share a Marxist view of the world. Certainly many theatre critics and historians would agree that without a knowledge of Marxist philosophy and aesthetics, it is virtually impossible to grasp the full meaning of Brecht’s plays. For example, Marxist philosophy is fundamental to Brecht’s dramaturgical exploration of the relationship between the individual and society. As a playwright, he builds up a complex framework of social, political, economic, historical and personal factors, which determine the character as an individual; his phrase for this is ‘statistical causality’. This approach to characterisation enables Brecht to demonstrate through his plays a wider range of possibilities for human behaviour than is the case with more ‘naturalistic’, psychologically-based drama. Brecht’s politics have, of course, been used frequently against him – as a reason for rejecting his artistic achievements, and as a ‘stick’ with which to beat him and expose the apparent hypocrisy in his personal behaviour. His detractors often draw attention to the fact that he never actually joined the Communist Party and that, after returning to East Berlin in 1949, he obtained an Austrian passport (1950), gave exclusive publishing rights to his writing to a West German publisher, and maintained a Swiss bank account. Equally notably, Brecht even refused to sign a binding contract with his own company, the Berliner Ensemble, until 1953, when he signed a form of ‘open’ agreement. In extenuation, it might be claimed that after his years in exile, when his artistic ambitions and activities had been inevitably limited,." In Performing Brecht, 12. Routledge, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203129838-8.

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