Journal articles on the topic 'Major Sport Leagues'
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1
Wade, James B., J. Richard Harrison, Michael E. Dobbs, and Xia Zhao. "Who Will Stay and Who Will Go? Related agglomeration and the mortality of professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada, 1871–1997." Organization Studies 40, no. 11 (July 30, 2018): 1657–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0170840618789204.
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Professional sports leagues play a major role in our society, but little attention has been given to organizational factors related to league survival. We address this issue by examining the effects of related agglomeration (the extent to which league teams are located near teams from other sports that share the same broad professional sport identity), sport age, market heterogeneity (high variance in the number of teams from other sports in its teams’ cities), and within-sport league competition (high niche overlap) on league mortality. Related agglomeration may lead to intensified competition but may also lead to benefits by producing agglomeration economies and by driving the development of regional identities. We propose that the effects of related agglomeration vary over a focal population’s life cycle. We also argue that leagues with high market heterogeneity have higher chances of failure, particularly under conditions of high competition. We test our ideas using event history analysis to examine mortality in the entire population history of professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada (which are fundamentally different from leagues in other parts of the world) from the first league founding in 1871 until 1997. We find that leagues in young sports whose teams tend to be located in cities with large numbers of other sports (high related agglomeration) suffer from higher mortality rates while leagues that are in more established sports are less likely to fail under these circumstances. Consistent with prior research, leagues are more likely to fail when they experience higher competition (higher niche overlap) with other leagues in their sport, and the effects of competition are exacerbated by high variance in the number of other sports across the leagues’ cities (high market heterogeneity). We end by discussing the implications of our results for more common multi-unit organizational forms such as franchises and by considering promising avenues for future research.
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Miller, Ryan, Harrison Schwarz, and Ismael S. Talke. "Forecasting Sports Popularity: Application of Time Series Analysis." Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 6, no. 2 (July 26, 2017): 75–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ajis-2017-0009.
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Abstract Popularity trends of the NFL and NBA are fun and interesting for casual fans while also of critical importance for advertisers and businesses with an interest in the sports leagues. Sports leagues have clear and distinct seasons and these have a major impact on when each league is most popular. To measure the popularity of each league, we used search data from Google Trends that gives real-time and historical data on the relative popularity of search words. By using search volume to measure popularity, the times of year, a sport is popular relative to its season can be explained. It is also possible to forecast how sport leagues are trending relative to each other. We compared and discussed three different univariate models both theoretically and empirically: the trend plus seasonality regression, Holt- Winters Multiplicative (HWMM), and Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) models to determine the popularity trends. For each league, the six forecasting performance measures used in this study indicated HWMM gave the most accurate predictions.
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Confino, Jamie, James N. Irvine, Michaela O’Connor, Christopher S. Ahmad, and T. Sean Lynch. "Early Sports Specialization Is Associated With Upper Extremity Injuries in Throwers and Fewer Games Played in Major League Baseball." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 7, no. 7 (July 2019): 232596711986110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967119861101.
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Background: Single-sport athletes who specialize in baseball at a young age may have a greater predisposition to overuse injury, burnout, and decreased career longevity when compared with multiple-sport athletes. The effect of sport specialization has not been studied in professional baseball players. Hypothesis: Major League Baseball (MLB) players who played multiple sports in high school would experience fewer injuries, spend less time on the disabled list, play more games, and have a longer career than athletes who played only baseball in high school. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: First- and second-round MLB draft picks from 2008 to 2016 who played in at least 1 professional game were included in this study. Athletes who participated in 1 or more sports in addition to baseball during high school were considered multisport athletes, and athletes who participated in only baseball were considered single-sport athletes. For each athlete, participation in high school sports, injuries sustained in MLB and Minor League Baseball, number of days on the disabled list for each injury, number of games played in both leagues, and whether the athlete was still active were collected from publicly available records. Results: A total of 746 athletes were included in this study: 240 (32%) multisport and 506 (68%) single sport. Multisport athletes played in significantly more mean total games (362.8 vs 300.8; P < .01) as well as more mean MLB games (95.9 vs 71.6; P = .04) than single-sport athletes. There was no difference in the mean number of seasons played in the major leagues (1.8 vs 1.6; P = .15) or minor league (5.25 vs 5.20; P = .23) between multisport and single-sport athletes. Single-sport athletes had a significantly higher prevalence of upper extremity injuries compared with multisport athletes (136 [63%] vs 55 [50%]; P = .009). Single-sport pitchers also had a higher prevalence of shoulder and elbow injuries (86 vs 27; P = .008) and were more likely to have recurrent elbow injuries (33% vs 17% recurrence; P = .002) compared with multisport pitchers. Conclusion: Professional baseball players who participated in multiple sports in high school played in more major league games and experienced lower rates of upper and lower extremity injuries than players who played only baseball in high school.
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O'Reilly, Norm, David Finch, Gashaw Abeza, Nadège Levallet, John Nadeau, David Legg, and Bill Foster. "Segmentation of Ticket Holders in Minor League North American Professional Sport." Sports Innovation Journal 3 (May 18, 2022): 16–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.18060/25161.
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Minor professional sport in North America includes the many leagues that are not part of the “Big Five.” For these leagues, ticket sales, especially season ticket sales, are one of the major sources of club revenue. Segmenting customers into homogenous groups is well established as an effective means to render efficient marketing. In addition, market segmentation has been well researched in a variety of contexts; however, further research in the area of minor professional sport in North America will advance our knowledge and offer practical value to practitioners. Therefore, this research, in collaboration with a minor league professional sport club, provides a framework for season ticket holder segmentation application by minor professional sport leagues and clubs, and offers practical recommendations to reach niche markets.
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Sliwak, Ryan, Sandra Lee, and Noelany Pelc. "Domestic Violence in Sport: Complexities and Ethical Issues for Psychologists." Journal of Sport and Social Issues 44, no. 3 (March 13, 2020): 199–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0193723520910817.
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The prevalence of domestic violence in the sports community continues to be a controversial topic of discussion. The conversation that surrounds domestic violence and athletes often occurs through a sports-only lens. Policies have been implemented by the various professional leagues, such as the Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), and National Football League (NFL), to combat numerous incidents of domestic violence. Policies vary for each respective league. Discussion of domestic violence in sport has barely scratched the surface of identifying the complexity of the ethical dilemmas that psychologists may encounter. Three of these dilemmas are identified and discussed here: mandated treatment, confidentiality, and informed consent.
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Mirabito, Timothy, Robin Hardin, and Joshua R. Pate. "The Fractured Messaging of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and Its Members in Response to COVID-19." International Journal of Sport Communication 13, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 324–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2020-0249.
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The sports world’s near universal moratorium in response to the COVID-19 pandemic was abrupt and unprecedented. From professional leagues to youth sports, doors were closed to competitions and events to help stop the spread of the coronavirus. The hiatus began at one of the busiest times on the calendar for sport, with the National Basketball Association and National Hockey League seasons concluding; the Women's National Basketball Association and National Football League drafts taking place; Major League Baseball's spring training nearing its conclusion; the Professional Golf Association and Ladies Professional Golf Association Tours starting their seasons; and the National Collegiate Athletic Association's marquee events, the Division-I men’s and women’s basketball tournaments, set to begin. The suddenness of the interruption was met with a need by the various sport entities to engage their public with information about their respective responses. The statements that emerged on or after March 12—“the day the sports world stopped”—were not all the same. Many of the statements, in fact, were quite different. That was especially the case with the National Collegiate Athletic Association, whose governance structure and messaging practices hindered their ability to have a uniform response. The purpose of this essay was to examine the public messaging of sport leagues and organizations and to discuss the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of those public statements.
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Foster, George, Norm O’Reilly, Carlos Shimizu, Neal Khosla, and Ryan Murray. "Determinants of Regional Sport Network Television Ratings in MLB, NBA, and NHL." Journal of Sport Management 28, no. 3 (May 2014): 356–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2013-0133.
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This paper examines the determinants of live game Regional Sport Network (RSN) average annual ratings in three major North American professional sport leagues: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL). A conceptual model of the determinants of club RSN ratings is constructed based on a marketing management framework. Five categories of determinants are identified: Product-Club, Product-Player, Brand-Club, Brand-Player, and Place. Data were collected over a 12-year period (1999–2011) for a total of 46 independent variables. The list of independent variables was reduced to 16 factors and a proxy variable for each of the factors identified. Univariate and multivariate analyses were undertaken. Strong support for the each of the five categories in the conceptual model was found for the pooled sample of all three leagues. Results at the individual league level revealed league differences in the relative importance of individual variables. Implications for future research and practice are presented.
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Jones, Justine, Kathryn Johnston, Lou Farah, and Joseph Baker. "Predicting Seasonal Performance in Professional Sport: A 30-Year Analysis of Sports Illustrated Predictions." Sports 9, no. 12 (December 1, 2021): 163. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports9120163.
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In 2017, Sports Illustrated (SI) made headlines when their remarkable prediction from 2014 that the Houston Astros (a team in one of the lowest Major League Baseball divisional rankings) would win the World Series, came true. The less-publicised story was that in 2017, SI predicted the Los Angeles Dodgers to win the Major League Baseball (MLB) title. Assessing the forecasting accuracy of experts is critical as it explores the difficulty and limitations of forecasts and can help illuminate how predictions may shape sociocultural notions of sport in society. To thoroughly investigate SI’s forecasting record, predictions were collected from the four major North American sporting leagues (the National Football League, National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, and National Hockey League) over the last 30 years (1988–2018). Kruskal–Wallis H Tests and Mann–Whitney U Tests were used to evaluate the absolute and relative accuracy of predictions. Results indicated that SI had the greatest predictive accuracy in the National Basketball Association and was significantly more likely to predict divisional winners compared to conference and league champions. Future work in this area may seek to examine multiple media outlets to gain a more comprehensive perspective on forecasting accuracy in sport.
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Conlin, Lindsey, Dylan M. McLemore, and Richard A. Rush. "Pinterest and Female Sport Fans: Gaining a Foothold in the Male-Dominated Sport World." International Journal of Sport Communication 7, no. 3 (September 2014): 357–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2014-0027.
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Female sport fans account for over 45% of the fan base in some major professional sport leagues. This study analyzes every verified Pinterest account from teams in the 4 major North American sport leagues to investigate how teams use a social network consisting largely of female users to reach this growing target audience. The study finds that sport teams use Pinterest to promote purchasable items, share information about the team, highlight the fan experience, and share creative content—although to a lesser extent than the typical Pinterest user. Differences between leagues and details of content frames are discussed. Future directives for understanding how sport teams use Pinterest are presented, and the utility of visual framing for investigating new media is discussed.
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Achen, Rebecca M., John Kaczorowski, Trisha Horsmann, and Alanda Ketzler. "Exploring Off-Season Content and Interaction on Facebook: A Comparison of U.S. Professional Sport Leagues." International Journal of Sport Communication 11, no. 3 (September 1, 2018): 389–413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2018-0013.
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Research on social-media use in sport should be expanded to include analyses of content popularity and comparisons across leagues. This study used content analysis and a multivariate multilevel model to compare content type and interaction across U.S. professional sport leagues. Results indicated that teams in the National Football League had the most comments, teams in the Major League Baseball had the most shares, and teams in the National Basketball Association had the most likes. Content coded as player and personnel promotion, which included behind-the-scenes content and human-interest stories, received the most interaction. Sport marketers can use this information to drive content strategy. However, content designed to encourage interaction is still posted less often than most other types of content. These results suggest that marketers in sport may be using Facebook to build relationships by connecting fans personally with players, but not by encouraging interaction or 2-way conversation.
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Celik, Onur B., and Meltem Ince-Yenilmez. "Salary differences under the salary cap in Major League Soccer." International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 12, no. 5 (August 23, 2017): 623–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747954117727809.
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Professional soccer is the world’s most popular sport; a number of National Leagues are under the control of National Associations. The economic theory behind soccer is the continuing competition to earn much more than other sports do in the sports market. Since the supply of talent is limited, teams’ demand for certain professionals is so strong that it leads to salary differences between players. Therefore, in this study, attention is given to the determinants of the differences in workers’ salaries in the Major League Soccer labor market using Generalized Least Squares (GLS) estimation on panel data from 2007 to 2016. Birth place is the most influential determinant of a player’s salary, along with a player’s position, a player’s age, whether the player has a national team duty, and the number of games in which the player started in the first eleven. Conversely, moving from one Major League Soccer team to another and the number of games played as a substitute have a negative effect on players’ salaries.
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Nesbit, Todd M., and Kerry A. King-Adzima. "Major League Baseball Attendance and the Role of Fantasy Baseball." Journal of Sports Economics 13, no. 5 (May 31, 2011): 494–514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1527002511409120.
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Many explanations exist for the resurgence of the Major League Baseball (MLB) fan base following the 1994-1995 strike. The most prevalent explanations include the 1998 McGuire-Sosa homerun race and Cal Ripken Jr.’s consecutive games record. While such explanations certainly impacted fan interest in the sport, it is remiss to ignore the impact of online fantasy baseball leagues, which surfaced in 1997. This article examines the extent to which participating in a fantasy baseball league influences the MLB game attendance. The results strongly suggest that fantasy baseball participation positively influences MLB game attendance.
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Joo, Soyoung, Ben Larkin, and Nefertiti Walker. "Institutional isomorphism and social responsibility in professional sports." Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 7, no. 1 (March 13, 2017): 38–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/sbm-03-2016-0010.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices of three major professional sport leagues in South Korea to investigate the general beliefs, values, and norms influencing the institutional isomorphism of CSR engagement. Design/methodology/approach Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with three league chiefs of CSR initiatives and senior managers of related divisions to explore the general beliefs, values, and norms that are institutionalized in their CSR practices. The Gioia method of inquiry and data analysis was employed. Findings Using institutional theory, the current research found evidence of all three institutional pressures of institutional isomorphism that contribute to the institutionalization of CSR practices in professional South Korean sport. The data revealed that CSR has been institutionalized in these leagues through isomorphic pressures – coercive, mimetic, and normative – as antecedents to their CSR practices. Practical implications The current research identified that conforming to the institutional norms may not only act as a force causing the organization to behave in a socially responsible manner, but also to provide the organization with competitive advantages. Originality/value The authors extend the current literature in sport CSR by using institutional theory as a framework to uncover organizational CSR motives. In particular, this is the first study to provide evidence of how three isomorphic pressures work to institutionalize CSR practices in South Korean professional sports leagues.
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O’Reilly, Norm, Tim Stroebel, Michael Pfahl, and Jim Kahler. "An empirical exploration of sponsorship sales in North American professional sport." Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 8, no. 1 (March 12, 2018): 15–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/sbm-07-2016-0035.
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Purpose Sponsorship sales in professional sport is an area of increasing attention and growing investment, but the sport management literature offers only limited research about sales strategies and tactics. As a result, practitioners and academics alike have called for investigation in the area. In response to this need, the purpose of this paper is to empirically explore sponsorship sales in professional sport. Design/methodology/approach Sponsorship sales professionals working for sport properties in the four major North American sport leagues were surveyed on a variety of sponsorship sales-related variables and factors. Findings A total of 92 sponsorship sales professionals responded to the study, for an estimated 15.3 percent response rate. At the time of the data collection, the 92 respondents worked in the National Football League (NFL) (37), Major League Baseball (MLB) (16), National Basketball Association (NBA) (18), and National Hockey League (NHL) (21). A series of practical, conceptual, and comparative results are presented, highlighted by turnover as a problem, the importance of activation/servicing in sponsorship sales, and the high level of investment clubs are making in sponsorship sales. Research limitations/implications First, on “coverage,” the authors acknowledge that variations in the data can be linked, to a large extent, to reporting issues due to the nature of the study, the data, and the sample. Variations in sponsor number or training, for example, are not necessarily indicative of weaknesses in the industry, but occur because of strategic differences among properties. Second, it is important to note that not all properties had personnel respond to the study. Consequently, the figures presented in this study might be a function of the individual personnel who responded rather than a true average figure for a particular league. Third, in terms of the sample, this study deals with a very specific context in the four North American major sport leagues (NFL, MLB, NBA, and NHL). Thus, one should be careful in generalizing to minor professional, collegiate, Olympic, or other sport contexts. Practical implications The finding of this paper states that the turnover of sponsors may be a structural issue and is certainly related to the demand for the particular property (Seaver Marketing Group, 2010). Driven by a number of factors, including technology shifts to digital channels and increased sophistication by the sponsorship sales departments of professional sport properties, a shift in the activation and service paradigm is reported and extended to the specific context of sponsorship sales. Social implications Results show that sport properties in the North American major sport leagues have a strong commitment to sponsorship sales by the organization (commitment of resources), by sport personnel (who support the business side), and by their sponsorship sales professionals who report satisfaction, motivation, and support from their property. Originality/value To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first empirical research study specific on sponsorship sales in professional sport, thus providing direction for practice and future research on an issue of high importance to the sport industry.
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Rodríguez, Plácido. "La economía del deporte." Studies of Applied Economics 30, no. 2 (May 24, 2020): 387. http://dx.doi.org/10.25115/eea.v30i2.3533.
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This paper presents some of the major characteristics of sports economics which represents a peculiar economy in the economic analysis. We analyze the characteristics of the sport product, the study of the behavior of clubs, leagues and competitive balance and also the player´s labor market and the demand of professional sports.
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Smith, Danielle K., and Jonathan Casper. "Making an Impact: An Initial Review of U.S. Sport League Corporate Social Responsibility Responses During COVID-19." International Journal of Sport Communication 13, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 335–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2020-0241.
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COVID-19 has brought about an unprecedented time where a majority of major American sporting organizations have ceased competition. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) actions, historically an avenue for sport organizations to positively impact society, provide a compelling avenue of study during this time. While researchers have observed the role of CSR and crisis communication when the crisis arises from within the organization, there is a need to understand CSR shifts and responses when the crisis is on a societal level. This commentary examines efforts of major U.S. sport league CSR programs (National Basketball Association/Women's National Basketball Association, National Football League, Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, and National Hockey League), starting in mid-March when the majority of organizations ceased competition. Data were gathered using a mixed-methods approach of qualitative interviews, secondary research, and social media sentiment analysis. Key findings included the emergence of two different approaches to CSR communication strategies among U.S. sport leagues as well as three clear themes of COVID-19-related communication: educate, assist, and inspire. In addition, this commentary provides an initial glance at consumer response to CSR programs, showing both positive and negative sentiment trends.
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Harrison, Virginia S., Michail Vafeiadis, and Joseph Bober. "Greening Professional Sport: How Communicating the Fit, Proximity, and Impact of Sustainability Efforts Affects Fan Perceptions and Supportive Intentions." Sustainability 14, no. 6 (March 8, 2022): 3139. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14063139.
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Grounded in multidisciplinary literature from public relations, sport communication, and marketing, this study examined consumer reactions to sustainability initiatives launched by major sports leagues. Through an online survey (N = 254), the results showed that sports league-cause fit resulted in more positive organization–public relationships (OPRs) such as through trust, commitment, satisfaction, and control mutuality. Further, the findings revealed that a closer geographic proximity of the sustainability initiative and an increased perceived impact (donation amount and number of beneficiaries affected) triggered higher perceptions of trust, organizational authenticity, and fandom toward the sponsoring sports league. Interestingly, a significant two-way interaction between spatial proximity and impact suggested that lower perceptions of the impact of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) program evoked more positive attitudes when involving local beneficiaries, whereas higher perceptions of impact improved organizational attitudes when the beneficiaries were located faraway. Lastly, the findings indicated that the OPR variables, especially trust, as well as fandom, and organizational authenticity elicited higher supportive intentions (e.g., support CSR cause, donate, volunteer, share on social media) toward the sports league. Theoretical implications for fit, construal level theory, and CSR impact as well as implications for sport communication practitioners are discussed.
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Romero, Manuel G., William A. Pitney, Kirk Brumels, and Stephanie M. Mazerolle. "Role Strain, Part 1: Experiences of Athletic Trainers Employed in the Professional Sports Setting." Journal of Athletic Training 53, no. 2 (February 1, 2018): 184–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-213-16.
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Context: The demands and expectations of athletic trainers employed in professional sports settings (ATPSSs) have increased over the years. Meeting these demands and expectations may predispose the athletic trainer to workplace stress and ultimately role strain. Objective: To investigate the concept of role strain among ATPSSs. Design: Sequential, explanatory mixed-methods study consisting of 2 phases: (1) population role-strain survey and (2) personal interviews. Patients or Other Participants: From a purposeful sampling of 389 athletic trainers employed in the 5 major sports leagues (Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, National Basketball Association, National Football League, and National Hockey League), 152 individuals provided usable data (39% response rate). Main Outcome Measure(s): A previously validated and reliable role-strain survey using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never, 5 = nearly all the time) was administered. Measures of central tendency were used to identify the presence and degree of role strain; inferential statistics were calculated using analysis of variance to determine group differences in overall role strain and its subcomponents. Results: More than half of the participants (53.9%) experienced a moderate to high degree of role strain. Interrole conflict (2.99 ± 0.77) and role overload (2.91 ± 0.75) represented the most prominent components of role strain. Differences existed by sport leagues and employment. Conclusions: Role strain existed at moderate to high levels (mean Role Strain Score > 2.70) among ATPSSs. Interrole conflict and role overload contributed the most to overall role strain. The ATPSSs experienced role strain to a higher degree than reported in other settings.
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Cousens, Laura, and Trevor Slack. "Field-Level Change: The Case of North American Major League Professional Sport." Journal of Sport Management 19, no. 1 (January 2005): 13–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.19.1.13.
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The organizational field encompassing North American major league professional sport changed dramatically over the last quarter century despite the constraining forces associated with this level. Given this, the purpose of this article was to explore the evolution of one organizational field over an extended time period in order to enhance our understanding of the multifaceted nature of its change. Four dimensions of this field were considered for study: communities of actors, their exchange processes, their governance structures, and their beliefs and institutional logics of action. These dimensions were operationalized to provide evidence of the evolution of the organizational field. Data were collected from personal interviews with league and franchise leaders, from documents retrieved from the leagues and Halls of Fame, and from a selection of historical books. The results of this research show increased interaction among the actors in the field, a growing awareness that they were engaged in a common enterprise, and the erosion of the coexisting logics of action prevalent in the field in the early 1970s.
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Fulconis, François, Jean Nollet, and Gilles Paché. "Competitive vs coopetitive strategies: lessons from professional sport leagues." Journal of Business Strategy 39, no. 2 (April 16, 2018): 12–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jbs-03-2017-0037.
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Purpose Over the past decades, analyses of the functioning of professional sport leagues have been done from various angles: economic, financial and sociological; in some cases, comparisons were made between North-American and European leagues. The purpose of this paper is to look at this reality from a different angle, i.e. human capital management, by showing how different the models from both continents are. Design/methodology/approach Based on an identification of the major elements associated to human capital management in professional sport leagues in North America and Europe, this paper compares competitive and coopetitive strategies using an original framework based on consortium sourcing and pooling dimensions. Findings The paper underlines the benefits that North-American professional sport leagues get from acquiring players using a consortium sourcing perspective (coopetition). In Europe, the most powerful clubs use their financial resources to get the best players; as a result, it is always the same clubs with get the best results (competition). In the long run, the European approach might result in less attractiveness to TV viewers, and less revenues for TV networks. Originality/value This paper helps to understand the differences between professional sport leagues in North America and Europe; it also discusses the risk associated to the adoption, without any adjustment in the human capital management, in Europe of the North-American model based on a coopetitive perspective. This dimension is seldom mentioned in articles dealing with professional sport leagues.
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Maxcy, Joel, and Pauline Milwood. "Regulation by taxes or strict limits." Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 8, no. 1 (March 12, 2018): 52–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/sbm-11-2016-0069.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to focus an empirical investigation on the financial ramifications of regulatory policies on American professional team sport leagues, while at once including the inseparable effects on the outcomes of contests. The authors conduct a comparative analysis of the impact of alternative regulatory mechanisms adopted by American professional team sport leagues, and their implications for the league performance. Design/methodology/approach The paper conducts a comparative analysis of ten years of financial and contest data from Major League Baseball (MLB) and National Hockey League (NHL). Using relative measures of payroll and profits for the two leagues, the authors test hypotheses on the impact of the market-based payroll taxes of the MLB with the strict payroll limits imposed by the NHL and their relationship to both financial and contest outcomes of the two leagues. Findings The comparison of MLB and NHL shows that market-based tax incentives are more consistent with the league financial objectives than strict, enforced mandates, suggesting that comparatively higher profits are associated with the MLB’s approach when compared to the strict bounds imposed by the NHL. Conversely, the comparison of player costs in the NHL and MLB reveal no distinguishable features based on the alternative regulatory methods. Originality/value This paper provides an initial, valuable assessment of different regulatory mechanisms on the on- and off-field (-ice) performance of MLB and NHL. Given that MLB has adopted market-based tax incentives to regulate payroll (the competitive balance tax), and the NHL has imposed strict payroll limits (hard salary cap), the authors at once consider MLB’s innovative revenue-sharing system alongside the NHL’s more conventional and restrained method of revenue redistribution, and their implications for performance.
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Ramkumar, Prem N., Sergio M. Navarro, Heather S. Haeberle, Bryan C. Luu, Albert Jang, Salvatore J. Frangiamore, Lutul D. Farrow, Mark S. Schickendantz, and Riley J. Williams. "Concussion in American Versus European Professional Soccer: A Decade-Long Comparative Analysis of Incidence, Return to Play, Performance, and Longevity." American Journal of Sports Medicine 47, no. 10 (July 15, 2019): 2287–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546519859542.
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Background: The incidence and effect of sports-related concussions (SRCs) within the global sport of professional soccer is poorly described. Purpose: To comparatively examine the effects of SRC on athletes in Major League Soccer (MLS) and the English Premier League (EPL) in terms of incidence, return to play (RTP), performance, and career longevity. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Contracts, transactions, injury reports, and performance statistics from 2008 to 2017 were obtained and cross-referenced across 6 publicly available websites detailing MLS and EPL data, including official league publications. For each league, players who sustained a concussion were compared with the 2008-2017 uninjured player pool. RTP and games missed were analyzed and compared. Career length was analyzed with Kaplan-Meier survival curves. Player performance changes were evaluated before and after concussion. Results: Of the 1784 eligible MLS and 2001 eligible EPL players evaluated over the 10-year period, the incidence of publicly reported concussions per 1000 athlete-exposures was 20.22 and 18.68, respectively ( P = .53). The incidence of reported concussions steadily increased in both leagues. MLS players missed a mean 7.3 games after concussion (37.0 days missed); EPL players missed a mean 0.6 games after concussion (10.9 days missed) ( P < .0001, P < .0001). Statistical performance in terms of games started, assists, shots on goal, and total shots after concussion was significantly reduced at all nongoalie positions for players in the EPL; however, MLS nongoalie positions with concussion had no significant decreases in these categories. Goalies in both leagues had no significant change in performance or games started. The probability of playing a full season after concussion was not significantly decreased when compared with the uninjured pool in both leagues. Conclusion: This study established the SRC incidence among elite soccer players in 2 international professional leagues and identified major RTP and performance differences between EPL and MLS players. While career longevity was unaffected, the approach to managing concussion as in MLS may better promote player safety and preserve on-field performance.
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Romero, Manuel G., William A. Pitney, Stephanie M. Mazerolle, and Kirk Brumels. "Role Strain, Part 2: Perceptions Among Athletic Trainers Employed in the Professional Practice Setting." Journal of Athletic Training 53, no. 2 (February 1, 2018): 190–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-214-16.
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Context: Athletic trainers (ATs) employed in the professional sport setting (ATPSSs) demonstrate moderate to high degrees of role strain. The experiences and perceptions of these ATs provide insight regarding the sources of role strain as well as ways to reduce it. Objective: To investigate the perceptions of ATPSSs regarding role strain. Design: Qualitative study. Patients or Other Participants: From a purposeful sampling of 389 ATs employed in the 5 major sport leagues (Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, National Basketball Association, National Football League, and National Hockey League), we identified 34 participants willing to participate in phone interviews. Data Collection and Procedures: Semistructured phone interviews. Inductive data analysis was based on a grounded theory approach. Credibility was addressed with member checks and a peer debriefing. Results: Three first-order emergent themes materialized from the data: (1) sources of role strain, (2) consequences of role strain, and (3) strategies to alleviate role strain in ATPSSs. Participants described the antecedents of role strain as emerging from the competing expectations of the professional athlete, the organization, and the sport league. Consequences of role strain included effects on direct patient care and work-life imbalance. Improving organizational factors such as inadequate staffing and poor communication within the organization were strategies described by participants for decreasing role strain in the professional sports setting. Conclusions: Our participants discussed experiencing role strain, which was facilitated by trying to meet the competing demands placed on them with limited time and often with an inadequate support staff. Participant role strain affected health care and contributed to work-life imbalance. Participants described changing the organizational factors that contributed to role strain as a strategy to alleviate the perceived stress.
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Gemar, Adam. "Which sports do you like? Testing intra-domain omnivorousness in Canadian following of professional sport." International Review for the Sociology of Sport 54, no. 7 (January 8, 2018): 813–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1012690217749243.
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The theory of the cultural omnivore has been applied to many cultural domains. However, given the pervasiveness of professional sport in contemporary societies, less is known about omnivorous behaviour when it comes to consuming this cultural form. This study sets out to find if indeed there is an omnivorous consumption profile for professional sport. Using a latent class and regression analysis of survey data on five major professional sports leagues from Canada, this paper seeks to determine if this professional sport omnivore exists, how prevalent it might be, and if it maps onto wider socio-economic differentiations. The latent class analysis does show that there is an omnivorous consumption profile. However, it is the second smallest professional sport profile and does not map onto wider socio-economic differentiations, even as other patterns of professional sports’ consumption do display such distinctions.
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Bishop, Meghan, Matthew Astolfi, Eric Padegimas, Peter DeLuca, and Sommer Hammoud. "Venous Thromboembolism Within Professional American Sport Leagues." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 5, no. 12 (December 1, 2017): 232596711774553. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967117745530.
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Background: Numerous reports have described players in professional American sports leagues who have been sidelined with a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or a pulmonary embolism (PE), but little is known about the clinical implications of these events in professional athletes. Purpose: To conduct a retrospective review of injury reports from the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Football League (NFL) to take a closer look at the incidence of DVT/PE, current treatment approaches, and estimated time to return to play in professional athletes. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: An online search of all team injury and media reports of DVT/PE in NHL, MLB, NBA, and NFL players available for public record was conducted by use of Google, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus. Searches were conducted using the professional team name combined with blood clot, pulmonary embolism, and deep vein thrombosis. Results: A total of 55 venous thromboembolism (VTE) events were identified from 1999 through 2016 (NHL, n = 22; MLB, n = 16; NFL, n = 12; NBA, n = 5). Nineteen athletes were reported to have an upper extremity DVT, 15 had a lower extremity DVT, 15 had a PE, and 6 had DVT with PE. Six athletes sustained more than 1 VTE. The mean age at time of VTE was 29.3 years (range, 19-42 years). Mean (±SD) time lost from play was 6.7 ± 4.9 months (range, 3 days to career end). Seven athletes did not return to play. Players with upper extremity DVT had a faster return to play (mean ± SD, 4.3 ± 2.7 months) than those with lower extremity DVT (5.9 ± 3.8 months), PE (10.8 ± 6.8 months), or DVT with PE (8.2 ± 2.6 months) ( F = 5.69, P = .002). No significant difference was found regarding time of return to play between sports. Conclusion: VTE in professional athletes led to an average of 6.7 months lost from play. The majority of athletes were able to return to play after a period of anticoagulation or surgery. Those with an upper extremity DVT returned to play faster than those with other types of VTE. Further study is needed to look into modifiable risk factors for these events and to establish treatment and return-to-play guidelines to ensure the safety of these athletes.
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McCullough, Brian P., Jamee Pelcher, and Sylvia Trendafilova. "An Exploratory Analysis of the Environmental Sustainability Performance Signaling Communications among North American Sport Organizations." Sustainability 12, no. 5 (March 4, 2020): 1950. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12051950.
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Sport organizations across North America promote and claim deep commitments to environmental issues through sustainability performance signaling. These signals are conveyed through external associations or memberships (e.g., Green Sports Alliance) or internally (e.g., environmental reports and communications). However, researchers have not explored this communication strategy as it relates to environmental initiatives in sport nor compared environmental communications of sport organizations from the major professional sport leagues in North America. We analyzed the websites of 147 North American sport organizations and their associated venue websites for environmental performance signaling communications. We found that only one sport organization featured an environmental report on its website, and 42 sport organizations highlighted environmental initiatives through dedicated webpages on the respective team or venue’s website. Predominately, these communications focused on fan engagement initiatives (i.e., awareness, participation) but lacked goal setting, measurement metrics, or performance summaries. We discuss these themes, the implications, and recommendations for how sustainability performance signaling can be better leveraged in the North American sport sector.
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Willie, Paul A. "Revenue management for Canadian professional sports organizations." Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes 9, no. 4 (August 14, 2017): 451–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/whatt-04-2017-0021.
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Purpose This paper aims to recommend opportunities for professional sport leagues in the USA and Canada to apply the art and science of revenue management in order to minimize potential losses and maximize profits. Design/methodology/approach The evolution of current key revenue management concepts is presented from their initial stages to their current level of implementation. In addition, the literature regarding the strongest business models is reviewed and examined in the context of current successes and challenges across the major sport leagues in North America. Findings Five revenue streams in sports organizations are identified and analysed. Five key elements for revenues are highlighted as strategic tools used to maximize effectiveness in achieving revenue management goals. A series of recommendations is made to best use revenue management including careful negotiation of television contracts, the use of dynamic pricing models, maximization of partnerships and sponsorships, acceptance of new approaches to food and beverage and accessibility of sport merchandise to customers. Practical implications At the regional, national and international levels, sports organizations should review their current business practices to identify areas to improve their revenue management in light of the recommendations in this paper. Originality/value Although the use of the concept of revenue management in sectors of tourism has evolved since early 1970s, its application in professional sports is relatively new. Therefore, this paper provides value to professional sports organizations to optimize their profitability.
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Sheptak, R. Dale, and Brian E. Menaker. "When Sport Event Work Stopped: Exposure of Sport Event Labor Precarity by the COVID-19 Pandemic." International Journal of Sport Communication 13, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 427–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2020-0229.
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The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 has exposed major weaknesses in economic, governmental, and social structures that many have taken for granted in everyday life. The sport industry, which has gained unprecedented popularity in recent decades, is no exception. Decisions, driven in response to the COVID-19 outbreak, to suspend play in major sports leagues across the globe have exposed the precarious nature of the work situation that hourly event workers find themselves in. As the games stopped, so did the earnings of workers who impact essential aspects of the sport spectators’ experience. These workers include the part-time front of house staff for public assembly facilities, including ushers, concessions workers, ticket takers, and security personnel. This essay, drawing on ideas from C.W. Mills, Arne Kalleberg, and Guy Standing, will examine the impact of the pandemic on the employment of these workers by looking at the state of labor associated with sport and sports events. Furthermore, the essay will explore the challenges facing a class of workers who depend on numerous part-time or seasonal sports event jobs to scrape together an existence when sport suddenly stops. Finally, the essay will address the potential aftereffects of the COVID-19 pandemic on sport labor and consider how sport work could change as a result. This scholarly commentary lays the groundwork for further study and analysis of an important, yet rarely remarked on, aspect of employment morality and sport labor studies.
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Vernec, Alan, Andrew Slack, Peter Rex Harcourt, Richard Budgett, Martine Duclos, Audrey Kinahan, Katja Mjøsund, and Christian J. Strasburger. "Glucocorticoids in elite sport: current status, controversies and innovative management strategies—a narrative review." British Journal of Sports Medicine 54, no. 1 (July 20, 2019): 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100196.
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The use of systemic glucocorticoids (GCs), as well as local injections, continues to be a controversial issue in the sport/anti-doping community. There is widespread and legitimate use of GCs for numerous health conditions, yet there are concerns about side effects and the possibility of enhanced athletic performance in limited settings. This is compounded by the uncertainty regarding the prevalence of GC use, mechanisms underlying physiological effects and complex pharmacokinetics of different formulations. While WADA continues to promote research in this complex area, some international sporting federations, major event organisers and professional sports leagues have introduced innovative rules such as needle policies, mandatory rest periods and precompetition guidelines to promote judicious use of GCs, focusing on athlete health and supervision of medical personnel. These complementary sport-specific rules are helping to ensure the appropriate use of GCs in athletes where overuse is a particular concern. Where systemic GCs are medically necessary, Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUEs) may be granted after careful evaluation by TUE Committees based on specific and strict criteria. Continued vigilance and cooperation between physicians, scientists and anti-doping organisations is essential to ensure that GC use in sport respects not only principles of fairness and adherence to the rules but also promotes athlete health and well-being. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarise the use and management of GCs in sport illustrating several innovative programmes by sport leagues and federations.
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Giulianotti, Richard. "Sport Mega Events, Urban Football Carnivals and Securitised Commodification." Urban Studies 48, no. 15 (October 24, 2011): 3293–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0042098011422395.
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This paper explores the interrelationships of security policies and processes of commodification with respect to contemporary sport mega events (SMEs). First, it is argued that we need to move beyond conventional understandings of SMEs, as specific occasions fixed in time and space. Instead, we should examine more diffuse forms of SME, as illustrated by major sport leagues such as the English Premier League (EPL). Secondly, the paper discusses the popular cultures that have long been intrinsic to urban sporting spaces and which have been marginalised by strategies of securitisation and commodification since the late 1980s. Thirdly and fourthly, the principal juridico-political and political-economic forces that prevail within the EPL, and UK football in general, are examined—notably in regard to constrictive legislation and advanced security technologies, alongside policies of neo-liberal governmentalisation and urban revanchism. Fifthly, the paper explores expressions and irruptions of public unease, transgression and conflict within UK football settings with respect to these forces.
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Pandya, Nirav K., Brian Feeley, Drew Lansdown, William Rubenstein, and Sachin Allahabadi. "ACL GRAFT FAILURE IN PROFESSIONAL ATHLETES COMPARED TO THE PEDIATRIC POPULATION." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 7, no. 3_suppl (March 1, 2019): 2325967119S0010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967119s00102.
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BACKGROUND Re-tear rates in pediatric and adolescent patients undergoing ACL reconstruction are higher than the general adult population. This has been postulated to be due to many reasons; one of which is participation in high risk activities. Athletes in professional sports are at increased risk of re-injury as well with high activity levels and often face additional pressure to return to sports quickly. The purpose of the study was to analyze ACL re-tear rates across male professional sports leagues in athletes following ACL reconstruction and return to play at the professional level to determine if there are similarities with the pediatric and adolescent population. METHODS This descriptive epidemiological study involved a comprehensive online search to identify male athletes in the National Basketball Association (NBA), National Hockey League (NHL), and Major League Baseball (MLB) who had a reported ACL tear between 2007 and 2017. The search included these professional sports league databases, public injury databases, and sports news reports. Each player with an identified ACL tear was searched for history of additional ACL injury. Re-tear rate was calculated for each league. For each ACL tear, the laterality, player position, return to play (defined as playing at least one game in a major or minor league in that sport), and approximate time to re-tear (months) were documented. Mechanism of tear (contact vs. non-contact) was recorded when available for the initial tears and retears via news reports or available video. Fisher’s exact test was performed to evaluate differences amongst re-tear rates and ANOVA was used to evaluate differences in time to re-tear amongst the three leagues. RESULTS The total number of ACL tears identified was 109 and the total number of re-tears was 13, for a total re-tear rate of 11.9%. ACL re-tear rates by league did not statistically differ, and were as follows: MLB, 11.5%; NBA, 9.3%; and NHL, 15.0%. Average time to re-tear was also not significantly different and was 24.7 months for MLB, 31.8 months for NBA, and 26.0 months for NHL. Return to play rate after index surgery was 94%, whereas return to play after a revision procedure was 84.6%. Our prior published meta-analysis of pediatric and adolescent ACL reconstruction failure rates was 8.3%. CONCLUSIONS / SIGNIFICANCE The ACL re-tear rates in multiple male professional sports leagues are higher than those reported in large registry studies and similar to the ACL re-injury rates previously reported in the NFL (12.3%). These revision rates are also more similar to those reported for pediatric patients. Exposure to high-risk sporting activity is likely a primary cause of ACL re-tear. The cited rates of ACL re-tear may thus be interpreted as a ‘best-case scenario’ in athletes returning to the highest level of activity, and may help to explain the similar high re-tear rates in the pediatric and adolescent population. TABLES AND FIGURES [Figure: see text]
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Wakefield, Kirk. "Using Fan Passion to Predict Attendance, Media Consumption, and Social Media Behaviors." Journal of Sport Management 30, no. 3 (May 2016): 229–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0039.
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Passion drives sport consumption, but we lack valid relevant measures of passion. The results of two studies provide evidence of a reliable and valid multiple-item passion scale that may be used in the study of sports-related consumption behavior. In Study 1 a multi-item fan passion scale was compared with established social identification fan classification scales to provide evidence of discriminant and predictive validity. Because the passion scale outperformed other relevant fan classification measures, in Study 2 the fan passion scale was compared with current single-item measurement practices employed by National Football League and Major League Baseball teams, and some academics, to classify fans. Findings confirmed the veracity of the multi-item passion measure over categorical and interval fan avidity measures used by leagues and syndicated research providers. Taken together, the studies validate an accurate measure of fan passion that may be used to segment and predict fan behaviors, including consumption of traditional media (television, radio, news, and the team’s website) and consumption of the team’s official social media outlets.
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Lenartowicz, Michał, and Anna Ciok. "Foreign players in Polish table tennis clubs: differences between sports cultures and coaches’ perception of the impact of foreign players on Polish table tennis." Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Sociologica, no. 75 (December 30, 2020): 15–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/0208-600x.75.02.
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The paper presents results of empirical study on elite international athletes and Polish coaches working in the Polish top table tennis clubs. It focuses on foreign players and investigated Polish the perceptions of coaches with regard to the differences between sports cultures in foreign players’ countries of origin and Poland, and their consequences for efficiency of sport training and competition results. Major research findings concerned Chinese athletes. Another issue analysed in the paper concerns on-going discussion on the limits, costs and benefits of introducing international players into national sport leagues. Based on the research results and literature review, we analyse the perceived impact of foreign players on the table tennis training system in Poland, relationships between Polish and foreign players and the role of international players in club competition. Applying qualitative research allowed the authors to present the insights and views of the investigated athletes and coaches, and to analyse problems occurring in the sport careers of international sport migrants a sport discipline that has hitherto not received much scrutiny.
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Nölleke, Daniel, and Thomas Birkner. "Bypassing traditional sports media? Why and how professional volleyball players use social networking sites." Studies in Communication and Media 8, no. 3 (2019): 287–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/2192-4007-2019-3-287.
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In recent years, social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have become major players in sports communication. In this study, we focus on the motives for athletes’ use of social media. Applying a mediatization approach, we conceptualize social media as a possible means to bypass traditional (sports) journalism. For sport disciplines that receive minor media coverage, social media provides the opportunity to increase public visibility. Consequently, our study focuses on indoor volleyball as such a marginalized sport. The online survey results from all players of the 24 either all-male or all-female teams of the German first volleyball leagues are combined with a quantitative content analysis of the players’ social media activities. Results indicate that athletes evaluate traditional media coverage of their sport as negative and social media as extremely influential. Still, their postings on social media seem neither to aim at bypassing sports journalism nor to address sports fans directly. Instead, they use social media primarily to connect with friends and family. In conclusion, volleyball players have so far not embraced social media as a tool to promote themselves as sportspersons. At the moment, they do not exploit social media’s potential as channels for professional sports communication.
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Abeza, Gashaw, Norm O’Reilly, and Benoit Seguin. "Social Media in Relationship Marketing: The Perspective of Professional Sport Managers in the MLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL." Communication & Sport 7, no. 1 (November 16, 2017): 80–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167479517740343.
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This study aims to obtain an in-depth understanding of the use, opportunities, and challenges related to social media (SM) in achieving relationship marketing (RM) goals in professional sport. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 26 managers of professional sport teams from the four major leagues in North America. Results outline the platforms adopted, the six intended objectives of SM use, the seven opportunities SM provides, and the seven challenges of SM as a RM medium. Theoretical and practical implications as well as suggestions for future research are provided.
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Hansen, Hal, and Roger Gauthier. "Marketing Objectives of Professional and University Sport Organizations." Journal of Sport Management 6, no. 1 (January 1992): 27–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.6.1.27.
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The heads of marketing and promotion for major professional and university sport organizations were asked to rate the relative importance of 19 marketing objectives on a 5-point Likert scale; 164 responded. Factor analysis resulted in the creation of six factors: player quality, community image of team, entertainment value of sport, team marketing, team as a contender, and attractiveness of game location. ANOVA, Tukey, and student t tests used on the data resulted in significant differences between leagues for the two factors of community image of team and entertainment value of sport. Professional teams favored 5 of 6 objectives over university teams: value of ticket price, entertainment value of the sport, image of the team, community-oriented nature of the team, and availability of athletes for community events.
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Dai, Qihang, Houxi Yu, and Pu Zhao. "Research on the Fan Composition and Consumption Behaviour of CUBA and NCAA." Highlights in Business, Economics and Management 4 (December 12, 2022): 524–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/hbem.v4i.3558.
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Since China successfully hosted the CUBA China University Basketball League for the first time in 1998, China’s college basketball development has achieved breakthrough achievements. Among the major colleges and universities in all regions of the country, the CUBA league has brought Basketball, a sport full of competitive sports charm and passion, into the lives of more and more students. However, because the league has only a history of more than 20 years since its establishment, the level of basketball competition among universities in various regions in China is seriously uneven. The gap is large, and the CUBA league is still in its infancy and early development stages. The various competition systems of the league, Management approaches, and how talent is introduced and balanced still need to be improved. This paper deeply analyzes the problems existing in CUBA through specific typical case analysis methods, literature research methods, and other methods. The results show that CUBA lacks venue interiors, technology, and other hardware facilities. The league system is too chaotic and inconvenient to manage; the difference in strength between leagues at all levels and universities is too great, resulting in low fans watching the game and other issues that CUBA should learn from the NCAA. This paper also makes strategic analyses and suggestions for the CUBA league, such as adjusting the competition system, delegating power to the government, increasing the infrastructure construction of venues, and balancing the average strength of players in various colleges and universities.
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Davidson, Nicholas P., James Du, and Michael D. Giardina. "Through the Perilous Fight: A Case Analysis of Professional Wrestling During the COVID-19 Pandemic." International Journal of Sport Communication 13, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 465–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2020-0224.
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The rapidly escalating COVID-19 pandemic has forced the sport industry into unchartered territory. Beginning on March 11, 2020, when the National Basketball Association suspended its season, the American sports landscape has consequently encountered an unprecedented number of temporary suspensions, postponements, and cancellations. Although most major leagues and their pertaining sports have halted to a sudden stop, professional wrestling has surprisingly continued on, including World Wrestling Entertainment’s WrestleMania 36, which was held without fans in attendance. The maintenance of professional wrestling during the COVID-19 crisis has presented a unique situation, in which fans and companies involved in the sport have rallied on social media platforms behind the sport’s relative normality in a time of global uncertainty. Leveraging publicly trackable Twitter data, we analyzed public sentiments toward two of the largest companies (e.g., World Wrestling Entertainment and All Elite Wrestling) in the professional wrestling industry and related trends during the widespread onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. The results represent exploratory insights surrounding the continuation of professional wrestling during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Abeza, Gashaw, Norm O’Reilly, Benoit Seguin, and Ornella Nzindukiyimana. "Social Media as a Relationship Marketing Tool in Professional Sport: A Netnographical Exploration." International Journal of Sport Communication 10, no. 3 (September 2017): 325–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2017-0041.
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This study, guided by the relationship marketing theoretical framework, adopted an observational netnography method to investigate professional sport teams’ use of Twitter as a relationship marketing tool. Specifically, the study focused on the three core components of the theoretical framework of relationship marketing: communication, interaction, and value. The observational netnography is based on data gathered from the official Twitter account of 20 professional sport teams in the four major North American leagues over a seven-month period. Results outline seven emergent communication types, six interaction practices, and ten values (co)created by the teams or/and fans. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as impetus for future research, are identified.
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Ebrahim, Mohamed F. A., N. David Pifer, Saad Ahmed Saad Shalaby, Karim Mohamed Mahmoud El Hakim, Hosam El Dien El Sayed Mubarak, and James J. Zhang. "Is Egyptian soccer well-positioned for business purposes? Assessing competitive balance in the Egyptian Premier League." International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 19, no. 2 (May 8, 2018): 236–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijsms-05-2017-0036.
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PurposeThe Egyptian Premier League (EPL) holds a prominent place in Egypt’s sporting culture and serves as the stage for some of Africa’s most competitive soccer clubs. However, the actual competitive balance in this league has come under scrutiny in recent years as the two historically dominant Cairo clubs, Ahly and Zamalek, continue to retain the EPL championship. A major concern is that the competitive imbalance of the EPL may actually be hampering the league’s progress and the progress of soccer in Egypt. In order to more closely assess this situation, the purpose of this paper is to use historical EPL performance data to conduct a series of competitive balance analyses on league results from 1948 to 2014. The findings revealed that competition in the league is almost nonexistent as Ahly and Zamalek continue to enjoy a number of direct and indirect financial benefits that are unrealized by their competitors. The dominance of these clubs has compromised the elements of match uncertainty and drama that are traditionally viewed as being important to the prestige and financial achievements of leagues and teams. Discussion is therefore offered for how the EPL could go about resolving some of its organizational and competitive balance issues.Design/methodology/approachThis study adopted four basic measures of competitive balance to conduct descriptive analyses on EPL data that were collected from egyptianfootball.net and the Rec Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation. These analyses began with the EPL’s inaugural season (1948-1949) and extended to the conclusion of the 2014-2015 season. During this timeframe, seven seasons were canceled due to global and political tensions and four more went unfinished. Because these seasons were excluded, the total sample size consisted of 56 seasons, each of which contained between 10 and 24 EPL teams. The data were analyzed using variations of the following competitive balance measures: the range and standard deviation of winning percentages, the ratio of the standard deviation/Noll-Scully approach, the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, and five-club concentration ratio.FindingsThe results confirmed that the league is largely imbalanced, leading the authors to recommend systemic and structural changes that could help promote competitive balance in the league. The call for competitive balance in the EPL was bolstered by a literature review of studies that advocated for parity in professional sports leagues. In the end, the researchers recommend the EPL to improve its organizational policies and consider a revised revenue-sharing system that would allow the small-market teams to survive and thrive.Originality/valueThe EPL holds a prominent place in Egypt’s sporting culture and serves as the stage for some of Africa’s most competitive soccer clubs. The primary purpose of this study was to perform a series of competitive balance analyses on EPL results from 1948 to 2015 in an effort to better understand the various degrees of competitiveness in the league during this time.
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Kauppi, Katri, Claire Moxham, and David Bamford. "Should we try out for the major leagues? A call for research in sport operations management." International Journal of Operations & Production Management 33, no. 10 (September 16, 2013): 1368–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijopm-11-2011-0418.
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Jang, Wooyoung (William), Kevin K. Byon, and Brian H. Yim. "Sportscape, emotion, and behavioral intention: a case of the big four US-based major sport leagues." European Sport Management Quarterly 20, no. 3 (May 14, 2019): 321–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2019.1607521.
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Miragaia, Dina, João Ferreira, Alexandre Carvalho, and Vanessa Ratten. "Interactions between financial efficiency and sports performance." Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 8, no. 1 (March 11, 2019): 84–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jepp-d-18-00060.
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Purpose In the current economic climate, the huge rise in the levels of debt incurred by professional football clubs challenges the need to improve their efficiency levels. Hence, analysis of their productivity is essential and represents an integral dimension to any realistic and efficient strategy. Any such strategy includes the identification and analysis of the inputs and outputs that underpin club sustainability. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between the team performance of professional European football clubs and the stability of their financial efficiency. Design/methodology/approach The sample spans 15 professional football clubs that won the league titles in the leading football leagues (the English, German, Spanish, Italian and French leagues) in the period between 2009 and 2014. The analysis made recourse to the data envelopment analysis method. Findings The results demonstrate that of the 15 clubs analysed, only 10 proved efficient. Football is now an industry that moves major quantities of financial capital and holds the attentions of large groups of fans worldwide. However, despite this attractiveness, the financial crisis and recession, ongoing since 2008, increasingly requires the better management of such resources. To this end, clubs should improve their control over the financial resources available given the positive relationship prevailing between the sporting performance of clubs and their levels of financial efficiency. Originality/value Analysis of the efficiency levels of the inputs and outputs encapsulating performance related financial variables may aid in improving the standards of planning and sustainable management at professional sport clubs.
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Wanat, Tomasz, and Łukasz Leksowski. "Short- and long-term effects of transfers on football clubs' sport performance." Journal of Education, Health and Sport 12, no. 5 (May 23, 2022): 252–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/jehs.2022.12.05.019.
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One of the important elements of football club quality management is the sale and purchase of player’s cards. These activities have important implications for the financial and sport performance of football clubs. The purpose of this paper is to determine how players transfers affect football teams’ sport performance. Data on transfers and sport performance came from available databases. They covered the period from 2004/05 to 2018/19 (before the pandemic). For data analysis, a series of hierarchical analysis of regression were conducted. The results show that there is an effect of transfers on football teams’ sport performance but it explains a relatively small amount of football club’s sport performance. The impact from a transfer in a given year affects sport performance not only in the same year, but also in subsequent years. However, the effect of transfer disappears when control variables are introduced. Thus, the general conclusion from the study is that there is no overall effect of transfers on teams’ sport performance. The analyses were conducted only on clubs from the 5 major European leagues and football clubs that were continuously present in the top division. Due to the fact that it included mainly the strongest clubs, the results are relevant for clubs wishing to build up their sporting position on the European market. It is less relevant for weaker clubs. The study consisted of using data over a period of several years, which provides an opportunity to trace the dynamics of change and long-term effects, which is rarely analyzed in the sports literature.
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Satarasinghe, Praveen, D. Kojo Hamilton, Robert J. Buchanan, and Michael T. Koltz. "Unifying Pathophysiological Explanations for Sports-Related Concussion and Concussion Protocol Management: Literature Review." Journal of Experimental Neuroscience 13 (January 2019): 117906951882412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1179069518824125.
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Objective: There is a plethora of theories about the pathophysiology behind a sport-related concussion. In this review of the literature, the authors evaluated studies on the pathophysiology of sport-related concussion and professional athlete return-to-play guidelines. The goal of this article is to summarize the most common hypotheses for sport-related concussion, evaluate if there are common underlying mechanisms, and determine if correlations are seen between published mechanisms and the most current return-to-play recommendations. Methods: Two authors selected papers from the past 5 years for literature review involving discussion of sport-related concussion and pathophysiology, pathology, or physiology of concussion using mutually agreed-upon search criteria. After the articles were filtered based on search criteria, pathophysiological explanations for concussion were organized into tables. Following analysis of pathophysiology, concussion protocols and return-to-play guidelines were obtained via a Google search for the major professional sports leagues and synthesized into a summary table. Results: Out of 1112 initially identified publications, 53 met our criteria for qualitative analysis. The 53 studies revealed 5 primary neuropathological explanations for sport-related concussion, regardless of the many theories talked about in the different papers. These 5 explanations, in order of predominance in the articles analyzed, were (1) tauopathy, (2) white matter changes, (3) neural connectivity alterations, (4) reduction in cerebral perfusion, and (5) gray matter atrophy. Pathology may be sport specific: white matter changes are seen in 47% of football reports, tauopathy is seen in 50% of hockey reports, and soccer reports 50% tauopathy as well as 50% neural connectivity alterations. Analysis of the return-to-play guidelines across professional sports indicated commonalities in concussion management despite individual policies. Conclusions: Current evidence on pathophysiology for sport-related concussion does not yet support one unifying mechanism, but published hypotheses may potentially be simplified into 5 primary groups. The unification of the complex, likely multifactorial mechanisms for sport-related concussion to a few common explanations, combined with unique findings within individual sports presented in this report, may help filter and link concussion pathophysiology in sport. By doing so, the authors hope that this review will help guide future concussion research, treatment, and management.
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Inan, Tuğbay, Beyza Cetin, and Ozge Gungorur. "The Effect of the First Goal on Match Score in Football for the Home Field Advantage." Journal of Education and Training Studies 7, no. 8 (June 17, 2019): 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v7i8.4331.
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The interest in sports in the world is increasing in parallel with the developments in communication technology, . As a result of this increase, the number of researches conducted on sports industry and sport management has also showed an increase. The field of sport that attracts the most attention worldwide is football. Data analysis and statistical research are also included in football researches in this field of sports that intertwines with different fields of science such as football management, finance and sports industry. In addition to the econometric measurement methods on the related researches, the variables affecting the results of the competition and the statistical analyzes that determine the impact strength of these variables are more abundant in the literature. As a result of the competitions, the variables affecting the results of a competition attract the attention of football players, technical team, fans, media organizations and sports managers. When it comes to this study, it was planned to statistically determine the effect of the first goal in the European football leagues on the results of the match. From 5 countries in Europe Spain, France, Germany, England and Italy in particular, data belonging to the matches of the teams in which they were the home team between 2014-2017 seasons was used. A total of 5478 matches were analyzed in which 1140 matches were from Spain, 918 from Germany, 1140 from France, 1140 from England and 1140 from Italy. The relationship between the first goal and the match result was determined by the chi-square independence test. SPSS 24.0 package program was used in the analysis. The first goal independent variable in the study was examined and it was found that there was a relationship between the first goal and the match results (p <0.05). As far as results of the research data are concerned, it was found that there was a relationship between the first goal scored and the match results of the 5 major European football leagues when the teams were the home teams during the three seasons. Accordingly, the importance of the first goal was demonstrated by this study.
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Moorhouse, Herbert F. "It’s Goals That Count? Football Finance and Football Subcultures." Sociology of Sport Journal 3, no. 3 (September 1986): 245–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ssj.3.3.245.
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In Britain, professional football (soccer) is the major sport and has been the focus of considerable sociological study. This paper argues that previous studies, which have concentrated on football’s relation to class relations and class cultures, have erred by ignoring the role of football finance. Evidence is provided about the relation in Britain between two professional leagues, the English and the Scottish; and the financial situation of four major clubs, two from each side of the border, is traced to reveal significant differences between them. These variations are then used to show how particular patterns of football finance feed into the symbols and images that surround the game in Scotland and that feed into the popular culture of that country in a way which preempts class as the most fruitful line of analysis.
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Bouchet, Adrien, Michael Troilo, and Brian R. Walkup. "Dynamic pricing usage in sports for revenue management." Managerial Finance 42, no. 9 (September 12, 2016): 913–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/mf-01-2016-0017.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which dynamic pricing is utilized in North American professional sports. While industries such as airlines and travel services have employed dynamic pricing for decades, professional sports is only now starting to adopt it. Design/methodology/approach The authors survey and interview high ranking executives and managers in North American sports organizations. A total of 72 managers and executives from the four major North American professional sports leagues as well as other sport properties were surveyed. Descriptive statistics and a basic regression provide insight into perceptions v. actual practice among sports organizations. Findings While most sports organizations perceive high usage of dynamic pricing within their organization, current procedures lag. Nearly 70 percent of respondents believe that their organizations frequently or always apply business analytics to dynamic pricing, but only 30 percent update their prices daily. Fully 50 percent of organizations do not automate decision-making processes, which is a hallmark of dynamic pricing. The perception of constant use of analytics in dynamic pricing intensifies as job title increases. Originality/value As one of the initial surveys looking at the usage of dynamic pricing in North American professional sports, this study provides a glimpse into both the perception and the reality. It suggests that there is still ample room for improvement.
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Davies, Chris, and Neil Dunbar. "EUROPEAN FOOTBALL AND THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC – ITS IMPACT ON COMPETITIONS, CLUBS AND PLAYER CONTRACTS." Malaysian Journal of Sport Science and Recreation (MJSSR) 18, no. 1 (March 15, 2022): 66. http://dx.doi.org/10.24191/mjssr.v18i1.17640.
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European football, like all major sport around the world, was heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. All national leagues in Europe had to suspend their 2019-20 seasons, though most were eventually able to complete them by extending the seasons beyond their usual finishing dates. However, these resumed fixtures had to be played in empty stadiums, as were most matches in the 2020-21 seasons. This article considers how these problems were dealt with by investigating the three key areas of competitions, the clubs and player contracts. UEFA, and the governing bodies of the various national leagues, demonstrated flexibility and adaptability in running the competitions which was crucial to their successful completion. The clubs suffered from loss of revenue due to reduced broadcasting rights and gate receipts but did obtain some financial assistance from a variety of sources. Player contracts had to be dealt with on a more individual basis depending on the law applicable to them and the negotiations between the individual clubs and their players, although there were national agreements in some countries. In the circumstances, European football appears to have survived the COVID-19 pandemic reasonably well, although the recent advent of the Omnicron variant indicates that the problems may not be over yet.
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Lee, Soonhwan, and Joonyoung Han. "Practitioners’ Perceptions of Student-Intern Skills Necessary to be Prepared for an Internship Experience in Major Professional Sport Organizations." Sport Management Education Journal 5, no. 1 (October 2011): 32–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/smej.5.1.32.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the required skills and educational background of internship students from the on-site supervisors’ point of view. A questionnaire examined the role of the internship, the skills student interns should possess and several other issues related to the intern’s experiences including the minimum number of hours for student interns’ best experiences, preferred academic backgrounds of student interns, the responsibilities of faculty internship advisors, stipend or salary, important skills student interns should possess, number of student interns organizations accept, practitioners’ thoughts on requiring internships in sport management, chances for student interns to be hired afterwards, and internship evaluation. According to 36 on-site internship supervisors’ responses to the questionnaire, 50% of the major North American professional sport leagues were paying student interns equivalent to only minimum wage or a slightly higher rate compared to the national average a paid intern was receiving ($15.00-$16.00 per hour). Other findings were the number of student interns accepted and the number of hours those interns were expected to work. However, no specific courses were required of students in order to be considered for internships. Overall, grade point average (GPA) was not found to be a main factor on-site internship supervisors used to select appropriate student interns. While it is generally assumed that a cooperative relationship among the student, the onsite internship supervisor and the academic faculty supervisor is vital, on-site internship supervisors were not as cooperative as the literature suggests. It was also determined that student interns were not consistently evaluated to any great extent and therefore a universal manual should be developed for assessment purposes. The findings of this study also documented that on-site internship supervisors and academic faculty supervisors held different expectations and perceptions in terms of fulfilling the requirements for a degree.