Academic literature on the topic 'Marinaleda and Land-Based Social Revolution'
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Journal articles on the topic "Marinaleda and Land-Based Social Revolution"
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R, Vimala Devi. "Biological and Social Change of the Aayar Ethnic Group in the Keethari Novel." International Research Journal of Tamil 4, S-3 (June 16, 2022): 50–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.34256/irjt22s38.
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Novels are one of the mainstays of contemporary media documenting the biographies of soil-based peoples. Contemporary writers have documented people's lives, customs, rituals, values, in their novels with a contemporary character. The industrial revolution, the Green Revolution, the White Revolution, the deforestation for development projects, the occupation of agricultural lands, the loss of livelihoods to the people living in their respective areas as refugees, the loss of their own land due to land occupation. Their work records the changes in society during the respective eras, such as the transformation of wages into agricultural wages and the loss of livelihood and suicide. Sundara Ramasamy's Oru Puliyamarathin Kathai, Vairamuthu's Kallaikattu epic, work in novels that record the history of the community or a component of a race. S. Tamilchelvi has recorded the lives of the common people who migrate for their livelihood as sheep migrated for their livelihood as evidenced by Kovalan's complaint to chase the prey for livelihood through the sociological approach in the novel. The writers have written extensively on the unique cultural life style of the Mullai people, the people of Mullai land, from the Tolkappiyam to the novel literature up to today. The purpose of this article is to explore the impact of globalization, liberalism, capitalism, the astounding growth of consumer culture and natural disasters on the livestock breeding and availability of the ancient Aayar.
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Lapyrenok, Roman. "The Political and Economic Origins of the Roman Revolution." Journal of Economic History and History of Economics 22, no. 2 (June 7, 2021): 222–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2308-2488.2021.22(2).222-245.
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The paper considers some economic and legal aspects of the struggle for the public land in Late Republican Rome. This period is one of the most controversial in ancient history; it brought many significant changes to the socio-economic and political life of Rome and contributed much to its transformation from Republic to Principate. Nevertheless, there is no special paper examining the competition between the Romans and Italians for the ager publicus populi Romani which started with the agrarian reform of Tiberius Gracchus in modern historiography. The first episode ended after the enactment in 111 B.C. of the lex agraria, when a large amount of public land was brought into private hands by its Roman possessors. A further part of the ager publicus populi Romani was still public and remained in hands of the socii. The logic of historical process, the economic changes of the second century B.C. which led Rome from Republic to Principate, demanded the formation of a new class of landowners. The latter would be the basis of the political system of the Roman Empire instead of the nobilitas; its political power would be based on private ownership of land. This was impossible without the full privatization of public land, and it is logical that the struggle for the ager publicus populi Romani was not ended in 111 B.C. Only after privatization of that land, which was possessed by the allies, the agrarian question in Rome could be fully resolved. The latter problem is of crucial importance for the further history of Rome, because it not only caused the Social War but also radically changed both the social structure and the political balance within Roman society during the last decades of the Republic.
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Temirova, Nadiya, and Inna Petrova. "Demolished by the whirlwind of revolution." Universum Historiae et Archeologiae 3, no. 2 (December 29, 2020): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.15421/26200206.
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The purpose of the article: to study the process of elimination of large landholdings from the agricultural sector of Ukraine throughout the revolutionary transformations of 1917 – early 1920s. Research methods: historical-typological, historical-genetic, historical-comparative. Main results. It is shown that the destruction of large landowner households, beginning in 1917, lasted until the early 1920s and was part of the agrarian policy of the bolsheviks. Agro-industrial complex on the landed estates were under a devastating blow: вuildings were destroyed, working cattle and grain were dismantled by the peasants, the property of the recent owners of the estates was looted, and industrial facilities were destroyed. Liquidation of landowners’ holdings was accompanied by extreme cruelty justified by revolutionary goals. The paper demonstrates M. Shcherbatova’s and S. Falz-Fein’s tragic fate as victims of revolution. Despite attempts to give this process a form of legitimacy and a whole series of legal acts to regulate the process in the countryside, peasants’ spontaneous movement to redistribute land and property in their favour was of great importance. Centuries-old wounds and hatreds, exacerbation of the feeling of social injustice, revolutionary expediency and desire to get rich at the expense of others floated to the surface as a result. In the revolutionary years of 1917–1921 and afterwards, the last page in the history of the landowners’ economy unfolded, when, despite attempts to settle the “land question”, a radical approach prevailed. As the outcome, recent agrarian elite was uprooted by force with material, moral and psychological damage. Scientific novelty: a study of the destruction of large farms through the perception of their owners based on the study of personal archival funds of the Grokholsky, Linke, Tereshchenko, Shcherbatova and others. Type of article: analytical.
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BAITENMANN, HELGA. "Popular Participation in State Formation: Land Reform in Revolutionary Mexico." Journal of Latin American Studies 43, no. 1 (February 2011): 1–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x1000177x.
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AbstractLand reform efforts during the armed phase of the Mexican revolution (1910–20) remain largely overshadowed by the more dramatic events of the period. Based on records held in the Archivo General Agrario in Mexico City, this article shows how villagers in different parts of Mexico negotiated their claims to land with various revolutionary regimes during the armed struggle, with particular attention to the local committees created to measure land boundaries, conduct village censuses and distribute land. These negotiations between agrarian officials and villagers laid the foundations for the first post-revolutionary national administration. The emergent federal agrarian offices doubled as a legislative branch of government, assumed quasi-judicial functions and restricted the role of municipal and state governments – qualities that would characterise Mexico's agrarian reform for the next 70 years. In highlighting the ways that early land reform efforts contributed to state formation, this article questions the current social science inclination to ‘decentre’ Mexico's post-revolutionary regime.
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Meleshchenko, Oleksandr. "Gender in the Land of the Rising Sun (based on the Russian specialists’ researches on Japan). Part 1." Scientific notes of the Institute of Journalism, no. 1 (74) (2019): 124–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2522-1272.2019.74.11.
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The gender situation in the cosmogonic myths of the peoples of Japan is considered on the example of mythopoetry of the Ryukyu region, as well as the influence of these myths on the gender balance of the old Ryukyu societies both before Christ era and from its beginning up to the 19th century. The researcher E. Baksheev, based on the achievements of N. Nevsky – the founder of the Russian School of Japanese Studies, as well as his colleague A. Sadokova, reconstructed the role of a woman in the ancient Japanese society on the example of mythopoetry of the Ryukyu region. The chronicles «Records of Omorho Songs» (1532 – 1623), «Records about the path of the Ryukyu gods» (1603 – 1606) by the Japanese monk Taytyu: Rio: teya, «The Mirror of the Generations of Thu: Dzan – the Kingdom of the Ryukyu» (1650), «The Genealogy of Thu: Dzan» (1697 – 1701, 1874), «The Rite of the High Priestess» (1875) were the sources of the research. In the Japanese society, before the Meiji Revolution, at all social levels of its organization, along with a man who had socio-political and economic power – from the head of the house to the head of the rural community and, further, to the regional ruler and the king – there was a priestess (a relative and mainly a sister). Her functions were to rely on the authority of the leader spiritually and ritually, relying on the deities’ «will». The kings of Ryukyu were forced to rely on mediation of the priestesses so that siji (shōjo magic power) would come from the Other (parallel) light to protect the throne and the prosperity of the state in this light. In those old times, the status of such a priestess was even higher than that of a male ruler who ruled on her behalf. The Russian specialists on Japan define such a structure of power as diarchy («dual power»), and the system of government as theocratic. In the terminology of Japanese researchers, the theocratic system of government is called as the policy of «unity of worship and governance». In the XIII – XIV centuries the local and regional rulers were put under the control of the King Ryukyu. The priestesses also lost their independence and had to obey the High Priestess from the royal family. A single secular and religious power was divided into the highest (court) and lower (local) levels. A special feature of the Ryukyu mythology is the late records of the texts with preservation of many archaic motifs and their «applied», frankly social and political biased character. One of the main tasks of such myths was consecration of the status of the ruling elite and the magical assertion of its high status to support the current social hierarchy. «The Records of Omoro songs» (a poetic anthology in 22 volumes, which includes 1,553 old ritual priestly chants), as well as «The Records about the path of the Ryukyu gods» were not completed as in the early 17th century the Kingdom of Ryukyu became the target of aggression from the Japanese clan Satsuma and was under its indirect control. The following chronicles were created under different ideological supervision, which, however, did not change their essence. Also in the period of the 9th – 14th centuries, as an exception, the rare images of a female warrior appeared, and then disappeared in the 16th – 19th centuries before the Meiji Revolution, being replaced massively by the disenfranchised Japanese women – the wives of samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants. After the Meiji revolution in 1879, the government of Japan established the Okinawa prefecture.
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Al-Gamde, Amaal, and Thora Tenbrink. "Media Bias: A Corpus-based Linguistic Analysis of Online Iranian Coverage of the Syrian Revolution." Open Linguistics 6, no. 1 (November 24, 2020): 584–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opli-2020-0028.
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AbstractThis study explores the influence of a government’s ideology on linguistic representation in a news agency that characterizes itself as independent. It focuses on the coverage of the Syrian civil war as reported by the Iranian news agency Fars, addressing the discursive constructions of anti-government powers in relevant online reports released between 2013 and 2015. Since the Islamic Republic of Iran was a major regional ally of the Syrian government, we questioned the extent to which ideological independence could be expected during a politically critical time frame. Taking a corpus-based linguistic approach, the study explores the semantic macrostructures representing the opposition as well as the lexical clusters and keywords characterizing the news discourse. The findings indicate that Fars’ representation of the Syrian Revolution was, to some extent, biased, despite its claimed independence of the government’s political stance. It excluded the Sunni social actors, suppressed the Islamic faction identity of the rebels and depicted the uprising as a war against foreign-backed militants. The rebels were stereotyped in terms of terrorism and non-Syrians. In addition, the analysis reveals Fars’ tendency to emphasize the power of the government, depicting it as the defender of the Arab land and foregrounding the discourse of international conspiracy against Syria. The results of this work project the dimension of media bias caused by the underpinning political perspective of media institutions.
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Joyo, A. A., G. A. Jariko, and Z. H. Channa. "IMPACT OF GREEN REVOLUTION POLICY ON RURAL POVERTY IN PAKISTAN: A CASE STUDY OF DISTRICT SHAHEED BENAZIRABAD SINDH." Pakistan Journal of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Veterinary Sciences 36, no. 1 (October 12, 2020): 34–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.47432/2020.36.1.6.
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This paper determines the relationship between green revolution policy and rural poverty in Pakistan and also to find the poverty status in the study area. The data collection was based on primary and secondary sources of information. The primary data was collected from 405 respondents living in the district Shaheed Benazirabad, through field survey where as secondary data was collected from various published articles. The data was analyzed with the help of Statistical Package developed for Social Sciences (SPSS-20). The key respondents were divided into three categories of farmers i.e. 325 respondents were small size land owner farmers, 42 respondents were medium size land owners and 38 were large size land owners. These all farmers had total 4044 acres. This study focused on wheat and cotton crops cultivated by all farmers in the district. The secondary data covers per hectare yield of food and cash crops grown in the district that increased the income of farmers and reduced poverty. The average family size included in the study was six members. The poverty line was measured by the method Cost of Basic Needs (CBN) introduced by the Planning Commission of Pakistan; that is Rs.3030/- monthly expenditure of each family member. The results obtained from the study indicated that the average monthly expenditure of small farmers was Rs.18,989/- and their income was Rs.17,439/- (Rs.17,439 - Rs.18,989 -1550). The number of small farmers was 325, who were below the poverty line in winter season (wheat crop) only; the winter season is the second crop sowing season in Pakistan.
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Windia, Wayan. "Kebertahanan Subak di Era Globalisasi." Jurnal Bali Membangun Bali 1, no. 2 (August 17, 2018): 125–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.51172/jbmb.v1i2.27.
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Basically subak is a farmer-managed irrigation system in Bali. It is an entity managing some sites of rice field, getting irrigation water from one source, having subak temple, and getting an autonomy of internally and externally. It also has some natural bounderies. Subak as a socio-cultural institution has some strengths. But subak is very weak because of external intervention. The globalization (competition, pragmatism, materialism, etc) highly influences the subak existence. Now, irrigation water for subak is taken by tourism sector as water drinking industry and by the domestic used. Therefore water for subak is limited. Also, the land tax (pajak bumi dan bangunan) is very high, because the number of tax is based on rice fileld location. That is why land conversion in Bali is very high, about 750 ha/year. The problems and threats of subak in Bali are coming from tourism sector, green revolution concept, free trade, and biotechnology development. To increase the defensiveness and sustainability of subak needs a strategic policy in relation with parhyangan (values) aspects, pawongan (social) aspects, and palemahan (physical) aspects.
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Dubrovskaya, Elena Yu. "Social and economical space of the Murmansk railway construction: railway builders and the population of the adjoin territories during the World War I." Transaction Kola Science Centre 11, no. 1-2020 (October 19, 2020): 24–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.37614/2307-5252.2020.1.18.002.
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Based on archive materials and published sources the paper shows the professional identity of various categories of construction-and office-workers of the Murmansk railway. The growing geopolitical significance of Karelia and Kola North during the World War I determined by the construction of Murmansk railway became the factor which required new reference points and values. The latter was clearly defined either by peculiarities of regional cultural traditions or by social, political and economical interests of the state. The author traces the identical models common to railway builders, which highly differed from the model of nation-wide Russian identity demonstrated by provincial publicistic writing of the region. On the local material of the White-Sea Region is shown the resistance of the local population of the land to the processes of socialidentity mass destabilization, which increased atthe war time and especially duringthe Russian revolution 1917.
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Yu, ChuanDong, and Nan Du. "Analysis of Landscape Ecological Planning Based on the High-Order Multiwavelet Neural Network Algorithm." Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience 2021 (July 23, 2021): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/9420532.
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Landscape architecture has both natural and social properties, which is the embodiment of people protecting the natural environment. Since the industrial revolution, the modern industry has developed rapidly. It has increased the living standard of people and consumed a lot of natural resources such as forest and energy. The ecological environment has been greatly damaged, and the landscape of gardens has been affected. Therefore, it is of great significance to find a method to evaluate the landscape ecology and plan the landscape ecology. This paper proposes a new high-order wavelet neural network algorithm combining wavelet analysis and artificial neural network. A model of ecological evaluation of landscape based on high-order wavelet neural network algorithm is proposed to evaluate the landscape ecology and provide reference data for the ecological planning of the landscape. The results show that the training times of the wavelet neural network to achieve the target accuracy are 3600 times less than those of the BP neural network. The MSE and MAE of the WNN are 0.0639 and 0.1501, respectively. The average error of the model to the comprehensive evaluation index of the landscape ecology is 0.005. The accuracy of the model to evaluate the sustainability of landscape land resources is 98.67%. The above results show that the model based on the wavelet neural network can effectively and accurately complete the evaluation of landscape ecology and then provide a decision-making basis for landscape ecological planning, which is of high practicability.
Books on the topic "Marinaleda and Land-Based Social Revolution"
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Fischer, Nick. Here Come the Bolsheviks! University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252040023.003.0003.
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This chapter examines how the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia contributed to the rise of the Red Scare. On November 7, 1917, revolutionaries from the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party seized power in Petrograd and proclaimed the world's first socialist government. The Bolsheviks endorsed violent, class-based insurrection and policies of land and resource nationalization. News of the Bolshevik uprising intensified the wartime atmosphere in the United States, in which fear of treachery was rampant. This chapter first considers American intervention in Russia during the period 1917–1920 before discussing the emergence of the Red Scare in 1919–1920 and of anticommunism in the labor movement. It also looks at the strikes, bombings, and deportations in 1919 that offset whatever prestige the American Federation of Labor (AFL) accrued during the First World War. Finally, it describes the end of the Red Scare following US attorney general A. Mitchell Palmer's fall and the release of the National Popular Government League report.
Book chapters on the topic "Marinaleda and Land-Based Social Revolution"
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Powell, Fred. "Revolution, culture and society." In The Political Economy of the Irish Welfare State. Policy Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447332916.003.0003.
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The chapter critically assesses the representation of the Irish revolution and its social context. It contrasts the modernist influences of both the labour movement and the women's movement with the growing ascendancy of nationalism in both its cultural and political forms. Ultimately, the political set the revolutionary agenda, producing a conservative state and society, shaped by capitalism (mainly based on land ownership), religion, and nationalism. However, other key events in the Irish revolution point to a much more complex narrative. These include the 1913 Lockout of unionised workers in Dublin, the Limerick Soviet in 1919, and the organisation of the women's movement in a variety of forms. The Irish revolutionary narrative was undoubtedly a contested space, even if its memorialisation has largely focused on the 1916 Rising and the nationalist narrative. The chapter argues that there were competing narratives of the Irish revolution that need to be fully acknowledged in its analysis and memorialisation.
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Sengupta, Ramprasad. "Human Development, Environmental Sustainability, and Index of Overall Development." In Entropy Law, Sustainability, and Third Industrial Revolution, 101–22. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190121143.003.0005.
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Chapter 4 introduces the concept and measurement of multidimensional poverty and that of human development indicators as its obverse in terms of attainment of human capability. On the other hand, on the environmental sustainability front, the chapter discusses the measures of ecological footprint and its obverse the environmental performance index as possible alternative indicators. It has reviewed the concept of ecological footprint along with carbon footprint which are measures of stress caused by human demands on the services of ecosystems in terms of appropriation of productive land area. The environmental performance indicator on the other hand indicates the extent of performance of environmental conservation and protection as driven by human policy initiatives. Finally, the chapter provides an overall development indicator based on the indicators of three components of sustainability—economic, social, and environmental—as their geometric mean, along with the comparative estimates of per capita income.
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Barker, Graeme. "Approaches to the Origins of Agriculture." In The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory. Oxford University Press, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199281091.003.0006.
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Humans have occupied our planet for several million years, but for almost all of that period they have lived as foragers, by various combinations of gathering, collecting, scavenging, fishing, and hunting. The first clear evidence for activities that can be recognized as farming is commonly identified by scholars as at about 12,000 years ago, at about the same time as global temperatures began to rise at the end of the Pleistocene (the ‘Ice Ages’) and the transition to the modern climatic era, the Holocene. Subsequently, a variety of agricultural systems based on cultivated plants and, in many areas, domesticated animals, has replaced hunting and gathering in almost every corner of the globe. Today, a relatively restricted range of crops and livestock, first domesticated several thousand years ago in different parts of the world, feeds almost all of the world’s population. A dozen crops make up over 80 per cent of the world’s annual tonnage of all crops: banana, barley, maize, manioc, potato, rice, sorghum, soybean, sugar beet, sugar cane, sweet potato, and wheat (Diamond, 1997: 132). Only five large (that is, over 100 pounds) domestic animals are globally important: cow, sheep, goat, pig, and horse. The development of agriculture brought profound changes in the relationship between people and the natural world. Archaeologists have usually theorized that, with the invention of farming, people were able to settle down and increase the amount and reliability of their food supply, thus allowing the same land to support more people than by hunting and gathering, allowing our species tomultiply throughout the world. The ability to produce food and other products from domesticated plants and animals surplus to immediate subsistence requirements also opened up new pathways to economic and social complexity: farming could mean new resources for barter, payment of tax or tribute, for sale in a market; it could mean food for non-food producers such as specialist craft-workers, priests, warriors, lords, and kings. Thus farming was the precondition for the development of the first great urban civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus valley, China, the Americas, and Africa, and has been for all later states up to the present day.
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Klepeis, Peter, and Rinku Roy Chowdhury. "Institutions, Organizations, and Policy Affecting Land Change: Complexity Within and Beyond the Ejido." In Integrated Land-Change Science and Tropical Deforestation in the Southern Yucatan. Oxford University Press, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199245307.003.0017.
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Despite decades of colonization and development initiatives, the southern Yucatán peninsular region remains an economic frontier. The term ‘frontier’, however, hides a complex political economy of social, political, and economic structures in which land managers operate. Presently, multiple interest groups vie for influence, increasingly positioning themselves around sustainability concerns, and attempting to reconcile the competing goals of economic development and environmental preservation. The major political institutions and organizations promoting conservation and development in the region fit into five categories: federally decreed land management regimes, federal and state secretariats, local community-based groups and institutions, national non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international accords. These institutions and organizations aim to influence land-use decisions in the dominant land access unit, the ejido. The relationships among ejidos, social movements, NGOs, government policy, and international activity in the region are examined here, highlighting how even within a frontier economy, conservation and development visions increasingly influence resource use. Before the Mexican revolution of 1910–17, 96 per cent of Mexico’s rural people were landless (Sinha 1984). These rural poor supported the revolution, in large part, to break up grand haciendas (estates) and to allow campesinos (peasants) access to agricultural land. Ejidos, one of four landtenure types federally mandated, were designed to provide campesinos access to land that could not be transferred easily and thereby taken from them. Based on interpretations of pre-Hispanic land tenure, Article 27 of the Constitution established ejido land to be communal, ruled by an ejido assembly (consisting of all members with land rights in the ejido, or ejidatarios), and used in ejido-defined usufruct. Prior to 1992, when the law was reformed, ejidatarios were prevented from selling their land, renting it, or using it as collateral, and from negotiating deals with private investors. Perhaps more important than these official guidelines, however, are the perceptions of ejidos by state officials. Established, in part, to protect ‘indigenous’ people and not open to privatization, the ejido was stigmatized as ill-suited for modernization (Oasa and Jennings 1982). A bimodal Mexican agrarian policy followed (de Janvry 1981; Tomich, Kilby, and Johnston 1995) in which the potential productive role of ejidatarios was largely ignored (Oasa and Jennings 1982; Sonnenfeld 1992; Tomich, Kilby, and Johnston 1995).
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Lind, Amy. "After Neoliberalism?" In Feminists Rethink the Neoliberal State. NYU Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479800155.003.0007.
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This chapter addresses the shift away from neoliberalism in Ecuador toward the socialist or post-neoliberal Citizen Revolution (2007–present). It addresses concepts that were resignified in the 2008 Constitution: family, defined as “diverse” and based on kinship and alternative forms of intimate relations; nation, defined as plurinational, recognizing indigenous rights to land, territory, and identity; and economy, defined as postcapitalist, with the goal of privileging well-being (buen vivir) and human life over capital. The chapter highlights the centrality of heteronormativity in understanding post-neoliberal states, including governance and development frameworks that privilege the patriarchal heterosexual family, viewing it as the foundation of the country’s modernization goals. It argues that Ecuador’s shift away from neoliberalism is fraught with contradictions, best understood as signifying a partial rupture with the neoliberal legacy. Despite progressive legal changes to the definition of family, nation, and economy in the 2008 Constitution (symbolizing the country’s move away from neoliberalism), it argues that the state maintains a heteronormative, colonialist understanding of governance and development, rendering the potentially radical project of reimagining life “after” neoliberalism incomplete and paradoxical. This has important implications for individuals, communities, and social movements that don’t fit the resignified but colonialist pillars of the Citizen Revolution.
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Kardaras, Dimitris K. "B2B E-Commerce Development in Syria and Sudan." In Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technology, 55–65. IGI Global, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59904-845-1.ch007.
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There is a revolution transforming the global economy. Web technology is transforming all business activities into information-based. The rate of technological change is so rapid that electronic commerce (eC) is already making fundamental changes in the electronic land-escape. eC over the Internet is a new way of conducting business. It has the potential to radically alter economic activities and social environment and it has already made a major impact on large sectors such as communications, finance, and retail-trade. eC has also been hailed as the promise land for small and medium sized enterprises. Therefore, it will no longer be possible, operationally or strategically, to ignore the information-based virtual value chain for any business. eC promises that smaller or larger companies as well as developed or developing countries can exploit the opportunities spawned by eC technologies and compete more effectively. The introduction of the Internet for commercial use in 1991 had created the first real opportunity for electronic markets. It offered a truly global publicly available computer network infrastructure with easy and inexpensive access. After nearly three decades of notfor- profit operations, the network was transformed into a worldwide digital market place practically overnight. This shift from physical market place to a digital one had contributed a great deal to cost reductions, speeding up communication, and provision of users with more timely information (Shaw, Gardner, & Thomas, 1997; Timmers, 1999).
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Hart, Keith. "Afterword." In Debt in the Ancient Mediterranean and Near East, 179–88. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197647172.003.0012.
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Abstract The breakout from agrarian civilization was led by urban middle-class elements in a few European places. For a thousand years bce, class coalitions based, respectively, on property in land and money slugged it out for control of Mediterranean society. The world today can be summarized as a two-class model. A rich, mainly White, aging minority is surrounded by people who are a lot poorer, darker in color, and much younger. A stagnant Western elite is about to be replaced by a majority from whom it is separated by cultural arrogance and ingrained practices of social exclusion. The institutions of agrarian civilization, developed over five millennia to extract wealth from an unfree rural workforce, are, in form if not in content, our institutions today: territorial states, landed property, warfare, racism, varieties of slavery, embattled cities, money as currency and credit, long-distance trade, an emphasis on work, world religion, and the nuclear family—all of this to preserve gross inequality. Human society has never been modern. It is comprised of primitives who stumbled recently into a machine revolution and cannot think what to do with it beyond repeating the inhumanity of a society built unequally on agriculture. Humanity is caught between the machine revolution and agrarian institutions, and the combination is potentially lethal. The Afterword ends with a fuller account of David Graeber’s Debt: The First 5,000 Years, which inspired this volume.