Journal articles on the topic 'Marine bacteria – Effect of water pollution on'

ABSTRACTUsingin situsubtropical aquatic mesocosms, fecal source (cattle manure versus sewage) was shown to be the most important contributor to differential loss in viability of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), specifically enterococci in freshwater andEscherichia coliin marine habitats. In this study, sunlight exposure and indigenous aquatic microbiota were also important contributors, whose effects on FIB also differed between water types.

Oil pollution can cause tremendous harm and risk to the water ecosystem and organisms due to the relatively recalcitrant hydrocarbon compounds. The current chemical method used to treat the ecosystem polluted with diesel is incompetent and expensive for a large-scale treatment. Thus, bioremediation technique seems urgent and requires more attention to solve the existing environmental problems. Biological agents, including microorganisms, carry out the biodegradation process where organic pollutants are mineralized into water, carbon dioxide, and less toxic compounds. Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria are ubiquitous in the nature and often exploited for their specialty to bioremediate the oil-polluted area. The capability of these bacteria to utilize hydrocarbon compounds as a carbon source is the main reason behind their species exploitation. Recently, microbial remediation by halophilic bacteria has received many positive feedbacks as an efficient pollutant degrader. These halophilic bacteria are also considered as suitable candidates for bioremediation in hypersaline environments. However, only a few microbial species have been isolated with limited available information on the biodegradation of organic pollutants by halophilic bacteria. The fundamental aspect for successful bioremediation includes selecting appropriate microbes with a high capability of pollutant degradation. Therefore, high salinity bacteria are remarkable microbes for diesel degradation. This paper provides an updated overview of diesel hydrocarbon degradation, the effects of oil spills on the environment and living organisms, and the potential role of high salinity bacteria to decontaminate the organic pollutants in the water environment.

Several sources of water pollution are causing negative consequences to marine life. The organisms that are more affected are fishes and marine mammals since they are at the top of the food chain. They are directly exposed to high levels of toxins in water and/or they feed on other fishes that are contaminated. Unfortunately, the main cause of the contaminations, and thus of the fish deaths, come from human activities, such as industry, agriculture, municipal wastewater and solid wastes. The present study is concerned with the effect of organic and inorganic pollutants on the survival of fish in water bodies. We introduce a nonlinear mathematical model by considering five interacting variables; organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants, bacteria, dissolved oxygen and fish in the water body. The model is analyzed using the stability theory of differential equations and to confirm the analytical findings, numerical simulations are performed. Our results suggest that to maintain water quality and to save fish life, the global community has to limit the release of organic and inorganic pollutants into the aquatic system.

The incident that occurred some time ago in Bima Bay, West Nusa Tenggara Province, which began to be seen on April 25/26 2022 is a phenomenon that is quite horrendous for residents of the City/Regency of Bima and outside the Bima area. According to several preliminary studies based on laboratory tests and local inspections, it is estimated that there are three possible causes, namely: (1) Sea Snot, (2) Algae Explosion and Metabolism (Algae Blooms) and (3) Oil Spill (Algae Blooms). oil spill). This study aims to examine the assessment of the sea on human health and welfare, in particular to examine the causes of seawater phenomena that occur in Bima Bay by considering many aspects. This study identifies and makes estimates based on data and facts that relate the phenomena that occur/pollutants to health effects on marine biota and on humans. It was carried out by observing the quality of sea water in Bima Bay based on the results of several laboratory tests on specimens taken on 27-29 April 2022. The test results of sea water samples taken on 27 April 2022 showed a high nitrate content. levels of 9.75 mg/l to 34.75 mg/l (water quality standard for nitrate content = 0.008 mg/l) and accompanied by an increase in ammonia level of 0.41 mg/l (water quality standard for ammonia content = 0, 3 mg/l) l). l) and phosphate content of 0.06-0.08 mg/l (Phosphate quality standard = 0.015 mg/l). Total ammonia, nitrate and phosphate are environmental parameters that contain nutrients which if present in high concentrations and even continue to increase in marine waters will cause eutrophication (bloom) which can be very dangerous for other marine biota by causing a decrease in dissolved oxygen, plankton growth which can cause decrease in fish population, bad smell, and bad taste and can cause the formation of biomass in the form of jelly. The biomass can be in the form of polysaccharides and proteins with an estimated containing bacteria, viral pathogens known as sea snot.

Despite last decades’ interventions within local and communitarian programs, the Mediterranean Sea still receives poorly treated urban wastewater (sewage). Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) performing primary sewage treatments have poor efficiency in removing microbial pollutants, including fecal indicator bacteria, pathogens, and mobile genetic elements conferring resistance to antimicrobials. Using a combination of molecular tools, we investigated four urban WWTPs (i.e., two performing only mechanical treatments and two performing a subsequent conventional secondary treatment by activated sludge) as continuous sources of microbial pollution for marine coastal waters. Sewage that underwent only primary treatments was characterized by a higher content of traditional and alternative fecal indicator bacteria, as well as potentially pathogenic bacteria (especially Acinetobacter, Coxiella, Prevotella, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Empedobacter, Paracoccus, and Leptotrichia), than those subjected to secondary treatment. However, seawater samples collected next to the discharging points of all the WWTPs investigated here revealed a marked fecal signature, despite significantly lower values in the presence of secondary treatment of the sewage. WWTPs in this study represented continuous sources of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) ermB, qnrS, sul2, tetA, and blaTEM (the latter only for three WWTPs out of four). Still, no clear effects of the two depuration strategies investigated here were detected. Some marine samples were identified as positive to the colistin-resistance gene mcr-1, an ARG that threatens colistin antibiotics’ clinical utility in treating infections with multidrug-resistant bacteria. This study provides evidence that the use of sole primary treatments in urban wastewater management results in pronounced inputs of microbial pollution into marine coastal waters. At the same time, the use of conventional treatments does not fully eliminate ARGs in treated wastewater. The complementary use of molecular techniques could successfully improve the evaluation of the depuration efficiency and help develop novel solutions for the treatment of urban wastewater.

The elevated NH3-N and NO2-N pollution problems in mariculture have raised concerns because they pose threats to animal health and coastal and offshore environments. Supplement of Marichromatium gracile YL28 (YL28) into polluted shrimp rearing water and sediment significantly decreased ammonia and nitrite concentrations, showing that YL28 functioned as a novel safe marine probiotic in the shrimp culture industry. The diversity of aquatic bacteria in the shrimp mariculture ecosystems was studied by sequencing the V4 region of 16S rRNA genes, with respect to additions of YL28 at the low and high concentrations. It was revealed by 16S rRNA sequencing analysis that Proteobacteria, Planctomycete and Bacteroidetes dominated the community (>80% of operational taxonomic units (OTUs)). Up to 41.6% of the predominant bacterial members were placed in the classes Gammaproteobacteria (14%), Deltaproteobacteria (14%), Planctomycetacia (8%) and Alphaproteobacteria (5.6%) while 40% of OTUs belonged to unclassified ones or others, indicating that the considerable bacterial populations were novel in our shrimp mariculture. Bacterial communities were similar between YL28 supplements and control groups (without addition of YL28) revealed by the β-diversity using PCoA, demonstrating that the additions of YL28 did not disturb the microbiota in shrimp mariculture ecosystems. Instead, the addition of YL28 increased the relative abundance of ammonia-oxidizing and denitrifying bacteria. The quantitative PCR analysis further showed that key genes including nifH and amoA involved in nitrification and nitrate or nitrite reduction significantly increased with YL28 supplementation (p < 0.05). The supplement of YL28 decreased the relative abundance of potential pathogen Vibrio. Together, our studies showed that supplement of YL28 improved the water quality by increasing the relative abundance of ammonia-oxidizing and denitrifying bacteria while the microbial community structure persisted in shrimp mariculture ecosystems.

Over the past century, the demand for petroleum products has increased rapidly, leading to higher oil extraction, processing and transportation, which result in numerous oil spills in coastal-marine environments. As the spilled oil can negatively affect the coastal-marine ecosystems, its transport and fates captured a significant interest of the scientific community and regulatory agencies. Typically, the environment has natural mechanisms (e.g., photooxidation, biodegradation, evaporation) to weather/degrade and remove the spilled oil from the environment. Among various oil weathering mechanisms, biodegradation by naturally occurring bacterial populations removes a majority of spilled oil, thus the focus on bioremediation has increased significantly. Helping in the marginal recognition of this promising technique for oil-spill degradation, this paper reviews recently published articles that will help broaden the understanding of the factors affecting biodegradation of spilled oil in coastal-marine environments. The goal of this review is to examine the effects of various environmental variables that contribute to oil degradation in the coastal-marine environments, as well as the factors that influence these processes. Physico-chemical parameters such as temperature, oxygen level, pressure, shoreline energy, salinity, and pH are taken into account. In general, increase in temperature, exposure to sunlight (photooxidation), dissolved oxygen (DO), nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium), shoreline energy (physical advection—waves) and diverse hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms consortium were found to increase spilled oil degradation in marine environments. In contrast, higher initial oil concentration and seawater pressure can lower oil degradation rates. There is limited information on the influences of seawater pH and salinity on oil degradation, thus warranting additional research. This comprehensive review can be used as a guide for bioremediation modeling and mitigating future oil spill pollution in the marine environment by utilizing the bacteria adapted to certain conditions.

Marine contamination caused by anthropogenic activities has side effects and causes severe contamination to the environment. Polychaetes are benthic organisms that live in the sediment and can be a good indicator of sediment contamination by organic compounds. In this study, bacterial strains were isolated and identified from the gut of polychaete worm Marphysa moribidii and the potential of the bacteria was evaluated to degrade hydrocarbon compounds. The isolated bacteria were primary and secondary screened on Minimal Salt Media (MSM) agar supplemented with 1% v/v of diesel oil. Diesel degradation analysis was performed by inoculating potential bacterium into MSM broth with 1% v/v diesel oil and incubated at 37 oC for 20 days. Diesel degradation percentage was analyzed using the gravimetric method, while the bacteria cell densities were measured using the standard plate count method. Then, the selected isolates were identified based on their morphological characteristics and 16S rDNA sequences. As a result, two bacteria isolates coded as Isolate 6 and Isolate 8 were able to degrade diesel oil up to 52.29% and 39.24% after 20 days of incubation. The 16S rDNA sequence analysis revealed that it was identified as Bacillus sp. strain UMTFA1 (RB) and Staphylococcus kloosii strain UMTFA2 (RS). Our result showed that these strains have the potential in oil-degrading processes, which will provide new insight into bioremediation process and decrease environmental pollution in soil and water contaminated with hydrocarbons.

A large volume of antibiotics is used in fish farms to treat diseases because the farmed fish are fully affected by diseases and parasites in the aquaculture and particularly in the ocean environment where disease pathogens multiply quickly. The frequent use of these antibiotics in aquaculture has resulted in animal; stress, infection, and their dissemination in the form of antibiotic resistant genes to other bacteria including human and animal pathogens. The problems arising with antibiotics can be overcome by using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) due to their physiochemical properties and low toxicity. So AgNPs could be combined with antibiotics to induce infections in fish cell lines and to protect dissemination of antibiotics in the form of antibiotics resistant genes. We expose AgNPs on fish cell lines as a new nano-antibacterial agent to investigate and obtain findings in terms of the cell viability and toxicity. The experimental data is analyzed to examine the antibacterial effects of nanosilver as a replacement agent and discuss the complex scenario, drawbacks, techniques, methods, main mechanisms, and procedures to perform antibacterial tests of exposed AgNPs. There would be an attempt to deal with the AgNPs antibacterial therapies for the fish cell lines.

Abstract. The understanding of the coastal environment is fundamental for efficiently and effectively facing the pollution phenomena as expected by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, and for limiting the conflicts between anthropic activities and sensitivity areas, as stated by Maritime Spatial Planning Directive. To address this, the Laboratory of Experimental Oceanology and Marine Ecology developed a multi-platform observing network that has been in operation since 2005 in the coastal marine area of Civitavecchia (Latium, Italy) where multiple uses and high ecological values closely coexist. The Civitavecchia Coastal Environment Monitoring System (C-CEMS), implemented in the current configuration, includes various components allowing one to analyze the coastal conflicts by an ecosystem-based approach. The long-term observations acquired by the fixed stations are integrated with in situ data collected for the analysis of the physical, chemical and biological parameters of the water column, sea bottom and pollution sources detected along the coast. The in situ data, integrated with satellite observations (e.g., temperature, chlorophyll a and TSM), are used to feed and validate the numerical models, which allow the analysis and forecasting of the dynamics of pollutant dispersion under different conditions. To test the potential capabilities of C-CEMS, two case studies are reported here: (1) the analysis of fecal bacteria dispersion for bathing water quality assessment, and (2) the evaluation of the effects of the dredged activities on Posidonia meadows, which make up most of the two sites of community importance located along the Civitavecchia coastal zone. The simulation outputs are overlapped by the thematic maps showing bathing areas and Posidonia oceanica distribution, thus giving a first practical tool that could improve the resolution of the conflicts between coastal uses (in terms of stress produced by anthropic activities) and sensitivity areas.

The discharge of domestic sewage is one of the most common types of marine pollution, namely through submarine outfalls. In this study, water and sediments of the coastal submarine sewage outfall in Guarujá, São Paulo, Brazil were assessed during the high (January) and low (April) tourist seasons in 2018. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environmental Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) showed a “marginal” water quality, in both seasons, where dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, oil and greases, ammonia, surfactants, aluminium, lead, copper, nickel, Escherichia coli and Enterococci showed potential ecological risks. However, no mutagenic potential was detected in the complex mixture (Ames Salmonella/microsome test: MI<2), and no protozoa and Salmonella bacteria were found. In the sediment, a total of 25 benthic taxa were inventoried, suggesting that the macrofauna is not under contamination stress. Cadmium, lead, copper, chromium, nickel and zinc were below the Threshold Effect Level, and the Geoaccumulation Index was <0. Furthermore, the absence of acute toxicity to the test organism Kalliapseudes schubartii (EC50: 96h) and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’: 2.5 to 3.5 bits/ind) suggests healthy or unpolluted environments. However, the deviation of some environmental indicators suggests the need of continuous monitoring based on field measurements.

The use of natural marine bacteria as “oil sensors” for the detection of pollution events can be suggested as a novel way of monitoring oil occurrence at sea. Nucleic acid-based devices generically called genosensors are emerging as potentially promising tools for in situ detection of specific microbial marker genes suited for that purpose. Functional marker genes are particularly interesting as targets for oil-related genosensing but their identification remains a challenge. Here, seawater samples, collected in tanks with oil addition mimicking a realistic oil spill scenario, were filtered and archived by the Environmental Sample Processor (ESP), a fully robotized genosensor, and the samples were then used for post-retrieval metatranscriptomic analysis. After extraction, RNA from ESP-archived samples at start, Day 4 and Day 7 of the experiment was used for sequencing. Metatranscriptomics revealed that several KEGG pathways were significantly enriched in samples exposed to oil. However, these pathways were highly expressed also in the non-oil-exposed water samples, most likely as a result of the release of natural organic matter from decaying phytoplankton. Temporary peaks of aliphatic alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases and monoaromatic ring-degrading enzymes (e.g., ben, box, and dmp clusters) were observed on Day 4 in both control and oil-exposed and non-exposed tanks. Few alkane 1-monooxygenase genes were upregulated on oil, mostly transcribed by families Porticoccaceae and Rhodobacteraceae, together with aromatic ring-hydroxylating dioxygenases, mostly transcribed by Rhodobacteraceae. Few transcripts from obligate hydrocarbonoclastic genera of Alcanivorax, Oleispira and Cycloclasticus were significantly enriched in the oil-treated exposed tank in comparison to control the non-exposed tank, and these were mostly transporters and genes involved in nitrogen and phosphorous acquisition. This study highlights the importance of seasonality, i.e., phytoplankton occurrence and senescence leading to organic compound release which can be used preferentially by bacteria over oil compounds, delaying the latter process. As a result, such seasonal effect can reduce the sensitivity of genosensing tools employing bacterial functional genes to sense oil. A better understanding of the use of natural organic matter by bacteria involved in oil-biodegradation is needed to develop an array of functional markers enabling the rapid and specific in situ detection of anthropogenic pollution.

Abstract. The understanding of the coastal environment is fundamental for efficiently and effectively facing the pollution phenomena, as expected by Marine Strategy Directive, which is focused on the achievement of Good Environmental Status (GES) by all Member States by 2020. To address this, the Laboratory of Experimental Oceanology and Marine Ecology developed a multi-platform observing network that has been in operation since 2005 in the coastal marine area of Civitavecchia, where multiple uses and high ecological values closely coexist. The Civitavecchia Coastal Environment Monitoring System (C-CEMS), implemented in the current configuration, includes various modules that provide integrated information to be used in different fields of the environmental research. The long term observations acquired by the fixed stations are integrated by in situ surveys, periodically carried out for the monitoring of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the water column and marine sediments, as well as of the benthic biota. The in situ data, integrated with satellite observations (e.g., temperature, chlorophyll a and TSM), are used to feed and validate the numerical models, which allow analyses and forecasting of the dynamics of conservative and non-conservative particles under different conditions. As examples of C-CEMS applications, two case studies are reported in this work: (1) the analysis of faecal bacteria dispersion for bathing water quality assessment and, (2) the evaluation of the effects of the dredged activities on Posidonia meadows, which make up most of the two sites of community importance located along the Civitavecchia coastal zone. The simulations results are combined with Posidonia oceanica distribution and bathing areas presence in order to resolve the conflicts between coastal uses (in terms of stress produced by anthropic activities) and sensitivity areas management.

Contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons causes serious dangers to human health and the environment, whether by accidental or chronic contamination. Due to the large flow of ships, the commercial harbor of Oran is subject to pollution particularly by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. For that, bioremediation by indigenous microorganisms is the most important method to eliminate or decrease this contamination. In the present paper, hydrocarbon-degrading bacterium strain SP57N has been studied, newly isolated from contaminated marine sediments and sea water from the harbor of Oran (Northwestern-Algeria), using of Bushnell-Hass salt medium (BHSM). The strain SP57N was Gram-negative, oxidase negative, catalase negative, motile, Rod-shaped bacteria, identified molecularly as Pseudomonas mendocina based on partial 16S rDNA gene sequence analysis, using the BLAST program on National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and the EzBioCloud 16S rDNA databases. This isolate could growth on high concentrations of crude oil (up to 10 %, v/v). The effects of some culture conditions such as temperature, NaCl concentration and pH on growth rate of strain SP57N on crude oil as the sole carbon and energy source were studied. In addition, growth kinetic of this isolate on crude oil during 20 days of culture at 140 rpm, under optimal culture conditions was considered. The results showed maximum growth rate at temperature 25°C, 3% (w/v) of NaCl concentration and pH 7. Results of growth kinetic on crude oil as sole carbon and energy source showed that the stationary phase was attained at day 12. Thus, Pseudomonas mendocina SP57N had effectively hydrocarbon-degrading potential, and could be used as an efficacy degrader to initiate a biological eco-friendly method for the bioremediation of the hydrocarbon pollution on the port of Oran, and marine environment.

Faecal pollution in stormwater, wastewater and direct run-off can carry zoonotic pathogens to streams, rivers and the ocean, reduce water quality, and affect both recreational and commercial fishing areas of the coastal ocean. Typically, the closure of beaches and commercial fishing areas is governed by the testing for the presence of faecal bacteria, which requires an 18–24 h period for sample incubation. As water quality can change during this testing period, the need for accurate and timely predictions of coastal water quality has become acute. In this study, we: (i) examine the relationship between water quality, precipitation and river discharge at several locations within the Gulf of Maine, and (ii) use multiple linear regression models based on readily obtainable hydrometeorological measurements to predict water quality events at five coastal locations. Analysis of a 12 year dataset revealed that high river discharge and/or precipitation events can lead to reduced water quality; however, the use of only these two parameters to predict water quality can result in a number of errors. Analysis of a higher frequency, 2 year study using multiple linear regression models revealed that precipitation, salinity, river discharge, winds, seasonality and coastal circulation correlate with variations in water quality. Although there has been extensive development of regression models for freshwater, this is one of the first attempts to create a mechanistic model to predict water quality in coastal marine waters. Model performance is similar to that of efforts in other regions, which have incorporated models into water resource managers' decisions, indicating that the use of a mechanistic model in coastal Maine is feasible.

A total of 610 samples of marine sewage discharges, polluted seawater and shellfish have been analysed for human enteric viruses and indicators of faecal/sewage pollution. Viruses were recovered by ultrafiltration from water samples of up to 10 litres, and by extraction from 50 g samples of shellfish meat. Detection of viruses was by cytopathogenic effect in primary vervet kidney cells. Some samples were tested for rota- and hepatitis A virus antigens using immunosorbent assays. Of the 202 samples from which viruses were cultured, 45% yielded enteroviruses and 87% reoviruses. The ratio of counts of viruses and indicators varied extensively in samples of both seawater and shellfish. Viruses or their antigens were detected in a number of samples which yielded negative results in conventional tests for at least one indicator. The results show that currently used quality criteria based on coliform indicators have shortcomings with regard to viruses. These findings, as well as experience and policies in other parts of the world, were applied in formulating revised quality criteria for seawater used for recreational purposes, and shellfish meat intended for human comsumption. The recommended criteria include limits for human viruses, faecal coliform bacteria, faecal streptococci and coliphages. The test methods used in conjunction with these criteria are considered important, and methods for viruses should be able to detect reoviruses.

Ballast water is carried by cruise ships, large tankers, and bulk cargo carriers to acquire the optimum operating depth of the propeller and to maintain maneuverability and stability. Recently, ballast water has been recognized as wastewater that is responsible for ocean pollution due to the worldwide transfer of non-indigenous species, pathogenic bacteria, and other pollutants via ballast water discharge. This poses serious environmental, ecological, and economic threats to both coastal communities and the marine environment. To address these negative impacts and concerns, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has codified and adopted a series of guidelines to minimize pollution and adverse effects caused by ballast water. A number of treatment technologies have been developed and applied in field practices to remove solids, particulates, organic pollutants, and organisms from ballast water, showing certain advantages and limitations. Many other management practices, such as ballast water exchange (BWE), shipping routes optimization, treatment process modeling, and risk assessment are in high demand to aid onboard treatment systems. However, knowledge and technical gaps still exist regarding the implementation of ballast water management practices especially in the context of arctic and harsh environments under changing climatic conditions. Records indicate that most coastal regions in the north have been invaded by unwanted species via ballast water discharge in the past decades. The North Atlantic and the Arctic Oceans have much colder climates and more extreme weather conditions than low latitudes. The discharge of untreated or less treated ballast water could cause much more severe damage to the local environment and hence pose higher risks to ecosystems and even human health, particularly in the context of climate change. Based on a comprehensive literature review, this study proposed a risk-based fuzzy–stochastic–interval programming decision support system to help eliminate environmental, ecological, as well as health threats from the discharge of ballast water, particularly in the north where weather, space, timing, maintenance, and cost are major concerns.

Massive plastic accumulation has been taking place across diverse landscapes since the 1950s, when large-scale plastic production started. Nowadays, societies struggle with continuously increasing concerns about the subsequent pollution and environmental stresses that have accompanied this plastic revolution. Degradation of used plastics is highly time-consuming and causes volumetric aggregation, mainly due to their high strength and bulky structure. The size of these agglomerations in marine and freshwater basins increases daily. Exposure to weather conditions and environmental microflora (e.g., bacteria and microalgae) can slowly corrode the plastic structure. As has been well documented in recent years, plastic fragments are widespread in marine basins and partially in main global rivers. These are potential sources of negative effects on global food chains. Cyanobacteria (e.g., Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, and Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942), which are photosynthetic microorganisms and were previously identified as blue-green algae, are currently under close attention for their abilities to capture solar energy and the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide for the production of high-value products. In the last few decades, these microorganisms have been exploited for different purposes (e.g., biofuels, antioxidants, fertilizers, and ‘superfood’ production). Microalgae (e.g., Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum) are also suitable for environmental and biotechnological applications based on the exploitation of solar light. Can photosynthetic bacteria and unicellular eukaryotic algae play a role for further scientific research in the bioremediation of plastics of different sizes present in water surfaces? In recent years, several studies have been targeting the utilization of microorganisms for plastic bioremediation. Among the different phyla, the employment of wild-type or engineered cyanobacteria may represent an interesting, environmentally friendly, and sustainable option.

The aim of this study is to develop a relocatable modelling system able to describe the microbial contamination that affects the quality of coastal bathing waters. Pollution events are mainly triggered by urban sewer outflows during massive rainy events, with relevant negative consequences on the marine environment and tourism and related activities of coastal towns. A finite element hydrodynamic model was applied to five study areas in the Adriatic Sea, which differ for urban, oceanographic and morphological conditions. With the help of transport-diffusion and microbial decay modules, the distribution of Escherichia coli was investigated during significant events. The numerical investigation was supported by detailed in situ observational datasets. The model results were evaluated against water level, sea temperature, salinity and E. coli concentrations acquired in situ, demonstrating the capacity of the modelling suite in simulating the circulation in the coastal areas of the Adriatic Sea, as well as several main transport and diffusion dynamics, such as riverine and polluted waters dispersion. Moreover, the results of the simulations were used to perform a comparative analysis among the different study sites, demonstrating that dilution and mixing, mostly induced by the tidal action, had a stronger effect on bacteria reduction with respect to microbial decay. Stratification and estuarine dynamics also play an important role in governing microbial concentration. The modelling suite can be used as a beach management tool for improving protection of public health, as required by the EU Bathing Water Directive.

During the summer of 1983, a prospective epidemiological study was carried out at three coastal beaches in the area of Tel-Aviv, Israel, in order to investigate the effect of marine pollution on morbidity among bathers. A total of 615 families comprising 2 231 persons, 23% of them aged 0–4 years, were interviewed for this study. A total of 78 seawater samples were laboratory tested on the day of collection for the concentration of six bacterial indicators: fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, enterococci, E.coli, Staphylococcusaureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The geometric mean of the fecal coliforms was the highest at all beaches, and the concentration of pseudomonas the lowest. All beaches complied with Israel Ministry of Health, bacterial standards for bathing beaches and were within the WHO/UNEP guidelines for fecal coliforms. However, analysis of the results indicated that symptoms of enteric morbidity among swimmers,particularly in the 0–4 year old age group, were related to “high” density levels of enterococci, E.coli and staphylococci. Also, swimmers had more morbidity symptoms of all types (“enteric”,“respiratory” and “others”) than nonswimmers, regardless of the microbial quality of seawater.

The marine waters in semi-enclosed bays are highly dynamic and strongly influenced by different levels of anthropogenic activity. This study explored the bacterial community composition and diversity in two typical urbanized coastal bay areas (Shenzhen Bay (S) and Dapeng Bay (D)) in Shenzhen, China, based on Illumina NovaSeq sequencing. Seawater analysis showed that coastal area S experienced a higher level of pollution, with higher nutrient concentrations observed. Alpha diversity analysis showed a higher bacterial diversity and richness in coastal area S than D. Taxonomic analysis revealed that the phylum Proteobacteria showed the highest abundance in all samples. Other dominant phyla were Firmicutes, Cyanobacteria, Tenericutes, and Actinobacteria. The bacterial community compositions were significantly different between the two coastal areas. A significant community difference was also found between the sampling sites of coastal area S. However, the difference between sampling sites in coastal area D was not significant. Physicochemical factors showed a more significant effect on bacterial community composition than nutrients. Pearson correlation tests and Network analysis further confirmed that salinity/conductivity, pH, and nitrate were the key factors driving the community difference. PICRUSt analysis revealed a higher degree of functional pathways in coastal area S relating to carbohydrate metabolism, membrane transport, and xenobiotics biodegradation. Our results provide in-depth insights into the bacterial community compositions in typical polluted coastal bays. They may provide information on underlying factors of the assembly process in microbial communities in the coastal zone.

Abstract Balneário Camboriu (SC - Brazil) is a touristic city where the disordered growth of the urban population and the implementation of coastal works without proper evaluation generated environmental impacts and affected the sanitary quality of water and sediment of Camboriu River and marine adjacent area. One of the most recent and alarming phenomena observed are the blooms of invasive bryozoans (Arboscuspis bellula and Membraniporopsis tubigera) associated with epibenthic diatoms (Amphitetras antediluviana and Biddulphia biddulphiana). Several clues associate these phenomena, started in 2003, with the excess of nutrients and organic matter in the Camboriú cove and large coastal works such as dredging, landfills and construction of jetties, leading to changes in benthic ecological structure. Being an aesthetic and environmental health problem, the concern of the scientific community and government agencies intensified as the occurrences become more frequent and persistent. This research addresses this issue through environmental and experimental studies. Samplings of the benthic material collected by boat and diving, and blooms monitoring were the environmental approach. The laboratory work included the algal isolation and culture, in addition to growth conditions assessment and chemical biomass analysis. Monitoring data showed a seasonal trend in the blooms, with more conspicuous events in warmer months. Diatoms increase in abundance in colder months and bryozoans in the warmer ones. The diatom A. antediluviana, predominant in the blooms, grew satisfactorily in laboratory cultivation, showing better growth in media with higher concentrations of silicate and phosphate. Bryozoans showed slow growth in laboratory conditions. The deposited material collected in the environment showed low concentrations of saturated fatty acids, but the high biomass suggest a possible use for biofuels production. Biomass samples dominated by bryozoans showed moderate antimicrobial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae. The explanation for the occurrence of these blooms are still inconclusive, but there is considerable evidence that it is a synergistic effect between the high concentration of bacteria and organic debris in the water related to local pollution and the elimination of natural competitors by coastal works.

ABSTRACT The Norwegian Marine Pollution Research and Monitoring Programme organized a multidisciplinary field experiment at Halten Bank in 1982. Three research vessels, two oil recovery vessels, two airplanes, and a total of about 50 scientists took part. The main task of the experiment was to investigate the drift and spread of oil on the surface and in the water column. The drift of the slick was followed using Argos and Decca self-positioning drifting buoys and SLAR (side-looking airborne radar). The methods at present available for monitoring as well as forecasting the drift of oil on the sea surface appear to be good enough for all practical purposes. The Continental Shelf Institute is developing a model which also tries to take the physical mixing of oil in the upper water masses into account. The experiment contributed to this work and further development opens the possibility of describing which water masses will contain damaging concentrations of oil, and how long these will remain there. Microbial degradation of oil and associated ecological effects were also studied. Two independent methods gave values of 20 and 35 µg/L/day, respectively, for the (immediate) potential of microbial degradation of oil in water. With unlimited bacterial growth (a purely theoretical assumption) the above figures could increase by a factor of 1,000 during the experiment (one week). The amounts of nutrients, as well as oil, were not sufficient for the degradation potential to be realized. The exposure time was also relatively short. The rate of oil mineralization might have been just 10 percent of the estimated potential. The biological studies, particularly, were designed to show possible effects on the turnover of nutrients and possible effects of oil on plankton. A daily comparison between oil-containing and clean water samples was made. The degree of similarity was measured by using multivariate (cluster) analysis on a data set of 75 different variables. The results show that any effect of oil was smaller than the natural day-to-day variations in the plankton. This is in conformation with the short exposure time and the low concentrations of oil measured.

Mycobiota of the marine area of Odessa region was studied (30°70′00′′-31°00′00′′N, 46°23′00′′-46°60′00′′E) (See Fig. 1). Hydrological and hydrochemical regimes of the marine area of Odessa region in the northwestern Black Sea are affected by the discharge of the Dnieper (93.4%) and the Southern Bug (5.7%) rivers, the permanent anthropogenic discharges of the cities of Odessa, Chernomorsk (Ilyichyovsk), Yuzhnyi and their ports, shipping, dredging, and the open sea. The aim of this work was to study the species composition, the number of colony forming units (CFU) and the dynamics of the spatiotemporal distribution of reared microfungi as a function of abiotic factors and the trophic level of seawater in this area. Water samples were taken in summer and autumn 2008-2012 in the surface (1 m depth) and bottom (7-24 m depth) layers. The samples were taken, at least, in three replicates. The results of processing 258 samples from 22 stations were analyzed. The effects of environmental factors (water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, five-day biochemical oxygen demand, petroleum hydrocarbons, dissolved metals Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd and suspended particulate matter) were studied in 140 samples (See Table 1). Micromycetes were isolated on Czapek’s medium prepared in sea water. 1 ml of sample water was added to a Petri dish and filled with medium cooled to approximately 36-40 °C. To suppress the growth of bacteria, 0.03% chloramphenicol was added to the medium (by volume of the medium). Cultivation was carried out at a temperature of 18-20 °С for 2-8 weeks. Micromycetes were identified by morphological and cultural characteristics according to Vera Bilay and Eleonora Koval’ (1988) and GS De Hooh ea tl. (2000). Nomenclature, and taxonomy of fungi correspond to The Index Fungorum database. The ecological analysis of mycocomplexes was carried out according to: species composition, the number of species in complexes, frequency of occurrence of a species and the number of colony-forming units (CFU / L). In this research, 50 fungal species of 19 genera, 14 families, 9 orders, 4 classes of the division Ascomycota were revealed. Fungal taxa from Odessa region were grouped into families. The family Aspergillaceae included the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Talaromyces (27 species); the family Pleosporaceae included the genera Alternaria and Stemphylium (8); and there were 3 species of the genus Cladosporium from the family Cladosporiaceae. In total, 76.0% of species found were from the three families (See Table 2). Using Average Taxonomic Distinctness index, AvTD (Δ+), and Variation in Taxonomic Distinctness index, VarTD (Λ+), features of the taxonomic diversity of mycocomplexes were revealed. These indices were calculated from a matrix of micromycete species from the region under study combined with the fungi list (master list, 219 species) of the Black Sea pelagic zone. In the analysis, the taxonomy levels from Species to Kingdom were included. For the indices Δ+ and Λ+, 95% probability funnel graphs were plotted, and their mean expected values were calculated for mycobiota of the region under study and for mycocomplexes from each station. It was found out that the mean expected values of the index Δ+ for mycobiota of the marine area of Odessa region and the stations are considerably lower, and index Λ+ values are higher than those for the sea as a whole (See Fig. 2 and 3). According to literature sources, no significant seasonal and inter-annual changes in the trophic status of the region occurred in 1992-2010. It was transitional between mesotrophic and eutrophic. The long-term mean TRIX value was 5.3 (4-5: medium trophic level; 5-6: high trophic level and poor water quality). In the species composition and numerical structure of mycocomplexes of the mesotrophic and eutrophic zones, no significant differences were detected. Over the entire period of this research, a relatively uniform distribution of the mean abundance of fungi over the area and depth was noted (See Table 3). No significant correlation was found between abiotic parameters under study and micromycete abundance over the horizons, seasons, sampling dates, location of stations, as well as mesotrophic and eutrophic zones. In the region, 44% of fungi-indicators of different kinds of pollution were registered. In the areas of stormwater runoff and wastewater treatment plant discharges, the indicator value (IndVal) was the largest for melanin-containing fungi Cladosporium cladosporioides (28.3%), Alternaria alternata (17.5%), and Aspergillus niger (12.3%), which are resistant to several adverse environmental factors. In the eutrophic zone, large values of the indices were found in Aspergillus clavatus (21,2%), Penicillium expansum (17,7%), Penicillium citrinum (16,1%), Al. tenuissima (12,5%), and in A. fumigatus (60%), Al. alternata (40%) and A. niger (35,7%) in places of local oil pollution. It is established that in the entire marine area of Odessa region, the formed mycocomplexes have a high similarity in species and numerical structure, and therefore, they can be considered as a single community.

Biosurfactants are natural substances produced by several bacterial and fungal organisms that are amphiphilic and are extracellular (a part of the cell membrane). Biosurfactants can reduce the stress between solids and liquids on the surface and at the end. Biosurfactants have several properties, i.e. they are stable, less harmful, as well as readily degradable, and extremely eco-friendly. Biosurfactants also have a wide range of industrial uses because they are a versatile category of chemical substances. The principal justification for conducting such research was the isolation of possible biosurfactants containing bacteria. Sampling was performed for the isolation of bacteria producing biosurfactants from different oil-polluted sites That is to say, experiment for emulsification, test for oil spreading, test for drop collapse, and measure for hemolysis. The capability to produce biosurfactants was seen in 22 different isolates from polluted sites B1, B2, and B3. Through different biochemical tests and Gram staining, it was identified that isolated bacterial strains are Pseudomonas spp and that is Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The procedure used as characterizing biosurfactants was the TLC plate’s procedure, by using TLC plates process yellow dots emerged after spraying on silica gel plates with an throne and ninhydrin reagents. These yellow spots confirmed the presence and production of rhamnolipid in the biosurfactant. Hence, it was concluded that identified strains in the study can be helpful in the heavy metals, pesticides, and hydrocarbons bio-degradation and bioremediation. These may also be used as biological control agents to protect plants from various pathogens, resulting in improved crop yields. Introduction Biosurfactants are natural substances produced by several bacterial and fungal organisms that are amphiphilic and are extracellular (a part of the cell membrane) (Chen et al., 2007; Ghayyomiet al., 2012). Main purpose of the bio-surfactantsgeneration or production is a consequence of financial availability (Van Dyke et al., 1993 It is reported that almost 50 percent of the world's surfactants are used because of the need for cleaning agents as well as the rate of growth grows every day (Deleu and Paquot, 2004). Appropriate use of bio-surfactants will control environmental emissions what these are the most dangerous, constantly rising gradually and disrupting the routine maintenance of life every day. Awareness campaign initiatives have been introduced and also increase for environmental laws, various innovative approaches need to be implemented and even the issue of pollution focused entirely. Developing appropriate advanced technologies to help clear up chemicals and toxins from the ecosystem, like hydrocarbons (both inorganic and organic). Studies on biosurfactants are being launched by scholars and researchers with significant health issues like adverse environmental effects, air contamination, environmental change, and waste management (Makkar and Cameotra, 2002 Biosurfactants contribute to expanded demand for such microbial products as alternatives to chemical surfactants (Benatet al., 2000). Microbes seem to have the capability to degrade contaminants, but their biodegradation is limited leading to hydrophobicity, low solubility in water, and inadequate bioavailability, of such pollutants (Patil, et al., 2012). GhayyomiJazeh, Mishraet. al (2001) those bacteria that produce biosurfactants were isolated from the site of petroleum spills and afterward, 160 strains and as well as 59 strains were able to produce biosurfactants have shown better performance in a test for hemolysis of blood, and 45 strains with positive findings within oil spread experiment were applied in the laboratory to isolate and segregate the media cultured Banat process (Rahman et al., 2002) These were observed and researched that biosurfactants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa spp are most likely to disrupt the bonding of hydrocarbons like nonadecane, octa, Hexa, and hepta, in marine Water contaminated with oil spills up To approximately 47%, 53%, 73% and 60%(Abrar et al., 2020). Current study concluded that the isolated strain having the ability to degrade hydrocarbon as well as the ability to degrade the heavy metal. The strain also can protect the plant from various diseases. The present research found that the isolated strain is capable of degrading hydrocarbon while also being capable of degrading the heavy metal. As well as the strain does have the capability to defend plants from different diseases. Material And Methods Area of Study The investigation was conducted at HazaraUniversity(HU) Microbiology Laboratory, MansehraPakistan. Assemblage of Samples Thehomestay area of the city Mansehra Pakistan which is named as a township, where oil spills arose, oil spills soil samples were obtained as well as sampling from various Mansehra automobile workshops were also done. Sterilized bags of polythene were being used to collect samples of the soil, after thatthe sample was taken towards the Hazara University (HU) Mansehra Microbiology Laboratory to examine and extract bacterial strains that could develop biosurfactants. The soil temperature at the time of sample selection was around 30 ° C. The pH was also verified by Galvano science companies at the time of selection by pH meter, and the pH being reported was 7. Preparation of Media 15 x 100 mm Petri dishes were being used to prepare the media. Agar plates were thoroughly cleaned with water from the tap and then carefully covered in aluminum foil following cleaning then placed within autoclave at 121°C for about 15 min at 15 psi for sterilization. The nutrient agar which contains 0.5% NaCl, 0.3% beef extract, 0.5% peptone, and 1.5% agar, in 500 ml of distilled water, 14 g of the nutrient agar media (Merck) were dissolved. The nutrient level used mainly for the production of non-fastidious species. Nutrient agar is widely known as it's capable of growing a variety of bacteria types and provides nutrients required for the growth of bacteria. Upon sufficient dissolution of such nutrient agar in distilled water, these were then sterilized by autoclaving for 15 min at 15 psi in the autoclave and held at 121 °C Upon autoclaving, pouring of the media was done in laminar flow hood, and then packed and placed for yet more use in a fridge at 4°C. 2.4 Preparation of serial dilution The bacteria are isolated using the serial dilution process. During this process, 10 test tubes were taken and distilled water (9ml) was added in each tube. After that tubes were put for 15 minutes in the autoclave machine at 121°C. After that 1gm of a crude oil sample from the soil was added in a test tube containing distilled water. Further, 1 ml of the solution was taken from the first test tube and poured to the adjoining tubes for the preparation dilution as under . Afterward, 10μl of the solution was pipetted from both the dilution of and shifted for spread culture techniques, then incubated the plates at 37°C for 48hrs. Biosurfactants extraction Firstly, in nutrient broth solution theculture of bacteria was added and inoculated with oil, the bacterial colony was then incubated at the temperature of 25°C in a shaking incubator just for 7 days. Incubation after seven days of trembling. Thebacterial Crop was then taken and centrifuged at 5000rpm at temperature 4°C for 20minutes. Following centrifugation, the supernatant was collected and then mixed in the equivalent amount in Methanol: Chloroform. White sediment was then retained and collected for further use . Bacterial Colonies Isolation 1 g of the soil polluted with oil was diluted serially up to 106 dilutions.10 μl of 104 and 106 dilutions for spread culture were transferred to the MSM agar plates and nutrient agar. The plates were then incubated at 37°C for 48hrs. Twenty-two morphologically separate colonies were separated for further specific examination just after the incubation and processed by using the technique of streak plate. Screening of Isolates’ Biosurfactants Behavior To check the activity of biosurfactants produced by the bacterial species the following methods of screening were done. Hemolytic Activity of Biosurfactants for Erythrocytes Blood agar containing 5% of blood was prepared as after the fresh isolates were added and inoculated on blood agar plates, then the plates were taken and placed in the incubator at temperature 37°C for 48hrs (Rashediet al., 2005). Thereafter the observation of clear zone in the colonies indicated the existence of bacterial species that produce biosurfactants. This experiment was undertaken to control the ability of isolated bacteria to induce blood agar hemolysis. Three forms of hemolysis usually involve; alpha, beta, and hemolysis of the gamma. The agar underneath the species is dark greenish, then it is Alpha, the yellowish color produced in beta hemolysis and gamma hemolysis does not affect the bacterial sppwhichadded on the plates (Anandaraj and Thivakaran, 2010). Bio-surfactant identification with process of CTAB MSM (Mineral salt agar medium) with (2%) of glucose serving both as carbon source, (0.5 mg / ml) acetyl-tri-methyl-ammonium-bromide (CTAB), and methylene blue (MB: 0.2 mg/ml) are used to detect anionic bio-surfactants (Satpute et al., 2008). For this method, thirty microliters (30μl) of cell-free supernatant were added to each of the wells of the methylene blue agar plate that comprises of borer (4 mm in diameter). after that, the incubation of the plates was done for 48-72 hrs at 37°C. Just after incubation in each of the wells, a dark blue halo zone was being used to show the successful anionic bio-surfactant production. Table 1: Composition of MSM Media S. No Ingredients Amount (gm/L) I Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) II Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4) III Iron Sulfate (FeSO4) IV Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) V Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) VI Ammonium Sulfate (NH4)2SO4 Technique for Spreading of Oil A sufficient number of isolated bacteria were inoculated into a solution of 100ml nutrient broth. Over 3 days, the culture was incubated at 37 ° C in a rotating shaker incubator (150 rpm). After that biosurfactants synthesis was checked in culture suspensions (Priya and Usharani, 2009; Anandaraj and Thivakaran, 2010). For this process, thirty milliliters (30ml) of distilled water was added in a Petri dish. In the middle of the distilled water, 1 milliliter (1ml) of diesel oil was added, and then a centrifuged twenty microliter (20μl) culture was introduced to the middle of a plate, which was isolated from oil spilled soil or local oily groundwater. The species producing the bio-surfactant displace the hydrocarbons and disperse it even in the water. Then it was calculated and analyzed within 1 mint (Ali et al., 2013). Technique for Drop collapse In this process, 96-wellsformed in each of the plates of nutrient agar. Afterwards, all the 96-wells of microliter plates was then filled withmineral oil of about 2ml. Then stabilized the plate at 37oC for 1 hour, after which the oil surface was filled with 5μl of supernatant culture. Therefore, the drop shape was taken to be observed on the oil surface after 1min. The drop which was collapsed, generated by the supernatant culture which is used to signify positive(+ive) outcome and the drops which stayed the same and displayed no changeindicates negative(-ive) outcome. And was taking distilled water as a control(Plaza et al., 2006). Emulsification index The emulsification index was calculated, as stated by the process followed by Cooper and Goldenberg (1981) In this process, 2 ml of kerosene oil was taken and inserted in each of the test tubes to the same amount of cell-free supernatant, and then homogenized for 2 min in a vortex at high speed and allowed for 24 hours to stand. The emulsification steadiness was then determined after the 24 hours, and the emulsification value was estimated by measuring the emulsified layer height by the total liquid layer height, then multiplied by 100. Quantification for the Dry weight of Biosurfactants The bacterial colony was inserted and inoculated in the nutrient broth medium, followed by oil and centrifuged at 5000rpm and after that, the supernatant was clutched and treated with chloroform and methanol and mixed. The white colored deposits were taken and used for the furtherprocess of dry weight. Afterwards, took the clean Petri plate and determined the empty plate weight. Next, the sediment was poured onto Petri plates. Now, for the drying process the hot air oven was used and set the 100ºC of temperature for 30minutes and the plates were put in the oven. After the drying process, the plates were weighted again. The dry weight was calculated for the biosurfactants using the formula which described below: Selected strains Identification and their characterization Instead, various basic biochemical methods were used to identify the isolated bacterial strains. Various biochemical tests, such as Gram staining, Oxidase test, Urease test.Catalase test, Methyl red test, Motility test, Indole test, Starch hydrolysis, Citrate test, Spore staining, Gelatin hydrolysis. Then afterwards, for the preliminary characterization of the biosurfactant, the thin layer chromatography process was used. Physical characterization of the strains selected Gram staining First, on the slide, using the wire loop the bacterial pure culture was taken, and smear was prepared on the slide, and then a drop of purified water was applied. Then, the sterile loop or needle was correctly mixed the bacterial colony and purified water, then mixed up until it is somewhat turbid. Then, spirit lamp was used to fixed the bacterial smear on slide and cooled to room temperature. With this glass slide was loaded with solution of crystal violet and stood for 1minute anddistilled water was applied on slide. Meanwhile the slide was submerged for 1 minute with the iodine solution, and then flushed and rinsed with water. Therefore, decolorizer of about 1 to 2 drops(5 percent acetone and 95 percent alcohol) were added to the slide’s smear and stand for 30seconds, and then treated with water. After then slide was rinsed with safranin for 60seconds, and then treated with water anddry in air. Microscopic analysis was done with 100x objective lenses using emersion oil on smear. Cell morphology The isolates of the bacterial cell were gram stained on slides and then the slides were observed under the light microscope, showing the shape and color of the cells. Biochemical characterization of the selected strains Catalase test Aim of this study is to identify, evaluate and examine that, whether or not the microbes are capable of producing catalase enzymes, while catalase is a protective enzyme, i.e. catalase has the potential to protect against the lethal chemicals known as (H2O2). In this study a bacterial culture that was clarified overnight was used. This culture has been smeared on a glass slide, and 3 percent hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has been applied and observed on smear. Effects have been observed for bubble formation. Citrate test This study was performed to check the amount or ingest the citrate as the carbon and energy supply for growth and metabolism. Medium containing bromothymol blue and sodium citrate as pH indicator, bacterial was introduced. Ammonium chloride is also present in this medium used as a nitrogen source. Results were noted with variations of color from green to blue. Urease test The capability of urease enzyme for degrading urea was calculated in this bacterial capacity test. Bacterial culture was taken and inoculated for 48 hours at 37 ° C in urease broth, and then color was observed. Methyl red test Through using the process known as mixed acid fermentation which is used to evaluate the bacteria's acid production. The bacterial culture was taken and introduced in the broth of MR-VP and then incubated for 3days at a temperature of 37°C. Two (2) to three (3) drops of Methyl red were added in the broth medium after the incubation period. The change in broth color was observed for final results after a few seconds. Indole test Through using the process to assess the bacteria 's capability to crash indole from tryptophane molecules. After the 24 hours of incubated, taken the fresh inoculum of bacteria and then inserted into the tryptone medium, 24 hours of incubation of about 30oC, 2ml of the tryptone broth medium was added into a sterile test tube. Kovac's reagent was taken to be added (few drops) in sterile test tube and stimulated for a few minutes, and variations of color were detected. Gelatin test It is the approach assess to figure out the use of enzymes known as gelatins from bacterial organisms that precipitate the gelatin. Fresh inoculum of bacteria was taken after 24 hours, and inserted into the media of gelatin agar. This was incubated for around 24 hours, so the temperature did not exceed 30 ° C. Media was observed after incubation time. Starch hydrolysis Several of the micro-organisms that use the starch as a carbon energysource. Therefore, this method has been used to assess whether or not bacteria may use starch as a source of carbon. The bacterial fresh inoculum was spread on the petri starch agar plates, and after that the plate was incubated for 24 hours andmaintained the temperature at 30 to 35 ° C, then gradually applying the supplements of iodine to the plates to flow the change, and then examining the plates. Preliminary characterization of the strains selected Experimental characterization of the bio-surfactant was performed by using the process of TLC (Anandaraj et al., 2010). On a silica gel plate, crude portion of the rudimentary bio-surfactant was separated using Methanol: Chloroform: water (CH3OH: CHCl3: H2O) in the ratio of as an eluent with a different color producing reagents. Ninhydrin reagent (0.5 g ninhydrin in 100ml anhydrous acetone) was used to find bio-surfactant lipopeptide as red spots and anthrone reagent (1 g anthrone in 5ml sulfuric acid combined with 95ml ethanol) as yellow spots to identify rhamnolipid bio-surfactant (Yin et al., 2008). Results and Discussion Isolation of bacteria At first, twenty-two (22) strains from a polluted soil sample were isolated from nutrient agar media.Mixed culture provided by these colonies, so they were taken and smeared on the plates of nutrient agar and then fresh inoculum was collected and stored at temperature of 4oC for the further analysis. Bio-surfactants (surface-active compounds)are formed by a variety of amphiphilic bacterial and fungal organisms that are extracellular (a part of the cellular membrane) (Chen et al., 2007). Screening of Isolated strains for biosurfactant producing colonies Different experiments were carried out to identify, isolate and screen bacteria that are capable of generating bio-surfactants and that is Oil spreading technique(OST), blood hemolysis test(BHT), CTAB test, Emulsification operation. There were twenty-two distinct isolates observed in the current research. And the B1, B2 and B3culture were taken and selected from the twenty-two (22) strains isolated from the polluted spot, which were found to produce biosurfactant. And the oil spreading technique showed promising results for these strains. And strain B2 showed a greater displacement of oil and this is 4 mm. Oil spreading method is quick and often easy to handle, and this technique requires no particular equipment, only a very small amount of sample is used. This approach can be applied when the production and quantity of biosurfactant is small (Plaza et al., 2006) and (Youssef et al., 2004) Only bacterial cultures have been allocated and screened for bacterial species that can generate or use biosurfactants. Just three (3) strainsamong them presented the best results.Those 3 strain,s (B1, B2 and B3) were selected as an additional analysis. Blood hemolysis test On the petri plates of blood agar, the . Isolated bacteriaof B1, B2 and B3 were taken andstreak at the temperature about 37°C for 48 hours. Strain B1 demonstrated β (Beta) hemolysis after the incubation cycle and B2 and B3strains demonstrated γ (Gamma) hemolysis. The B1 strain had an emulsification index of about 74 percent and that was very high as compared to 70 percent for B2 and about 53 percent for B3 respectively. Around the same time, B1 strain showed β (Beta) hemolysis and γ (Gamma) hemolysis was shown bystrains B2 and B3 on the platesof bloodagar. The β hemolysisshowed by the strain B1 in the blood agar test, and the strain B2 and B3 showed γ (Gamma) hemolysis. It is determined that 20 percent strains that are the bestproducer of rhamnolipid have not fully lysed the blood, because the ability of the producer strains capacity not be responsible for the hemolytic activity. According to many researchers, who have shown that this is not such an effective tool for biosurfactant detection due to many bioproducts that may also induce red blood cell lysis, that is not so sufficient to be the surface-active molecule (Youssef et al., 2004). (Rashedi and others, 2005). Table2 Blood Hemolysis Test CTAB agar plate test This test confirms the anionic biosurfactants development. After plate incubation at a temperature of 37 ° C for 72 hours, dark blue hollow zone was existedaround each of the B1 strains wells, which clearly indicated the positive (+ive) development of anionic Biofactant. In addition, the B1 and B2 strains showed positive (+ I ve) results and, in the CTAB analysis, the B3 strain was found to be negative (-ive). The growing microorganisms when secreted the anionic biosurfactants on the plates of CTAB (cetyl-tri-methyl-ammonium-bromide) and methylene blue, then as a result the dark blue-purple insoluble ion pairs formed on the plates. The halo zone around each of the colonies was developed that can recognize rhamnolipid production and that was dark blue in colour, and could correlate with production of rhamnolipid (Siegmund et al., 1991). As indicated in (Fig1) Fig1: B1 positive on CTAB agar plate Oil Spreading Technique The oil was displaced by B1, B2and B3 strains in this test strain and showed a zone that was so clear. The bacterial strains capable of developing biosurfactant were tested and separated from the sample of soil which was oil spilled and brought from the District of Mansehra, Pakistan and from automobile workshops of Mansehra. As shown in (Fig.2). Fig.2: Results of Oil Spreading by B1, B2 and B3Table 3;.Test for oil spreads Bacterial culture Formation of zone (mm) Readings B,1 B,2 B,3 Drop-collapse technique During this process the drop shape was observed at the oil surface. As seen in Fig 3, the collapsed drop was provided by the supernatant culture B1 , B2 and B3.. Emulsification index Emulsification stability was measured with the use of kerosene oilin this test, and then observed the results. Since this emulsification index was calculated by dividing the height of the emulsion layer by the total height of the liquid layer and then multiplying by 100, as shown in the formulation below. Emulsification index Emulsification stability was measured with the use of kerosene oilin this test, and then observed the results. Since this emulsification index was calculated by dividing the height of the emulsion layer by the total height of the liquid layer and then multiplying by 100, as shown in the formulation below. Fig 3: Result of Drop-collapse test Table 4: The activity of Biosurfactant emulsification Dry weight of bio-surfactants In this examination, white-colored sediment was collected. Then measured the weight of the sterile Petri plate which was empty in the first step. Then, the sediment was poured into plates. The plates were taken and weighted after 30 minutes of drying on a hot air oven, following the process of drying. The weight of biosurfactants (dry weight) was measured using the following formulations: Fig 4: Dry weight of biosurfactants Table: 5: Dry weight of the biosurfactants Bacterial Culture Weight of the plate (g) biosurfactant in The plate after drying (g) Dry weight of Biosurfactant (g) B,1 B,2 B,3 Identification of selected strains and their characterization Gram staining For structural applications, and stroke analysis gram staining method was used.(Fig.5) shows findings from the process of gram staining. Fig 5: Microscopic view of Gram staining Biochemical identification of bacterial strains and their characterization Specific biochemical studies were performed to identify the species for further recognition and characterization. The bio-surfactant producing microorganism was found to be Pseudomonas aeruginosa after conducting various characterizations and the biochemical tests(Eric Deziel et al., 1996), Which can be used to further analyze and study the industrial development of the biosurfactant. Rhamnolipid is also isolated and produced from the Pseudomonas aeruginosa species on the silica gel plate (Rashedi et al., 2005), a form of biosurfactants highly recommended for processes of bioremediation. All the findings collected from biochemical testing were labeled as Berge 's Manual and it revealed that the protected microorganism was (Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Results of biochemical test were tabulated in (Table.5) Table 6: Bacterial strain identification Tests B1 B2 B3 Gram staining Negative Negative Negative Oxidases Positive e Positive Positive Catalase Positive Positive Positive Indole Positive Negative Negative Citrate Positive Negative Negative Urease Negative Positive Negative Nitrate Positive Positive Positive Motility Positive Positive Positive Gelatin hydrolysis Positive Negative Negative Lactose Negative Positive Positive Methyl red Negative Positive Positive Voges Proskauer Negative Negative Negative Fig 6: Results of biochemical tests(A) Methyl red and Voges Proskauer tests (b) catalase tests (c) oxidase tests (d) indole tests (e) citrate tests (g) lactose tests (h) urease tests Preliminary bacterial strain’s characterization The plates showed yellow dots, when sprayed with anthrone reagent. It indicated the existence of biosurfactants of rhamnolipid in the organism on the plate of TLC as seen in theFig.7 Fig 7: Biosurfactant characterization by TLC Conclusion Biosurfactant development is exciting and perceptible across industries to clean up oil waste and pollutants, particularly in the ecosystem.Compared with chemical surfactants, the biosurfactants are less harmful. It plays an important role in defining the advantages and the importance of industrial applications. Therefore, it is not possible to disregard the growing role and importance of biosurfactants in environmental sustainability.Biosurfactant formulations which can be used for bacterial, fungal, and viral organisms as growth inhibitors. Such biosurfactant inhibition properties can make them components that are applicable to Numerous illnesses that are used as medicinal agents. Therefore it was decided that the described strain could be used as a potential source for heavy metal bioremediation pesticide and hydrocarbon polluted sites. And also used as shielding the plant from different pathogens, contributing to improved crop yields. There is no doubt that the biosurfactants are a multifunctional, advanced, versatile, long-lasting and updated type not only for the twenty-first century but beyond. Conflict of interest The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest and the paper presents their own work which does not been infringe any third-party rights, especially authorship of any part of the article is an original contribution, not published before and not being under consideration for publication elsewhere. References Ali, S.R.; Chowdhury, B.R.; Mondal, P. and Rajak, S. “Screening and characterization of biosurfactants producing microorganism from natural environment (Whey spilled soil)”. Nat. Sci. Res. 2013, 3(13), 34–64. Anandaraj, B. and Thivakaran, P. “Isolation and production of biosurfactants producing organism from oil spilled soil”. Biosci. Tech. 2010, 1(3), 120–126. Banat, I.M.; Makkar, R.S. AND Cameotra, S.S. “Potential commercial Application of Microbial Surfactants”. Applied MicrobialBioethanol. 2000, 53, 495-508. Cooper, D. G, Zajic, J. E. and Denis, C. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1981, 58, 7780. Deleu, M. and Paquot, M. “From Renewable Vegetables Resources to Microorganisms: New Trends in Surfactants”C.R. 2004, 7, 641-646. Eric, Deziel.; Gilles,Pauette.; Richars, Villemur.; Francois,Lepine.; and Jean-Guy, Bisaillon. “Biosurfactants Production by a Soil Pseudomonas Strain Growing on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons”. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1996, 62(6), 1908-1912. Ghayyomi, J.M.; Forghani, F.; Deog, Hwan, Oh. “Biosurfactant production by Bacillus sp. Isolated from petroleum contaminated soil of Sirri Island”. Ame. J. Appl. Sci, 2012, 9(1), 1-6. Makkar, R.; & Cameotra, S. An update on the use of unconventional substrates for biosurfactant production and their new applications. Applied microbiology and biotechnology. 2002, 58(4), 428-434. Mishra, S.; Jyot, J.; Kuhad, R. C.; & Lal, B. Evaluation of inoculum addition to stimulate in situ bioremediation of oily-sludge-contaminated soil. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67(4), 1675-1681. Patil, T. D.; Pawar, S.; Kamble P. N. & Thakare, S. V. “Bioremediation of complex hydrocarbons using microbial consortium isolated from diesel oil polluted soil”. Der ChemicaSinica Journal of Biotechnology. 2012, 3(4), 953-958. Plaza, G.; Zjawiony, I.; and Banat, I. “Use of different methods for detection of thermophilic biosurfactants producing bacteria from hydrocarbon contaminated bioremediation soils”. Petro. Sci. Eng. 2006, 50(1), 71–77. Priya, T.; Usharani, G. “Comparative study for bio-surfactant production by using Bacilus subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa”. Res. Int. 2009, 2(4), 284–287. Rahman, K.S.M.; T.J. Rahman.; S, McClean.; R, Marchant.; and I, M. Banat. “Rhamnolipid biosurfactants production by strains of pseudomonas aeruginosa using low-cost raw materials”. 2002, 18, 1277-1281. H.; Jamshidi, E.;Mazaheri, Assadi. M.; and Bonakdarpour, B. “Isolation and production of bio-surfactant from Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from Iranian southers wells oils”. Int. Environ. Sci. Tech. 2005, 2(2), 121–127 Satpute, S.K.; Bhawsar, B.D.; Dhakephalkar, P.K.; and Chopade, B.A. “Assessment of different screening methods for selecting bio-surfactant producing marine bacteria”. Indian J. Marine Sci. 2008, 37, 243–250. Shafeeq, M.; Kokub, D.; Khalid, Z. M.; Khan, A. M.; Malik, K. A. (1989). MIRCEN J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotech. 1989, 5, 505–510. Siegmund, I. and Wagner, F. “New method for detecting rhamnolipids excreted by Pseudomonas species during growth on mineral agar”. Tech. 1991, 5, 265–268. Van Dyke, M. I.; Couture, P.; Brauer, M.; Lee, H. and Trevors, J. T. "Pseudomonas aeruginosa UG2 rhamnolipid biosurfactants structural characterization and their use in removing hydrophobic compounds from soil". J. Microbiol. 1993, 39, 1071-1078. Yin, H.; J, Qiang.; Y, Jia.; J, Ye.; H,Peng.; H, Qin.; N, Zhang. B. “Characteristics of bio-surfactant produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa S6 isolated from oil containing water”. Process Biochemistry. 2008, 44: 302–308. Youssef, H.; Duncan, El.; Nagle, P.; Savage, N.; Knapp, M.; McInerney, J. “Comparison of methods to detect biosurfactant production by diverse microorganisms”. Microbiol Methods. 2004, 56, 339-347.

Dalian Jinshitan beach was chosen to evaluate the impact of a typhoon on the bacterial community structure and water quality of a marine bathing beach. The concentration of enterococci was determined by the cultivation method. The bacterial community structure and abundance were analyzed using the 16S rDNA next-generation sequencing and qPCR methods. Results showed that the abundance of cultivable enterococci both in alongshore and offshore seawater increased, while it decreased in dry, wet and submerged sand. The water quality deteriorated immediately after the typhoon, and nearly recovered one month after the typhoon. The typhoon event also decreased the bacterial abundance and changed the bacterial community of the beach. Sphingomonadaceae and Rhodobacteraceae significantly increased in seawater and decreased in dry sand immediately after the typhoon. Human and other fecal taxa increased in water and sand. One month after the typhoon, the diversity and many dominant bacterial taxa nearly recovered in seawater and wet sand. Our work shows that the typhoon changed the bacterial dynamics, deteriorated the water quality and proved the transportation of bacterial taxa and input of fecal pollution between water and beach sand or land. Apart from the impact of the typhoon, the geographical location was another important factor in the changed bacterial community.

In this manuscript, we systematically investigated the effect of hypochlorous acid on adhesion of biofouling marine bacteria and diatom utilizing the sea water antifouling electrolysis method. Results showed that when current density was 20 mA/cm2, HClO could block 99.98% of the adhesion of marine bacteria after 3 days, 100% of diatom adhesion after 7 days and 97.28% of diatom adhesion after 70 days of 8h/ day electrolysis, suggesting that hypochlorous acid could effectively block the adhesion of marine bacteria and diatom.

The extent of marine pollution and sea beach contamination due to occasional untreated wastewater discharges through emergency outfall of different pumping stations was investigated. Pumping station A 3 has been selected for investigation in the present study. Fecal coliform and Fecal Streptococci as indicators and Salmonella the pathogenic bacteria were examined in the water and sand samples collected from Benid Al-Qar Sea beach. Water samples and sand samples were collected for a span of 8 months. Sampling of sand was done at distances of 5 m and 10 m on both left and right sides away from the opening of emergency outfall. Shell samples were also collected to ascertain the presence of any contaminant. The analytical data showed that occasional discharge of wastewater resulted in the accumulation of 710 colonies for F. coliform, 20 colonies for F. Streptococci and 125-colonies/100 ml for Salmonella in sand samples collected from 5 m distance on the left side of an emergency outfall. On moving to 10 m distance the intensity of accumulation was reduced about 50% i.e. 360 colonies, 10 colonies and 75 colonies/100 ml for F. coliform, F. Streptococci and Salmonella respectively. The intensity of accumulation was further reduced in the sand samples collected from the right side of the emergency outfall opening. Gradually all these accumulated types of bacterial cells showed inactivation due to solar radiation exposure and other oceanographic factors. Within a month no growth of any indicator or pathogenic microbe was noticed in the sand samples. Again the F. coliform bacteria started appearing in the sand samples collected during 7 months of the project due to discharge of untreated wastewater under the emergency situation, i.e. renovation of sewage networks. Again the same trend of inactivation of bacterial cells was noticed. Thus Kuwait Sea beaches are not threatened of marine pollution due to occasional discharge of wastewater.

The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have established recreational water quality standards limiting the concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria (faecal coliform, E. coli, enterococci) to ensure that these waters are safe for swimming. In the application of these hygienic water quality standards, it is assumed that there are no significant environmental sources of these faecal indicator bacteria which are unrelated to direct faecal contamination. However, we previously reported that these faecal indicator bacteria are able to grow in the soil environment of humid tropical island environments such as Hawaii and Guam and are transported at high concentrations into streams and storm drains by rain. Thus, streams and storm drains in Hawaii contain consistently high concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria which routinely exceed the EPA and WHO recreational water quality standards. Since, streams and storm drains eventually flow out to coastal marine waters, we hypothesize that all the coastal beaches which receive run-off from streams and storm drains will contain elevated concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria. To test this hypothesis, we monitored the coastal waters at four beaches known to receive water from stream or storm drains for salinity, turbidity, and used the two faecal indicator bacteria (E. coli, enterococci) to establish recreational water quality standards. To determine if these coastal waters are contaminated with non-point source pollution (streams) or with point source pollution (sewage effluent), these same water samples were also assayed for spore-forming bacteria of faecal origin (Cl. perfringens) and of soil origin (Bacillus species). Using this monitoring strategy it was possible to determine when coastal marine waters were contaminated with non-point source pollution and when coastal waters were contaminated with point source pollution. The results of this study are most likely applicable to all countries in the warm and humid region of the world.

Abstract. Coastal hypoxia (<1.42 ml L−1; 62.5 μM; 2 mg L−1, approx. 30% oxygen saturation) occurs seasonally in many estuaries, fjords, and along open coasts subject to upwelling or excessive riverine nutrient input, and permanently in some isolated seas and marine basins. Underlying causes of hypoxia include enhanced nutrient input from natural causes (upwelling) or anthropogenic origin (eutrophication) and reduction of mixing by limited circulation or enhanced stratification; combined these lead to higher surface water production, microbial respiration and eventual oxygen depletion. Advective inputs of low-oxygen waters may initiate or expand hypoxic conditions. Responses of estuarine, enclosed sea, and open shelf benthos to hypoxia depend on the duration, predictability, and intensity of oxygen depletion and on whether H2S is formed. Under suboxic conditions, large mats of filamentous sulfide oxidizing bacteria cover the seabed and consume sulfide, thereby providing a detoxified microhabitat for eukaryotic benthic communities. Calcareous foraminiferans and nematodes are particularly tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and may attain high densities and dominance, often in association with microbial mats. When oxygen is sufficient to support metazoans, small, soft-bodied invertebrates (typically annelids), often with short generation times and elaborate branchial structures, predominate. Large taxa are more sensitive than small taxa to hypoxia. Crustaceans and echinoderms are typically more sensitive to hypoxia, with lower oxygen thresholds, than annelids, sipunculans, molluscs and cnidarians. Mobile fish and shellfish will migrate away from low-oxygen areas. Within a species, early life stages may be more subject to oxygen stress than older life stages. Hypoxia alters both the structure and function of benthic communities, but effects may differ with regional hypoxia history. Human-caused hypoxia is generally linked to eutrophication, and occurs adjacent to watersheds with large populations or agricultural activities. Many occurrences are seasonal, within estuaries, fjords or enclosed seas of the North Atlantic and the NW Pacific Oceans. Benthic faunal responses, elicited at oxygen levels below 2 ml L−1, typically involve avoidance or mortality of large species and elevated abundances of enrichment opportunists, sometimes prior to population crashes. Areas of low oxygen persist seasonally or continuously beneath upwelling regions, associated with the upper parts of oxygen minimum zones (SE Pacific, W Africa, N Indian Ocean). These have a distribution largely distinct from eutrophic areas and support a resident fauna that is adapted to survive and reproduce at oxygen concentrations <0.5 ml L−1. Under both natural and eutrophication-caused hypoxia there is loss of diversity, through attrition of intolerant species and elevated dominance, as well as reductions in body size. These shifts in species composition and diversity yield altered trophic structure, energy flow pathways, and corresponding ecosystem services such as production, organic matter cycling and organic C burial. Increasingly the influences of nature and humans interact to generate or exacerbate hypoxia. A warmer ocean is more stratified, holds less oxygen, and may experience greater advection of oxygen-poor source waters, making new regions subject to hypoxia. Future understanding of benthic responses to hypoxia must be established in the context of global climate change and other human influences such as overfishing, pollution, disease, habitat loss, and species invasions.

Water covers seven tenths of the Earth's surface and occupies an estimated total volume of 1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers (km3). Of all the water found on Earth, 97% is marine. Maximum of this water is at a temperature of 2 to 3°C and devoid of light; 62% is under high pressure (>100 atm). Microscopic phytoplankton and associated bacteria generate a complex food web that can extend over long distances and extreme depths. The marine environment looks so vast that it will not be able to be exaggerated by pollution; however, in coastal areas human activities are increasingly disrupting microbial processes and damaging water quality.Nepal Journal of Biotechnology. Dec. 2015 Vol. 3, No. 1: 68-70

Oil pollution is a major environmental concern in many countries, and this has led to a concerted effort in studying the feasibility of using oil-degrading bacteria for bioremediation. Although many oil-degrading bacteria have been isolated from different environments, environmental conditions can impose a selection pressure on the types of bacteria that can reside in a particular environment. This study reports the successful isolation of two indigenous naphthalene-degrading bacteria from oil-contaminated tropical marine sediments by enrichment culture. Strains MN-005 and MN-006 were characterized using an extensive range of biochemical tests. The 16S ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) sequence analysis was also performed for the two strains. Their naphthalene degradation capabilities were determined using gas chromatography and DAPI counting of bacterial cells. Strains MN-005 and MN-006 are phenotypically and phylogenetically different from each other, and belong to the genera Staphylococcus and Micrococcus, respectively. Strains MN-005 and MN-006 had maximal specific growth rates (μmax) of 0.082 ± 0.008 and 0.30 ± 0.02 per hour, respectively, and half-saturation constants (Ks) of 0.79 ± 0.10 and 2.52 ± 0.32 mg per litre, respectively. These physiological and growth studies are useful in assessing the potential of these indigenous isolates for in situ or ex situ naphthalene pollutant bioremediation in tropical marine environments.

The use of total lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a rapid biomarker for bacterial pollution was investigated at a bathing and surfing beach during the UK bathing season. The levels of faecal indicator bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli), the Gram-positive enterococci, and organisms commonly associated with faecal material, such as total coliforms and Bacteroides, were culturally monitored over four months to include a period of heavy rainfall and concomitant pollution. Endotoxin measurement was performed using a kinetic Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay and found to correlate well with all indicators. Levels of LPS in excess of 50 Endotoxin Units (EU) mL−1 were found to correlate with water that was unsuitable for bathing under the current European regulations. Increases in total LPS, mainly from Gram-negative indicator bacteria, are thus a potential real-time, qualitative method for testing bacterial quality of bathing waters.

One of the interesting and environmentally friendly microbiology strategies and approaches to control the impact of microplastics is to approach bioremediation technology by harnessing the potential of microbes or indigenous bacteria (local bacteria). Dumai sea waters currently show a high enough of microplastic pollution which allows the potential of indigenous bacteria to adapt to a plastic environment. The purpose of this study is to isolate and identify indigenous bacteria to degrade plastics from the sea waters of Dumai and to know whether or not there is a difference in the number of bacteria found between stations in this study. This research was conducted in October-December 2020 with experimental methods at the Marine Microbiology Laboratory Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science Universitas Riau. Based on the results of the study, 12 bacterial isolates were isolated from the research stations. Isolates of these bacteria have diamaters ranging from 0.2-1.1 cm. Microplastic degradation test results by bacteria found that ISL 10 is an isolate that shows the highest PET degradation activity, which is 17.27% and the diameter of biofilm formation 0.8 cm. Based on biochemical and morphological tests, similar results were obtained that ISL 10 bacteria are a bacterium of the genus Bacillus. The most bacterial colonies were seen in statiun IV (TPI) with an average number of bacteria of 214.9 x 104 CFU/ml.

We report in this study the isolation of marine bacteria with antiviral properties that have been tentatively classified as Moraxella. These bacteria retained their virucidal capacity after prolonged subcultivation in the laboratory. The virus-inactivating agent could not be separated from the viable marine bacteria, indicating that the active agent(s) either remains associated to the microorganisms or has a very short lifetime, or both. The antiviral capacity of the isolated microorganisms was highly specific for poliovirus. No virucidal effect was observed against other strains of enteroviruses, such as Coxsackie and ECHO virus, rotavirus SA11, or bacteriophages proposed as indicators of the virological quality of water, such as coliphage f2 and bacteriophage B40-8, which infects Bacteroides fragilis.Key words: enterovirus, rotavirus, coliphages, bacteriophages, seawater, marine bacteria, antiviral activity, virus survival.

This paper presents the results of contamination level of sea bottom sediments and seawater in the water areas by the strait of the Black Sea and the Azov Sea by oil hydrocarbons and chloroform-extractable substances studies (spring, autumn 2016). Comparison of marine environment pollution levels with the results of previous studies (2007–2010) and sanitary norms is given. The quantitative characteristics of heterotrophic and oil-oxidizing microbiota in the designated areas are presented. It was determined that the concentration of oil hydrocarbons in the water surface layer in the water area by the strait of the Azov Sea did not exceed the current norm (0.05 mg·l-1). The single cases of the maximum permissible concentration exceeding were registered in the water area by the strait of the Black Sea (autumn 2016). In the surface layer of Azov Sea water, the number of heterotrophic bacteria ranged from 104 to 105 cells·ml-1, and the oil-oxidizing bacteria were isolated in single quantities. In the water area of the Black Sea region of the strait the number of heterotrophic bacteria was 106, the number of oil-oxidizing bacteria did not exceed 10 cells·ml-1. In comparison with the previous years’ data, there was an increase in quantitative indicators of chloroform-extractable substances and oil hydrocarbons in the sea bottom sediments. The overall level of pollution did not exceed the average values determined for the region. The number of heterotrophic bacteria in the sea bottom sediments varied in the Strait of Azov water area from 2,5·104 to 4,5·104 cells·g-1, while that of oil-oxidizing bacteria varied from 2,5·10 to 4,5·102 cells·g-1. In the sea bottom sediments of the Black Sea, the number of heterotrophic bacteria was 4,5·103 cells·g-1, the number of oil oxidizing bacteria was 10 cells·g-1.

При оценке подвижности тяжелых металлов в системе «вода – донные отложения» важно не только понимать условия и особенности фазовых переходов, но и иметь надежные критерии для их оценки и интерпретации. Среди факторов иммобилизации металлов в донных отложениях обычно рассматривают присутствие в них органического вещества и тонкодисперсных фракций и pH среды. Целью исследования явилось построение репрезентативных моделей такой взаимосвязи. Список литературы Бреховских В.Ф. Тяжёлые металлы в донных отложениях Нижней Волги и дельты реки // Вода: химия и экология. 2010. №2. С. 2‒10. Даувальтер В.А. Геоэкология донных отложений озер. Мурманск: МГТУ, 2012. 242 с. Добровольский В.В. Роль гуминовых кислот в формировании миграционных массопотоков тяжелых металлов // Почвоведение. 2004. №1. С. 32‒39. Садчиков А.П. Структурные показатели бактерий и детрита в пресных водоемах (методические аспекты) // Материалы по флоре и фауне Республики Башкортостан / Сборник статей. Вып. XII. Уфа: РИЦ БашГУ, 2016. C. 37‒42. Кочарян А.Г., Веницианов Е.В., Сафронова Н.С., Серенькая Е.П. Сезонные изменения форм нахождения тяжёлых металлов в донных отложениях Куйбышевского водохранилища // Водные ресурсы. 2003. Т. 30, №4. С. 443‒451. Толкачёв Г.Ю. Сравнительная характеристика содержания и форм существования микроэлементов в донных отложениях различных районов р. Волга // Международный научно-исследовательский журнал. 2017. №3. С. 85‒89. Толкачёв Г.Ю. Тяжёлые металлы в системе «вода–донные отложения». Saarbrucken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2012. 98 с. Balls P.W. The partition of trace metals between dissolved and particulate phases in European coastal waters: A compilation of field data and comparison with laboratory studies // Netherlands journal of sea research. 1989. Vol. 23, iss. 1. Р. 7–14. Bantan R.A., Al-Dubai T.A., Al-Zubieri A.G. Geo-environmental assessment of heavy metals in the bottom sediments of the Southern Corniche of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia // Marine pollution bulletin. 2020. Vol. 161(Pt A). 111721. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111721 Baran A., Mierzwa-Hersztek M., Gondek K., Tarnawski M., Szara M. The influence of the quantity and quality of sediment organic matter on the potential mobility and toxicity of trace elements in bottom sediment // Environmental geochemistry and health. 2019. Vol. 41. Р. 2893‒2910. doi: 10.1007/s10653-019-00359-7 Chen J., Gu B., Royer G.B., Burgos R.W. The roles of natural organic matter in chemical and microbial reduction of ferric ion // The science of total environment. 2003. Vol. 307, iss. 1‒3. P. 167‒178 р. doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00538-7 Horowitz A.J. A primer on trace metal-sediment chemistry. Alexandria, 1985. 67 p. Steell K.F., Wagner G.H. Trace metal relationships in bottom sediments of freshwater stream the Buffalo River, Arkansas. J. Sediment Petrol. 1975. Vol. 45. №1. P. 310–319. Hutchins C.M., Teasdale P.R., Lee J., Simpson S.L. The effect of manipulating sediment pH on the porewater chemistry of copper- and zinc-spiked sediments // Chemosphere. 2007. Vol. 69, №7. Р. 1089‒1099. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.04.029 Jabłońska-Czapla M., Nocoń K., Szopa S., Łyko A. Impact of the Pb and Zn ore mining industry on the pollution of the Biała Przemsza River, Poland // Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2016. Vol. 188, №5. Р. 262. doi: 10.1007/s10661-016-5233-3 Joshua E.O., Oyebanjo O.A. Grain-size and heavy mineral analysis of River Osun sediments // Australian journal of basic and applied science. 2010. №4(3). P. 498‒501. Kulbat E., Sokołowska A. Methods of assessment of metal contamination in bottom sediments (Case study: Straszyn Lake, Poland) // Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology. 2019. Vol. 77, №4. Р. 605‒618. doi: 10.1007/s00244-019-00662-5 MacDonald D.D., Ingersoll C.G., Berger T.A. Development and evaluation of consensus-based quality guidelines for freshwater ecosystem // Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology. 2000. Vol. 39. Р. 20‒31. Martínez-Santos M., Probst A., García-García J., Ruiz-Romera E. Influence of anthropogenic inputs and a high-magnitude flood event on metal contamination pattern in surface bottom sediments from the Deba River urban catchment // The science of total environment. 2015. Vol. 514. P. 10–25. Michalski R., Kostecki M., Kernert J., Pecyna P. Time and spatial variability in concentrations of selected metals and their species in water and bottom sediments of Dzierżno Duże (Poland) // Journal of environmental science and health. Part A. Toxic/Hazardous substances & environmental engineering. 2019. Vol. 54, №8. Р. 728‒735. doi: 10.1080/10934529.2019.1592530 Ming L., Jingbo C., Xueshi S., Zhizhou H., Dejiang F. Accumulation and transformation of heavy metals in surface sediments from the Yangtze River estuary to the East China Sea shelf // Environmental pollution. 2019. Vol. 245. P. 111‒121. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.128 Steell K.F., Wagner G.H. Trace metal relationships in bottom sediments of freshwater stream the Buffalo River, Arkansas // Journal of sedimentary petrology. 1975. Vol. 45, №1. P. 310–319. Vasiliev O.F., Papina T.S., Pozdnjakov Sh.R. Suspended sediment and associated mercury transport – the case study on the Katun River // Proc. 4 Int. Symp. on river sedimentation. Beijing. China: IRTCES, 1990. P. 155–162. Vodyanitskii Y., Vlasov D. Integrated assessment of affinity to chemical fractions and environmental pollution with heavy metals: a new approach based on sequential extraction results // International journal of environmental research and public health. 2021. Vol. 10, №18(16). Р. 8458. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18168458 Wasserman J., Oliveira F., Bidarra M. Cu and Fe associated with humic acids in sediments of a tropical coastal lagoon // Organic geochemistry. 2003. Vol. 28. P. 813–822. Wolter K. Bacterial in corporation of organic substances released by natural phytoplankton population // Marine ecology progress series. 1982. Vol. 17, №3. Р. 287‒295. Wu G.H., Cao S.S., Chen S.R., Cao F.T. Accumulation and remobilization of metals in superficial sediments in Tianjin, China // Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2011. Vol. 173, №1‒4. Р. 917‒928. doi: 10.1007/s10661-010-1434-3 Xun X., Qingliang Z., Mingsong W., Jing D., Weixian Z. Biodegradation of organic matter and anodic microbial communities analysis in sediment microbial fuel cells with/without Fe(III) oxide addition // Bioresource technology. 2017. Vol. 225. P. 402‒408. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.11.126 Yanqi Z., Ying Y., Rongkun D., Sobkowiak L., Xinyi W., Lizhi X. Adsorption and migration of heavy metals between sediments and overlying water in the Xinhe River in central China // Water science and technology. 2021. Vol. 84, №5. Р. 1257‒1269. doi: 10.2166/wst.2021.314

Study of microbial pollution in the Aceh coastal waters and its vicinity were carried out in the period of August - September 2006. The purpose of the study is to monitor the marine and coastal environments related to the bacterial condition in Aceh waters after the tsunami disaster. The sediment and water samples were collected from 28 stations in four sites in the Aceh waters (Eastern Aceh, Northern Aceh, Western Aceh and Simeulue Islands waters), using the RV. Baruna Jaya VIII. The determination of microbial pollution was based on parameters of coliform and pathogenic bacteria. The coliform bacteria was analysed by membrane filter technique and pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella and Vibrio) by isolation method based on the selective culture media of Salmonella and TCBS agar. The results of the study showed that density of total coliform bacteria varied between 40 and 1055 CFU/100 ml with an average of 443 CFU/100 ml. Based on the pattern of the distribution of coliform bacteria it was found the highest number in Eastern Aceh with the value of 611 CFU/100 ml and the lowest number in Western Aceh with the value of 348 CFU/100 ml. Based on the density of coliform bacteria, Aceh waters was in the lower permissible level of the Indonesian and WHO standards, means that the coastal environment in Aceh waters is still in good condition. Four genera of pathogenic bacteria isolated from seawater samples were Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, Aeromonas and Proteus, and 6 genera from sediments samples were found i.e. Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, Aeromonas, Yersinia, Proteus and Vibrio. The pathogenic bacteria from the samples such as Salmonella typhy and Vibrioparahaemoliticus had low pathogenic potential. This indicated that the risk of pathogenic bacterial contamination in Aceh and its vicinity waters were relatively low, therefore, the conditions of coastal and marine environments were relatively in good condition.