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Journal articles on the topic 'Makran subduction'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 25 May 2024

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1

Ghadimi, Homa, Alireza Khodaverdian, and Hamid Zafarani. "Active deformation in the Makran region using geological, geodetic and stress direction data sets." Geophysical Journal International 235, no. 3 (September 18, 2023): 2556–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggad393.

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SUMMARY Neotectonic flow of the Makran subduction zone is estimated using a kinematic modelling technique based on iterated weighted least-squares that fits to all kinematic data from both geological and geophysical sources. The kinematic data set includes 87 geodetic velocities, 1962 principal stress directions, 90 fault traces, 56 geological heave rates and velocity boundary conditions. Low seismicity of western Makran compared to its eastern part, may indicate that either the subduction interface is currently locked, accumulating elastic strain or aseismic slip (creep) occurs along this part of the plate boundary. Therefore, we define two different models to evaluate the possibility of creep in the western Makran. Models define a locked subduction zone versus a steady creeping subduction for the western Makran. The locking depth of the subducting fault is also investigated, and a locking between 14 and 40–45 km depth provided the best consistency with geodetic observations. The 2 kinematic models provide long-term fault slip rates. The models estimated the shortening rate of 16.6–22.5 mm yr−1 and the strike-slip movement of 0.2–6.0 mm yr−1 for six segments along the subduction fault. The steady creeping subduction model predicts a 1–2 mm yr−1 lower shortening rate than the locked model for the Makran subduction fault (MSF). To verify the results, the estimated fault slip rates are compared to slip rates based on the geodetical and geological studies, which have not been used as model inputs. Our estimated rates fall within the range of geodetic rates and are even more consistent with geological rates than previous GPS-based estimates. In addition, the model provides the long-term velocity, and distributed permanent strain rates in the region. Based on the SHIFT hypotheses, long-term seismicity rates are computed for both models based on the estimated strain rate. These maps were compared with seismic catalogues. The estimated seismicity rate for the western part of Makran from the creeping subduction model is more compatible with the observation. The results of two deformation models lead us to a coupling ratio of ∼0.1 for the western MSF.

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2

Haberland, Christian, Mohammad Mokhtari, Hassan Ali Babaei, Trond Ryberg, Mehdi Masoodi, Abdolreza Partabian, and Jörn Lauterjung. "Anatomy of a crustal-scale accretionary complex: Insights from deep seismic sounding of the onshore western Makran subduction zone, Iran." Geology 49, no. 1 (August 13, 2020): 3–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g47700.1.

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Abstract The Makran subduction zone has produced M 8+ earthquakes and subsequent tsunamis in historic times, hence indicating high risk for the coastal regions of southern Iran, Pakistan, and neighboring countries. Besides this, the Makran subduction zone is an end-member subduction zone featuring extreme properties, with one of the largest sediment inputs and the widest accretionary wedge on Earth. While surface geology and shallow structure of the offshore wedge have been relatively well studied, primary information on the deeper structure of the onshore part is largely absent. We present three crustal-scale, trench-perpendicular, deep seismic sounding profiles crossing the subaerial part of the accretionary wedge of the western Makran subduction zone in Iran. P-wave travel-time tomography based on a Monte Carlo Markov chain algorithm as well as the migration of automatic line drawings of wide-angle reflections reveal the crustal structure of the wedge and geometry of the subducting oceanic plate at high resolution. The images shed light on the accretionary processes, in particular the generation of continental crust by basal accretion, and provide vital basic information for hazard assessment and tsunami modeling.

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3

Safari, A., A. M. Abolghasem, N. Abedini, and Z. Mousavi. "ASSESSMENT OF OPTIMUM VALUE FOR DIP ANGLE AND LOCKING RATE PARAMETERS IN MAKRAN SUBDUCTION ZONE." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-4/W4 (September 27, 2017): 523–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-4-w4-523-2017.

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Makran subduction zone is one of the convergent areas that have been studied by spatial geodesy. Makran zone is located in the South Eastern of Iran and South of Pakistan forming the part of Eurasian-Arabian plate's border where oceanic crust in the Arabian plate (or in Oman Sea) subducts under the Eurasian plate ( Farhoudi and Karig, 1977). Due to lack of historical and modern tools in the area, a sampling of sparse measurements of the permanent GPS stations and temporary stations (campaign) has been conducted in the past decade. Makran subduction zone from different perspectives has unusual behaviour: For example, the Eastern and Western parts of the region have very different seismicity and also dip angle of subducted plate is in about 2 to 8 degrees that this value due to the dip angle in other subduction zone is very low. In this study, we want to find the best possible value for parameters that differs Makran subduction zone from other subduction zones. Rigid block modelling method was used to determine these parameters. From the velocity vectors calculated from GPS observations in this area, block model is formed. These observations are obtained from GPS stations that a number of them are located in South Eastern Iran and South Western Pakistan and a station located in North Eastern Oman. According to previous studies in which the locking depth of Makran subduction zone is 38km (Frohling, 2016), in the preparation of this model, parameter value of at least 38 km is considered. With this function, the amount of 2 degree value is the best value for dip angle but for the locking rate there is not any specified amount. Because the proposed model is not sensitive to this parameter. So we can not expect big earthquakes in West of Makran or a low seismicity activity in there but the proposed model definitely shows the Makran subduction layer is locked.

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4

Rashidi, Amin, Denys Dutykh, Zaher Hossein Shomali, Nasser Keshavarz Farajkhah, and Mohammadsadegh Nouri. "A Review of Tsunami Hazards in the Makran Subduction Zone." Geosciences 10, no. 9 (September 18, 2020): 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10090372.

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The uncertain tsunamigenic potential of the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) has made it an interesting natural laboratory for tsunami-related studies. This study aims to review the recent activities on tsunami hazard in the Makran subduction zone with a focus on deterministic and probabilistic tsunami hazard assessments. While almost all studies focused on tsunami hazard from the Makran subduction thrust, other local sources such as splay faults and landslides can be also real threats in the future. Far-field tsunami sources such as Sumatra-Andaman and Java subduction zones, commonly lumped as the Sunda subduction zone, do not seem to pose a serious risk to the Makran coastlines. The tsunamigenic potential of the western segment of the MSZ should not be underestimated considering the new evidence from geological studies and lessons from past tsunamis in the world. An overview of the results of tsunami hazard studies shows that the coastal area between Kereti to Ormara along the shoreline of Iran-Pakistan and the coastal segment between Muscat and Sur along Oman’s shoreline are the most hazardous areas. Uncertainties in studying tsunami hazard for the Makran region are large. We recommend that future studies mainly focus on the role of thick sediments, a better understanding of the plates interface geometry, the source mechanism and history of extreme-wave deposits, the contribution of other local tsunamigenic sources and vulnerability assessment for all coastlines of the whole Makran region.

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5

Lodhi, Hira Ashfaq, Shoaib Ahmed, and Haider Hasan. "Tsunami heights and limits in 1945 along the Makran coast estimated from testimony gathered 7 decades later in Gwadar, Pasni and Ormara." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 21, no. 10 (October 14, 2021): 3085–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3085-2021.

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Abstract. The towns of Pasni and Ormara were the most severely affected by the 1945 Makran tsunami. The water inundated land for almost 1 km at Pasni, engulfing 80 % of the huts of the town, while at Ormara the tsunami inundated land for 2.5 km, washing away 60 % of the huts. The plate boundary between the Arabian Plate and Eurasian Plate is marked by Makran subduction zone (MSZ). This Makran subduction zone in November 1945 was the source of a great earthquake (8.1 Mw) and an associated tsunami. Estimated death tolls, waves arrival times, and the extent of inundation and runup have remained vague. We summarize observations of the tsunami through newspaper items, eyewitness accounts and archival documents. The information gathered is reviewed and quantified where possible to obtain the inundation parameters specifically and understand the impact in general along the Makran coast. The quantification of runup and inundation extents is based on a field survey or old maps.

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6

Rehman, Adil, and Huai Zhang. "Generalized Extreme Value Distribution for Modeling Earthquake Risk in Makran Subduction Zone Using Extreme Value Theory." Indonesian Journal of Earth Sciences 3, no. 2 (December 2, 2023): A819. http://dx.doi.org/10.52562/injoes.2023.819.

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The long-term pattern of severe incidents is one of the most crucial and fascinating topics of seismic events. This work aims to analyze the maximum annual earthquake magnitude in the Makran subduction zone using extreme value theory by implementing the block maxima method. The seismic data utilized for the current study was collected from the International Seismological Center (ISC) ranging from 1934 to 2022. The extreme parameters have fitted utilizing the generalized extreme value distribution. Numerous plots of the generalized extreme value distribution approach gave the accuracy of the used model when fitted to seismic data of the Makran subduction zone. Using the profile likelihood approach, the shape parameters (?) calculated is 0.29. According to the model fit, the Fréchet distribution is the best model for predicting the annual maximum earthquake magnitude in the Makran subduction zone. The estimated return levels for different return periods 10, 20, 50, and 100 are 6.35, 6.81, 7.58, and 8.31, respectively, indicating that an earthquake's maximum magnitude is increasing across the future 100 years. We also computed the profile likelihood to achieve a precise confidence interval. Thus, the 1945 earthquake of the Makran region with magnitude 8.1(Mw) was one of the most significant events in this area and occurred once every 100 years. The significance of this research is to inform decision-makers to implement suitable risk-mitigation methods.

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7

Hafeez Abbasi, Muhammad Imran. "IS MAKRAN A SEPARATE MICROPLATE? A SHORT REVIEW." MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCES 5, no. 1 (November 19, 2020): 01–05. http://dx.doi.org/10.26480/mjg.01.2021.01.05.

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Makran Subduction Zone (MZS) is important as this region lies on both sides of the border of Iran and Pakistan along the coastline. Makran Subduction complex has pervasive seismicity and diverse focal mechanism solutions and being in the vicinity of Triple Junction where three major Tectonic plates; Arabian, Eurasian and Indian plates are connecting. Both of Chabahar and Gwadar ports are located in this vicinity, on which China is investing for CPEC, Belt and Road Initiative. The whole world is looking at these projects of Makran, as this may define and transform the future of trade. Hence Geoscience point of view is notable as well in consideration for the successful execution of these projects. Several Microplates/blocks have been proposed around the vicinity MSZ and Indian-Eurasian Plate boundary including the Ormara microplate, Lut Block, Helmand Block, and Pakistan-Iran Makran microplate (PIMM). The purpose of this review is to shed light on PIMM. Despite previous researches related to Makran, still many researchers are working to solve puzzles related to the complexity of MSZ. It is divided into Eastern and Western Makran due to seismicity and North to South into four parts based on stratigraphy, thrusts and folds. This review aims to give suggestions for the hypothesis on PIMM which was inferred as a separate microplate.

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8

Rashidi, Amin, Zaher Hossein Shomali, Denys Dutykh, and Nasser Keshavarz Farajkhah. "Tsunami hazard assessment in the Makran subduction zone." Natural Hazards 100, no. 2 (January 2020): 861–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03848-1.

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9

Musson, R. M. W. "Subduction in the Western Makran: the historian's contribution." Journal of the Geological Society 166, no. 3 (May 2009): 387–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492008-119.

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10

REHMAN, Adil, and Huai ZHANG. "Probabilistic forecast of next earthquake event in Makran subduction zone using Weibull distribution." Contributions to Geophysics and Geodesy 54, no. 1 (April 1, 2024): 85–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.31577/congeo.2024.54.1.5.

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Earthquake is the most lethal type of natural disaster. Researchers have been working to develop precise earthquake prediction methods to save lives. A statistical investigation is an effective earthquake prediction method because they offer more details about the seismic risk or hazard issue. This study utilizes seismic data from the Makran subduction zone from 1934 to 2017. Probability distributions may be employed to assess the risk of seismic events and earthquake occurrence probability. This work estimates the probability of the next major event in the Makran subduction zone through Weibull distribution by considering strong earthquakes with a magnitude (Mw ≥ 6) in the intervals (in years) between two consecutive earthquakes. The probabilities of the forthcoming seismic event have been estimated based on the previous earthquake record, pictorially. The calculated parameters of the Weibull distribution for the Makran subduction zone may help to forecast the probabilities of a strong earthquake and describe the pattern of earthquake average return time. The calculated probability for the Weibull distribution reaches 0.92 after ten years since the last strong earthquake in 2021, indicating that the Weibull distribution within and around the present research area in 2031 will be 92%.

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11

Hoechner, Andreas, Andrey Y. Babeyko, and Natalia Zamora. "Probabilistic tsunami hazard assessment for the Makran region with focus on maximum magnitude assumption." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 16, no. 6 (June 10, 2016): 1339–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-1339-2016.

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Abstract. Despite having been rather seismically quiescent for the last decades, the Makran subduction zone is capable of hosting destructive earthquakes and tsunami. In particular, the well-known thrust event in 1945 (Balochistan earthquake) led to about 4000 casualties. Nowadays, the coastal regions are more densely populated and vulnerable to similar events. Furthermore, some recent publications discuss rare but significantly larger events at the Makran subduction zone as possible scenarios. We analyze the instrumental and historical seismicity at the subduction plate interface and generate various synthetic earthquake catalogs spanning 300 000 years with varying magnitude-frequency relations. For every event in the catalogs we compute estimated tsunami heights and present the resulting tsunami hazard along the coasts of Pakistan, Iran and Oman in the form of probabilistic tsunami hazard curves. We show how the hazard results depend on variation of the Gutenberg–Richter parameters and especially maximum magnitude assumption.

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12

Hoechner, A., A. Y. Babeyko, and N. Zamora. "Probabilistic tsunami hazard assessment for the Makran region with focus on maximum magnitude assumption." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions 3, no. 9 (September 1, 2015): 5191–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-3-5191-2015.

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Abstract. Despite having been rather seismically quiescent for the last decades, the Makran subduction zone is capable of hosting destructive earthquakes and tsunami. In particular, the well-known thrust event in 1945 (Balochistan earthquake) led to about 4000 casualties. Nowadays, the coastal regions are more densely populated and vulnerable to similar events. Furthermore, some recent publications discuss rare but significantly larger events at the Makran subduction zone as possible scenarios. We analyze the instrumental and historical seismicity at the subduction plate interface and generate various synthetic earthquake catalogs spanning 300 000 years with varying magnitude–frequency relations. For every event in the catalogs we compute estimated tsunami heights and present the resulting tsunami hazard along the coasts of Pakistan, Iran and Oman in the form of probabilistic tsunami hazard curves. We show how the hazard results depend on variation of the Gutenberg–Richter parameters and especially maximum magnitude assumption.

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13

Omrani, H., M. Moazzen, R. Oberhänsli, and M. E. Moslempour. "Iranshahr blueschist: subduction of the inner Makran oceanic crust." Journal of Metamorphic Geology 35, no. 4 (December 28, 2016): 373–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jmg.12236.

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14

Khan, Waseem, and Mahnoor Mirwani. "PROBING THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVE MUD VOLCANIC CLUSTERS IN MAKRAN COASTAL ZONE, PAKISTAN." International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH 8, no. 3 (May 25, 2020): 214–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i3.2020.145.

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Makran Subduction Zone is formed in Late Cretaceous. It is divided into Eastern Makran at the southern edge of Helmand Block in Pakistan and the Western Makran at the southern edge of Lut Block in Iran. The velocity of convergence in Eastern and Western Makran are 42.0 mm/yr and 35.6 mm/yr repectively. Both segments are bound by strike-slip faults e.g. Ornach-Nal left lateral fault in the east and Minab right lateral in the west. Stratigraphically, the zone comprises Formations of ages ranging from Cretaceous to Holocene. In the Eastern Makran, most of the mud volcanoes are located along strike which include Awaran and Sipai-sing, Chandragup, Gwadar, Jabel-e-Gurab, Khandawari, Kund Malir, Ormara and Offshore mud volcanoes. The continental margin of Makran is an ideal environment of Oxygen Maximum Zone which receives organic rich matters in its sediments by marine organisms. Several assisting factors play significant roles in erupting the fluid and methane gasses through the mud vents in Makran Coastal Region such as tectonic stresses, oil, saltwater, and transmitting freshwater in the sedimentary environments.

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Khaledzadeh, Matin, and Abdolreza Ghods. "Estimation of size of megathrust zone in the Makran subduction system by thermal modelling." Geophysical Journal International 228, no. 3 (October 13, 2021): 1530–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggab417.

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SUMMARY To estimate the maximum possible size of megathrust earthquakes, we calculate the thermal structure along two profiles in west and east Makran subduction zone by solving the steady-state 2-D energy equation. For the western profile, we derive the slab geometry from a recent receiver function study along IASBS (Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences) seismic profile in the onshore part of the Iranian Makran. For the eastern profile, the slab geometry is derived from a recent relocation of seismicity of Makran. Using the improved slab geometry and a force balance establishment in the accretionary wedge, the effective coefficient of friction, $\mu ^{\prime}$, is assumed to be equal to 0.03. We estimate the updip and downdip of the megathrust zone by simultaneously considering the seismicity related to the events with thrust and normal mechanisms and intersection between 100–150 and 350–450 °C isotherms and the subducting slab interface. Along the western profile, the megathrust updip locates ∼95 km north of the deformation front (DF) at the depth of ∼20 km and the downdip locates ∼300 km north of the DF at the depth of ∼35 km. Presence of normal mechanism events at deeper depths indicates that the downdip limit of the megathrust zone is consistent with the 350 °C isotherm. The megathrust width is ∼205 km along the western profile. Along the eastern profile, the megathrust updip locates ∼60 km north of the DF at the depth of ∼15 km and the downdip locates ∼280 km north of the DF at the depth of ∼35 km. The downdip limit of the megathrust zone is closely related to the 350 °C isotherm. The megathrust width is ∼220 km along the eastern profile. Assuming a segmentation of the thrust zone into the western and eastern parts, the areal size of the megathrust zones in west and east Makran is ∼82 000 and 88 000 km2, respectively. We estimate the magnitude of the largest possible megathrust earthquakes in the west and east Makran to be 8.65 ± 0.26 and 8.75 ± 0.26 Mw, respectively.

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16

Normand, Raphaël, Guy Simpson, Frédéric Herman, Rabiul Haque Biswas, and Abbas Bahroudi. "Holocene Sedimentary Record and Coastal Evolution in the Makran Subduction Zone (Iran)." Quaternary 2, no. 2 (June 12, 2019): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/quat2020021.

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The western Makran coast displays evidence of surface uplift since at least the Late Pleistocene, but it remains uncertain whether this displacement is accommodated by creep on the subduction interface, or in a series of large earthquakes. Here, we address this problem by looking at the short-term (Holocene) history of continental vertical displacements recorded in the geomorphology and sedimentary succession of the Makran beaches. In the region of Chabahar (Southern Iran), we study two bay-beaches through the description, measurement and dating of 13 sedimentary sections with a combination of radiocarbon and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating. Our results show that lagoonal settings dominate the early Holocene of both studied beach sections. A flooding surface associated with the Holocene maximum transgression is followed by a prograding sequence of tidal and beach deposits. Coastal progradation is evidenced in Pozm Bay, where we observe a rapid buildup of the beach ridge succession (3.5 m/years lateral propagation over the last 1950 years). Dating of Beris Beach revealed high rates of uplift, comparable to the rates obtained from the nearby Late Pleistocene marine terraces. A 3150-year-old flooding surface within the sedimentary succession of Chabahar Bay was possibly caused by rapid subsidence during an earthquake. If true, this might indicate that the Western Makran does produce large earthquakes, similar to those that have occurred further east in the Pakistani Makran.

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Normand, Raphaël, Guy Simpson, and Abbas Bahroudi. "Extension at the coast of the Makran subduction zone (Iran)." Terra Nova 31, no. 6 (July 30, 2019): 503–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ter.12419.

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18

Frohling, E., and W. Szeliga. "GPS constraints on interplate locking within the Makran subduction zone." Geophysical Journal International 205, no. 1 (February 7, 2016): 67–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggw001.

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19

Lin, Y. N., R. Jolivet, M. Simons, P. S. Agram, H. R. Martens, Z. Li, and S. H. Lodi. "High interseismic coupling in the Eastern Makran (Pakistan) subduction zone." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 420 (June 2015): 116–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.03.037.

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20

Normand, Raphaël, Guy Simpson, Frédéric Herman, Rabiul Haque Biswas, Abbas Bahroudi, and Bastian Schneider. "Dating and morpho-stratigraphy of uplifted marine terraces in the Makran subduction zone (Iran)." Earth Surface Dynamics 7, no. 1 (March 26, 2019): 321–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-321-2019.

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Abstract. The western part of the Makran subduction zone (Iran) is currently experiencing active surface uplift, as attested by the presence of emerged marine terraces along the coast. To better understand the uplift recorded by these terraces, we investigated seven localities along the Iranian Makran and we performed radiocarbon, 230Th∕U and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of the layers of marine sediments deposited on top of the terraces. This enabled us to correlate the terraces regionally and to assign them to different Quaternary sea-level highstands. Our results show east–west variations in surface uplift rates mostly between 0.05 and 1.2 mm yr−1. We detected a region of anomalously high uplift rate, where two MIS 3 terraces are emerged, but we are uncertain how to interpret these results in a geologically coherent context. Although it is presently not clear whether the uplift of the terraces is linked to the occurrence of large megathrust earthquakes, our results highlight rapid surface uplift for a subduction zone context and heterogeneous accumulation of deformation in the overriding plate.

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Nemati, Majid. "Seismotectonic and seismicity of Makran, a bimodal subduction zone, SE Iran." Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 169 (January 2019): 139–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.08.009.

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22

Smith, Gemma L., Lisa C. McNeill, Kelin Wang, Jiangheng He, and Timothy J. Henstock. "Thermal structure and megathrust seismogenic potential of the Makran subduction zone." Geophysical Research Letters 40, no. 8 (April 28, 2013): 1528–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50374.

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Al-Lazki, Ali I., Khaled S. Al-Damegh, Salah Y. El-Hadidy, Abdolreza Ghods, and Mohammad Tatar. "Pn-velocity structure beneath Arabia–Eurasia Zagros collision and Makran subduction zones." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 392, no. 1 (2014): 45–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp392.3.

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24

Swapna, M., and Kirti Srivastava. "Effect of Murray ridge on the tsunami propagation from Makran subduction zone." Geophysical Journal International 199, no. 3 (October 4, 2014): 1430–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggu336.

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Penney, Camilla, Farokh Tavakoli, Abdolreza Saadat, Hamid Reza Nankali, Morteza Sedighi, Fateme Khorrami, Farhad Sobouti, et al. "Megathrust and accretionary wedge properties and behaviour in the Makran subduction zone." Geophysical Journal International 209, no. 3 (March 23, 2017): 1800–1830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggx126.

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26

Moraetis, Daniel, Andreas Scharf, Frank Mattern, Kosmas Pavlopoulos, and Steven Forman. "Quaternary Thrusting in the Central Oman Mountains—Novel Observations and Causes: Insights from Optical Stimulate Luminescence Dating and Kinematic Fault Analyses." Geosciences 10, no. 5 (May 5, 2020): 166. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10050166.

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For the first time, Quaternary thrusts are documented within the Central Oman Mountains to the northwest of the Jabal Akhdar Dome. Thrusts with a throw of up to 1.1 m displace Quaternary alluvial fan conglomerates. These conglomerates have an Optical Stimulate Luminescence (OSL) age of 159 ± 7.9 ka BP and were deposited during MIS 6 (Marine Isotope Stage). The thrusts occur in two sets. Sets 1 and 2 formed during NE/SW and NW/SE shortening, respectively. Set-1-thusts correlate with the present-day stress field of NE/SW shortening which is related to subduction in the Makran Subduction Zone, and they strike parallel to the main continuous fold axis of the Jabal Akhdar and Hawasina windows. Set-2-thrusts correspond to NW/SE shortening and Plio-Pleistocene contractional structures in the southwestern Jabal Akhdar Dome. Set-2-thrusts are probably related to local variations of the present-day stress field originating from the Musandam area which is a part of the Zagros Collision Zone. Both thrust sets mimic the main thrust directions (NW/SE and NE/SW) within the Permo-Mesozoic allochthonous units (Semail Ophiolite, Hawasina napps) of the larger study area. The investigated thrusts imply some reactivation of the Hawasina and Semail thrusts due to far-field stress either from the Makran Subduction Zone and/or the Zagros Collision Zone. The ongoing tectonic activity of this part of the Oman Mountains, which has been considered of moderate activity, is for first time identified by structural data as contractional.

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Derakhshani, Reza, Mojtaba Zaresefat, Vahid Nikpeyman, Amin GhasemiNejad, Shahram Shafieibafti, Ahmad Rashidi, Majid Nemati, and Amir Raoof. "Machine Learning-Based Assessment of Watershed Morphometry in Makran." Land 12, no. 4 (March 29, 2023): 776. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land12040776.

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This study proposes an artificial intelligence approach to assess watershed morphometry in the Makran subduction zones of South Iran and Pakistan. The approach integrates machine learning algorithms, including artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector regression (SVR), and multivariate linear regression (MLR), on a single platform. The study area was analyzed by extracting watersheds from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and calculating eight morphometric indices. The morphometric parameters were normalized using fuzzy membership functions to improve accuracy. The performance of the machine learning algorithms is evaluated by mean squared error (MSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and correlation coefficient (R2) between the output of the method and the actual dataset. The ANN model demonstrated high accuracy with an R2 value of 0.974, MSE of 4.14 × 10−6, and MAE of 0.0015. The results of the machine learning algorithms were compared to the tectonic characteristics of the area, indicating the potential for utilizing the ANN algorithm in similar investigations. This approach offers a novel way to assess watershed morphometry using ML techniques, which may have advantages over other approaches.

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Abdetedal, M., Z. H. Shomali, and M. R. Gheitanchi. "Crust and upper mantle structures of the Makran subduction zone in south-east Iran by seismic ambient noise tomography." Solid Earth Discussions 6, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/sed-6-1-2014.

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Abstract. We applied seismic ambient noise surface wave tomography to estimate Rayleigh wave empirical Green's functions from cross-correlations to study crust and uppermost mantle structure beneath the Makran region in south-east Iran. We analysed 12 months of continuous data from January 2009 through January 2010 recorded at broadband seismic stations. We obtained group velocity of the fundamental mode Rayleigh-wave dispersion curves from empirical Green's functions between 10 and 50 s periods by multiple-filter analysis and inverted for Rayleigh wave group velocity maps. The final results demonstrate significant agreement with known geological and tectonic features. Our tomography maps display low-velocity anomaly with south-western north-eastern trend, comparable with volcanic arc settings of the Makran region, which may be attributable to the geometry of Arabian Plate subducting overriding lithosphere of the Lut block. At short periods (<20 s) there is a pattern of low to high velocity anomaly in northern Makran beneath the Sistan Suture Zone. These results are evidence that surface wave tomography based on cross correlations of long time-series of ambient noise yields higher resolution group speed maps in those area with low level of seismicity or those region with few documented large or moderate earthquake, compare to surface wave tomography based on traditional earthquake-based measurements.

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Momeni, Payam, Katsuichiro Goda, Mohammad Heidarzadeh, and Jinhui Qin. "Stochastic Analysis of Tsunami Hazard of the 1945 Makran Subduction Zone Mw 8.1–8.3 Earthquakes." Geosciences 10, no. 11 (November 11, 2020): 452. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110452.

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Historical records of major earthquakes in the northwestern Indian Ocean along the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) indicate high potential tsunami hazards for coastal regions of Pakistan, Iran, Oman, and western India. There are fast-growing and populous cities and ports that are economically important, such as Chabahar (Iran), Gwadar (Pakistan), Muscat (Oman), and Mumbai (India). In this study, we assess the tsunami hazard of the 1945 MSZ event (fatalities ≈300 people) using stochastic earthquake rupture models of Mw 8.1–8.3 by considering uncertainties related to rupture geometry and slip heterogeneity. To quantify the uncertainty of earthquake source characteristics in tsunami hazard analysis, 1000 stochastic tsunami scenarios are generated via a stochastic source modeling approach. There are main objectives of this study: (1) developing stochastic earthquake slip models for the MSZ, (2) comparing results of the simulation with the existing observations of the 1945 event, and (3) evaluating the effect of uncertain fault geometry and earthquake slip based on simulated near-shore wave profiles. The 1945 Makran earthquake is focused upon by comparing model predictions with existing observations, consisting of far-field tsunami waveforms recorded on tide gauges in Karachi and Mumbai and coseismic deformation along the Pakistani coast. The results identify the source model that matches the existing observations of the 1945 Makran event best among the stochastic sources. The length, width, mean slip, and maximum slip of the identified source model are 270 km, 130 km, 2.9 m, and 19.3 m, respectively. Moreover, the sensitivity of the maximum tsunami heights along the coastline to the location of a large-slip area is highlighted. The maximum heights of the tsunami and coseismic deformation results at Ormara are in the range of 0.3–7.0 m and −2.7 to 1.1 m, respectively, for the 1000 stochastic source models.

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Motaghi, K., E. Shabanian, and T. Nozad-Khalil. "Deep structure of the western coast of the Makran subduction zone, SE Iran." Tectonophysics 776 (February 2020): 228314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2019.228314.

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31

Rashidi, Amin, Zaher Hossein Shomali, Denys Dutykh, and Nasser Keshavarz Faraj Khah. "Evaluation of tsunami wave energy generated by earthquakes in the Makran subduction zone." Ocean Engineering 165 (October 2018): 131–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.07.027.

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32

Banijamali, Babak, Amirhamed Alviri, Ehsan Rastgoftar, and Mohsen Soltanpour. "A CASE-STUDY OF RUBBLE-MOUND BREAKWATERS STABILITY AGAINST MAKRAN SUBDUCTION ZONE TSUNAMIS." Coastal Engineering Proceedings, no. 35 (June 23, 2017): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.9753/icce.v35.structures.44.

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A case-study pertaining to a number of existing breakwaters located on northern coastlines of the Gulf of Oman, directly facing the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) sets the context in order to elucidate the adopted methodologies for both Probabilistic Tsunamis Hazard Analysis (PTHA) as well as investigating breakwater stability in the event of a major tsunami. MSZ stretches from west to east for over 900 (km), affecting the coastlines of Iran, Pakistan, India, Oman and UAE as a potential source of tsunami hazard. According to historical data, the last reported MSZ generated tsunami which was triggered by the 1945CE earthquake of 8.1 (Mw) magnitude caused human fatality figures of up to almost 4,000, in addition to major structural devastation in its wake. Of particular interest, is the fate of existing breakwaters along the northern shorelines of the Gulf of Oman whose design criteria did not initially incorporate tsunami-related considerations, providing impetus for the modeling, design & analysis efforts presented in this article to serve the two-fold objective of assessing the need for strengthening existing structures, which are virtually all of the rubble-mound type, as well as deriving suitable design criteria for new breakwaters in the MSZ related tsunami affected region of Iran, earmarked for significant new developments.

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33

Kopp, C., J. Fruehn, E. R. Flueh, C. Reichert, N. Kukowski, J. Bialas, and D. Klaeschen. "Structure of the Makran subduction zone from wide-angle and reflection seismic data." Tectonophysics 329, no. 1-4 (December 2000): 171–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0040-1951(00)00195-5.

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34

Zafarani, H., and M. R. Soghrat. "Selection and Modification of Ground Motion Prediction Equations for Makran Subduction Zone, Southeast Iran." Pure and Applied Geophysics 178, no. 4 (March 15, 2021): 1193–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-021-02690-6.

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35

Akbarpour Jannat, Mahmood Reza, Ehsan Rastgoftar, and Katsuichiro Goda. "Improvement to stochastic tsunami hazard analysis of megathrust earthquakes for western Makran subduction zone." Applied Ocean Research 141 (December 2023): 103784. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2023.103784.

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36

Delavar, M. R., H. Mohammadi, M. A. Sharifi, and M. D. Pirooz. "TSUNAMI RISK ASSESSMENT MODELLING IN CHABAHAR PORT, IRAN." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-2/W7 (September 12, 2017): 461–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-2-w7-461-2017.

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The well-known historical tsunami in the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) region was generated by the earthquake of November 28, 1945 in Makran Coast in the North of Oman Sea. This destructive tsunami killed over 4,000 people in Southern Pakistan and India, caused great loss of life and devastation along the coasts of Western India, Iran and Oman. According to the report of "Remembering the 1945 Makran Tsunami", compiled by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO/IOC), the maximum inundation of Chabahar port was 367 m toward the dry land, which had a height of 3.6 meters from the sea level. In addition, the maximum amount of inundation at Pasni (Pakistan) reached to 3 km from the coastline. For the two beaches of Gujarat (India) and Oman the maximum run-up height was 3 m from the sea level. In this paper, we first use Makran 1945 seismic parameters to simulate the tsunami in generation, propagation and inundation phases. The effect of tsunami on Chabahar port is simulated using the ComMIT model which is based on the Method of Splitting Tsunami (MOST). In this process the results are compared with the documented eyewitnesses and some reports from researchers for calibration and validation of the result. Next we have used the model to perform risk assessment for Chabahar port in the south of Iran with the worst case scenario of the tsunami. The simulated results showed that the tsunami waves will reach Chabahar coastline 11 minutes after generation and 9 minutes later, over 9.4 Km<sup>2</sup> of the dry land will be flooded with maximum wave amplitude reaching up to 30 meters.

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37

Liu, Bin, Jiang-xin Chen, Syed Waseem Haider, Xi-guang Deng, Li Yang, and Min-liang Duan. "New high-resolution 2D seismic imaging of fluid escape structures in the Makran subduction zone." China Geology 3, no. 2 (2020): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.31035/cg2020027.

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38

Moazzen, Mohssen, and Hadi Omrani. "Iranshahr Blueschists as Results of Subduction of the Neotethys Inner Makran Oceanic Crust, SE Iran." Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition 89, s2 (December 2015): 69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.12308_41.

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39

Byrne, Daniel E., Lynn R. Sykes, and Dan M. Davis. "Great thrust earthquakes and aseismic slip along the plate boundary of the Makran Subduction Zone." Journal of Geophysical Research 97, B1 (1992): 449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/91jb02165.

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40

Heidarzadeh, Mohammad, Moharram D. Pirooz, and Nasser H. Zaker. "Modeling the near-field effects of the worst-case tsunami in the Makran subduction zone." Ocean Engineering 36, no. 5 (April 2009): 368–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2009.01.004.

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41

Heidarzadeh, Mohammad, and Andrzej Kijko. "A probabilistic tsunami hazard assessment for the Makran subduction zone at the northwestern Indian Ocean." Natural Hazards 56, no. 3 (August 13, 2010): 577–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-010-9574-x.

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42

Rajendran, C. P., Kusala Rajendran, Majid Shah-hosseini, Abdolmajid Naderi Beni, C. M. Nautiyal, and Ronia Andrews. "The hazard potential of the western segment of the Makran subduction zone, northern Arabian Sea." Natural Hazards 65, no. 1 (August 24, 2012): 219–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0355-6.

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43

Abedi, Maysam, and Abbas Bahroudi. "A geophysical potential field study to image the Makran subduction zone in SE of Iran." Tectonophysics 688 (October 2016): 119–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2016.09.025.

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44

Moraetis, Daniel, Frank Mattern, Andreas Scharf, Gianluca Frijia, Timothy M. Kusky, Ye Yuan, and Issa El-Hussain. "Neogene to Quaternary uplift history along the passive margin of the northeastern Arabian Peninsula, eastern Al Hajar Mountains, Oman." Quaternary Research 90, no. 2 (August 20, 2018): 418–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/qua.2018.51.

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AbstractThis work explores the uplift history of the best exposed marine terraces in the northeastern Arabian Peninsula (eastern Al Hajar Mountains). A multidisciplinary approach was employed, including a topographic survey, 14C dating, thin section studies, and scanning electron microscopy analyses. Six distinctive marine terraces with widths ranging from tenth of meters to kilometers and elevations from 5 to ~400 m were studied. These terraces record an along-strike heterogeneous uplift history, while they show temporally variable uplift rates ranging between 0.9 to 6.7 mm/yr, which correlates well with other published uplift rates of marine terraces of the eastern Arabian Peninsula. We attribute the variable uplift along strike of the terraces, to a combination of uplift mechanisms: (1) during early to mid-Miocene along deep-rooted reverse faults that bound large crustal-scale blocks, (2) Pliocene or post-Pliocene uplift on the outer wall of the forebulge of the lower Arabian Plate as it bends to enter the Zagros-Makran subduction zone, and (3) a possible slowdown of subduction for the past ~40 ka.

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45

Decker, Valeska, Carole T. Gee, Pia J. Schucht, Susanne Lindauer, and Gösta Hoffmann. "Life on the Edge: A Powerful Tsunami Overwhelmed Indian Ocean Mangroves One Millennium Ago." Forests 13, no. 6 (June 13, 2022): 922. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f13060922.

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In this paper, we demonstrate how subfossil mangrove wood can be used to elucidate the timing of past tsunami events. Although tsunamis generated by submarine earthquakes along the Makran subduction zone in the Arabian Sea are not unusual, rigorous age documentation is generally lacking. The best known is the only instrument-recorded tsunami, which affected the coastlines of Iran, Pakistan, India, and Oman in November 1945. Eyewitness accounts of the effect along the Oman coastline assert that this tsunami was not destructive. However, a 25-cm-thick shell layer in the lagoon adjacent to the city of Sur was attributed to the 1945 tsunami, although dating of the shell deposit proved difficult, and the radiocarbon dates of mollusk shells were regarded as unreliable. Here, we reinterpret the age of this tsunamigenic layer based on the new discovery of parallel-oriented woody axes in the sedimentological context of the tsunami shell layer in the Sur lagoon. The woody axes were analyzed anatomically and identified as pertaining to the gray mangrove Avicennia. Radiocarbon dating of the wood (905–722 cal BP), along with sedimentological investigations, suggests that the deposition of the woody axes should be attributed to an older tsunami event that occurred ca. 1000 years ago, which has been documented at other locations along the Arabian Sea coastline. From this, we conclude that mangroves grew in this lagoon at that time. Very little is known about ancient mangrove distribution in this region and, so far, no records have been provided for this time window at this site. We also deduce that the tsunami event that occurred one millennium ago must have been substantially more severe than the one in 1945. More accurate dating of tsunamigenic events will aid in calculating the recurrence intervals and magnitude of tsunamis generated along the Makran subduction zone.

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Pajang, Sepideh, Nadaya Cubas, Jean Letouzey, Laëtitia Le Pourhiet, Seyedmohsen Seyedali, Marc Fournier, Philippe Agard, Mohammad Mahdi Khatib, Mahmoudreza Heyhat, and Mohammad Mokhtari. "Seismic hazard of the western Makran subduction zone: Insight from mechanical modelling and inferred frictional properties." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 562 (May 2021): 116789. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2021.116789.

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Sarker, M. A. "Numerical modelling of tsunami in the Makran Subduction Zone – A case study on the 1945 event." Journal of Operational Oceanography 12, sup2 (October 1, 2018): S212—S229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1755876x.2018.1527883.

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48

Payande, A. R., M. H. Niksokhan, and H. Naserian. "Tsunami hazard assessment of Chabahar bay related to megathrust seismogenic potential of the Makran subduction zone." Natural Hazards 76, no. 1 (October 22, 2014): 161–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1476-x.

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49

Saha, Shila, and Kirti Srivastava. "Effect of tsunamis from Makran Subduction Zone and its impact on the Androth Island of Lakshadweep." Natural Hazards 82, no. 3 (March 14, 2016): 1755–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2267-3.

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50

Latcharote, Panon, Khaled Al-Salem, Anawat Suppasri, Tanuspong Pokavanich, Shinji Toda, Yogeesha Jayaramu, Abdullah Al-Enezi, Alanoud Al-Ragum, and Fumihiko Imamura. "Tsunami hazard evaluation for Kuwait and Arabian Gulf due to Makran Subduction Zone and Subaerial landslides." Natural Hazards 93, S1 (November 9, 2017): 127–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-017-3097-7.

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