Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Macropod'

Collisions between animals and motor vehicles are frequent and often result in animal mortality. In Australia, macropods are regular victims of these collisions. This has serious implications for animal welfare and conservation as well as aesthetics and tourism. Collisions with large animals and secondary collisions caused by the presence of animals on road easements, can lead to serious personal injury and property damage. A range of mitigative measures to prevent animal-vehicle collisions exists, but no single measure can be fully effective and the efficacy of many mitigation measures remains untested. An integrated management approach, employing many mitigative techniques is required to reduce vehicle-animal collisions. Repellents have recently been identified as a potential mitigative measure for reducing vehicle-animal collisions. The aim of this study was to identify the potential role of repellents in reducing macropod-vehicle collisions in New South Wales. This required the identification and assessment of potential repellents since research investigating repellents in an Australian context is scant. Macropus rufogriseus banksianus was selected as a test species for this research as a high abundance of this species exists in southeastern Australia and it is a common victim of roadkill in New South Wales. Preliminary screening trials of four potential macropod repellents highlighted the utility of two of the substances: Plant Plus, a synthetic compound based on the chemistry of dog urine; and a formulation consisting of chicken eggs. Feeding by M. rufogriseus banksianus was significantly reduced when these substances were applied near feed trays. Modest results were also detected for Δ3-isopentenyl methyl sulfide (a constituent of fox urine), while a commercial animal repellent (SCAT® Bird and Animal Repellent) was ineffective in altering feeding by M. rufogriseus banksianus. A barrier trial conducted with the two most successful repellents indicated that Plant Plus was a more effective macropod repellent then the egg formulation. Plant Plus displayed qualities of an area repellent and elicited a stronger response from M. rufogriseus banksianus when compared to the egg formulation. Further captive trials determined that the habituation of response to Plant Plus by M. rufogriseus banksianus was minimal after six weeks of constant exposure and Plant Plus retained repellent properties after exposure to ambient environmental conditions for at least ten weeks. Field trials to establish the effectiveness of Plant Plus with free ranging macropods (M. rufogriseus banksianus and M. giganteus) were unsuccessful due to methodological limitations stemming from high background variance in observed responses, equipment failure and site disturbance from outside influences. The potential role of Plant Plus as a repellent for managing macropod-vehicle collisions was highlighted by the captive trials. However, several factors requiring further research were identified. This included assessing the repellent abilities of Plant Plus in the field and further defining the properties of Plant Plus with captive trials. The effects of Plant Plus on non-target species and an assessment of potential environmental impacts also requires attention. Research assessing the potential role of repellents in other management contexts in Australia would be beneficial and the identification and assessment of repellents for other species should proceed. However, in the context of assessing repellents for use in the management of vehicle-macropod collisions, immediate focus should concentrate on extending the research to assess the effects of Plant Plus with other species of large macropod, and assessing if Plant Plus can reduce the numbers of macropods in road easements.

Collisions between animals and motor vehicles are frequent and often result in animal mortality. In Australia, macropods are regular victims of these collisions. This has serious implications for animal welfare and conservation as well as aesthetics and tourism. Collisions with large animals and secondary collisions caused by the presence of animals on road easements, can lead to serious personal injury and property damage. A range of mitigative measures to prevent animal-vehicle collisions exists, but no single measure can be fully effective and the efficacy of many mitigation measures remains untested. An integrated management approach, employing many mitigative techniques is required to reduce vehicle-animal collisions. Repellents have recently been identified as a potential mitigative measure for reducing vehicle-animal collisions. The aim of this study was to identify the potential role of repellents in reducing macropod-vehicle collisions in New South Wales. This required the identification and assessment of potential repellents since research investigating repellents in an Australian context is scant. Macropus rufogriseus banksianus was selected as a test species for this research as a high abundance of this species exists in southeastern Australia and it is a common victim of roadkill in New South Wales. Preliminary screening trials of four potential macropod repellents highlighted the utility of two of the substances: Plant Plus, a synthetic compound based on the chemistry of dog urine; and a formulation consisting of chicken eggs. Feeding by M. rufogriseus banksianus was significantly reduced when these substances were applied near feed trays. Modest results were also detected for ?3-isopentenyl methyl sulfide (a constituent of fox urine), while a commercial animal repellent (SCATREPLACE3 Bird and Animal Repellent) was ineffective in altering feeding by M. rufogriseus banksianus.;A barrier trial conducted with the two most successful repellents indicated that Plant Plus was a more effective macropod repellent then the egg formulation. Plant Plus displayed qualities of an area repellent and elicited a stronger response from M. rufogriseus banksianus when compared to the egg formulation. Further captive trials determined that the habituation of response to Plant Plus by M. rufogriseus banksianus was minimal after six weeks of constant exposure and Plant Plus retained repellent properties after exposure to ambient environmental conditions for at least ten weeks. Field trials to establish the effectiveness of Plant Plus with free ranging macropods (M. rufogriseus banksianus and M. giganteus) were unsuccessful due to methodological limitations stemming from high background variance in observed responses, equipment failure and site disturbance from outside influences. The potential role of Plant Plus as a repellent for managing macropod-vehicle collisions was highlighted by the captive trials. However, several factors requiring further research were identified. This included assessing the repellent abilities of Plant Plus in the field and further defining the properties of Plant Plus with captive trials. The effects of Plant Plus on non-target species and an assessment of potential environmental impacts also requires attention. Research assessing the potential role of repellents in other management contexts in Australia would be beneficial and the identification and assessment of repellents for other species should proceed. However, in the context of assessing repellents for use in the management of vehicle-macropod collisions, immediate focus should concentrate on extending the research to assess the effects of Plant Plus with other species of large macropod, and assessing if Plant Plus can reduce the numbers of macropods in road easements.

Based on the recommendations of both the 1993 Reintroduction biology of Australasian Fauna Conference and the 1994 Rock Wallaby Symposium, captive-bred Yellow footed rock wallabies were reintroduced into areas of their former ranges in both South Australia and Queensland

Despite extensive investigation, a complete understanding of the evolutionary history of the Macropodidae (kangaroos and their kin) has remained elusive. This research has utilized DNA sequences and retrotransposons (genes that jump around within the genome) to shed light on the evolutionary timing and dynamics of these iconic marsupials over the past 20 million years, and draw correlations with past climate change events. The research shows that these marsupials underwent a rapid radiation, diversifying into a wide array of forms, coincident with a trend of climatic cooling and drying over the past ~8 million years.

[Truncated abstract] Understanding the effect that the disturbance of habitat by humans has on the population dynamics and ecology of wild animals is critical for the management of these populations. By understanding the demographic effects of disturbance the ways in which a population can be managed to increase or decrease its rate of change in size also become apparent. This thesis describes the effect that human disturbance, through the establishment of a large naval base, has had on the population dynamics and ecology of tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii) on Garden Island, Western Australia. The disturbance of the environment on the HMAS Stirling Naval Base included the establishment of large areas of irrigated and fertilised couch grass (Cynodon dactylon) that increased and made virtually constant the amount of food available to the tammars in that area. In addition, traffic associated with the naval base resulted in large numbers of tammar wallabies being killed by vehicles. The effects of these disturbances were determined by comparing population dynamics, through vital rates of survival and fecundity and population growth rates, and spatial ecology, through the size of the animals' home ranges, in three areas of Garden Island. The three areas were the naval base (highly disturbed), southern bushland (adjacent to the naval base) and the northern bushland (undisturbed). The tammars on the naval base were in better body condition than those living in the two bushland areas of the island. ... When the impact of road-kills was removed, increased to 1.150.101 per year on the naval base and 0.960.076 per year in the southern bushland. Fecundity transitions, defined as the product of the rates of birth and pouch-young survival, and adult survival rates were lower in the bushland areas compared with the naval base in two of the three years, which were the main reasons for the lower estimates. There were no significant differences in the size of the tammars' home ranges between areas with modified or unmodified habitats or between the sexes (P>0.05). In summer the mean size of the home ranges was 3.90.66 ha, which was larger than winter when home ranges were 3.20.54 ha, but this difference failed to reach significance (P=0.058). These results indicate that the modification of the tammars' habitat has probably not caused significant changes in the size of the animals' home ranges. The size of the home ranges of tammar wallabies is likely to be determined by a complex interaction of many factors, and habitat modification alone has not been sufficient to cause substantial changes. The results presented in this thesis demonstrate that the disturbance caused by the establishment of the naval base on Garden Island has altered the population dynamics of the tammars wallabies, through increasing in the amount of food available to the tammars and through high numbers of road-kills. These results also demonstrate how gaining detailed knowledge of population dynamics can have direct application to managing the impact of disturbance on populations of wild animals.

La modélisation des écoulements et du transport dans les milieux poreux est un domaine actif pour, notamment, progresser dans la compréhension du transfert des polluants dans les sols. Les sols présentent fréquemment des hétérogénéités comme des macropores (provoqués par la faune, la flore ou des fissures) et un certain nombre de modèles numériques utilisent les concepts de double ou de multi-perméabilité pour tenir compte de tous les types d’écoulements susceptibles de coexister dans de tels systèmes. Cependant, les modèles classiques semblent sous-estimer l’effet de la macroporosité sur l’écoulement et le transfert préférentiels et restreindre la zone d’écoulement préférentiel au seul volume occupé par la macroporosité. Diverses études expérimentales antérieures à cette thèse ont questionné cette hypothèse. Cette étude se propose de comprendre l’établissement de l’écoulement et du transport préférentiel et en particulier les mécanismes d’échange d’eau et de masse entre un macropore et une matrice poreuse environnante en condition saturée. Pour cela, des traçages de l’eau sont réalisés pour un milieu poreux modèle constitué de billes de verre, traversé par un macropore synthétique et mis en place en colonnes de laboratoire. Elution et transfert dans les colonnes sont caractérisés par suivi de la concentration en sortie et par imagerie par résonance magnétique. Un modèle numérique développé sur la base de la méthode de Boltzmann sur réseau est utilisé pour simuler numériquement des écoulements dans un système macroporé et identifier les mécanismes d’écoulements préférentiels à l’échelle de pores. Les données expérimentales montrent que le transfert du traceur est fortement dépendant du débit d’injection ainsi que du coefficient de diffusion dans l’eau. À fort débit, le transfert semble s’effectuer exclusivement dans le macropore, avec très peu d’échange avec la matrice. Pour des débits plus faibles, la percée présente une inflexion suivie d’un pic. Les images IRM montrent alors un échange significatif de traceur entre le macropore et la matrice poreuse environnante. Les simulations numériques sont utilisées pour calculer le champ de vitesse de l’écoulement dans le système en fonction du débit. Les modélisations numériques montrent que l’écoulement préférentiel est étendu dans la matrice poreuse sur une zone de même dimension que le diamètre moyen des grains indépendamment de la taille du macropore et du débit, dans la gamme de débits simulés. Ces résultats expérimentaux et numériques montrent que l’influence du macropore sur les transferts doit être étendue dans la matrice poreuse sur une zone de la taille des grains pour l’écoulement et sur une zone dépendant du coefficient de diffusion du traceur ainsi que du temps de séjour moyen de celui-ci pour le transfert des solutés
Flow and transport modeling through porous media is of primary concern nowadays, especially in order to progress in the understanding of pollutant transfers through soils. Soils present frequently heterogeneities such as macropores (caused by fauna, flora or cracks) and several numerical models use double or multi permeability concepts in order to take into account all flow types that may exist in such porous systems. Nevertheless, classical models seem underestimate the macropore effect on preferential flow and transport by restricting the preferential flow zone only to the volume occupied by the macroporosity. Various experimental studies prior to this thesis have questioned this hypothesis. This study proposes to understand the establishment of preferential flow and transport and in particular the mechanism of flow and solute exchanges between a synthetic macropore and a surrounding porous matrix in saturated condition. For this purpose, water tracing are realized for a model porous media constituted by glass beads, crossed by a synthetic macropore and implemented in laboratory columns. Breakthrough and transport in columns are characterized by monitoring the concentration at the end of the column by magnetic nuclear resonance. A numerical model developed on the basis of lattice-Boltzmann method is used to simul ate flow in macroporous system and identify preferential flow mechanisms at pore scale. Experimental data show that tracer transport is strongly dependent on injection flow rate and the diffusion coefficient in water. At high flow rate, the transport seems to occur exclusively in the macropore, with very little masse exchange with the porous matrix. At lower flow rates, the breakthrough exhibits an inflexion followed by a peak. The MRI images show a significant mass exchange of tracer between the macropore and the surrounding porous matrix. The numerical simulations are used to calculate the flow field in a porous system as a function of flow rate. They show that preferential flow is extended in porous matrix into a zone of same dimension the mean diameter of beads regardless of macropore size or injected flow rate, in the range of simulated flow rates. These experimental and numerical results show that macropore influence on transport should be extended through the surrounding porous matrix into a zone of the same size of grains diameter for flow and into a zone depending on diffusion coefficient as well as mean residence time of the studied tracer for solute transport

Based on the recommendations of both the 1993 Reintroduction biology of Australasian Fauna Conference and the 1994 Rock Wallaby Symposium, captive-bred Yellow footed rock wallabies were reintroduced into areas of their former ranges in both South Australia and Queensland

This work explores the equilibrium structure and thermodynamic phase behavior of complexes formed by charged polymer chains (polyelectrolytes) and oppositely charged spheres (macroions). Polyelectrolyte-macroion complexes form a common pattern in soft-matter physics, chemistry and biology, and enter in numerous technological applications as well. From a fundamental point of view, such complexes are interesting in that they combine the subtle interplay between electrostatic interactions and elastic as well as entropic effects due to conformational changes of the polymer chain, giving rise to a wide range of structural properties. This forms the central theme of theoretical studies presented in this thesis, which concentrate on a number of different problems involving strongly coupled complexes, i.e. complexes that are characterized by a large adsorption energy and small chain fluctuations.

In the first part, a global analysis of the structural phase behavior of a single polyelectrolyte-macroion complex is presented based on a dimensionless representation, yielding results that cover a wide range of realistic system parameters. Emphasize is made on the interplay between the effects due to the polyelectrolytes chain length, salt concentration and the macroion charge as well as the mechanical chain persistence length. The results are summarized into generic phase diagrams characterizing the wrapping-dewrapping behavior of a polyelectrolyte chain on a macroion. A fully wrapped chain state is typically obtained at intermediate salt concentrations and chain lengths, where the amount of polyelectrolyte charge adsorbed on the macroion typically exceeds the bare macroion charge leading thus to a highly overcharged complex.

Perhaps the most striking features occur when a single long polyelectrolyte chain is complexed with many oppositely charged spheres. In biology, such complexes form between DNA (which carries the cell's genetic information) and small oppositely charged histone proteins serving as an efficient mechanism for packing a huge amount of DNA into the micron-size cell nucleus in eucaryotic cells. The resultant complex fiber, known as the chromatin fiber, appears with a diameter of 30~nm under physiological conditions. Recent experiments indicate a zig-zag spatial arrangement for individual DNA-histone complexes (nucleosome core particles) along the chromatin fiber. A numerical method is introduced in this thesis based on a simple generic chain-sphere cell model that enables one to investigate the mechanism of fiber formation on a systematic level by incorporating electrostatic and elastic contributions. As will be shown, stable complex fibers exhibit an impressive variety of structures including zig-zag, solenoidal and beads-on-a-string patterns, depending on system parameters such as salt concentration, sphere charge as well as the chain contour length (per sphere). The present results predict fibers of compact zig-zag structure within the physiologically relevant regime with a diameter of about 30~nm, when DNA-histone parameters are adopted.

In the next part, a numerical method is developed in order to investigate the role of thermal fluctuations on the structure and thermodynamic phase behavior of polyelectrolyte-macroion complexes. This is based on a saddle-point approximation, which allows to describe the experimentally observed reaction (or complexation) equilibrium in a dilute solution of polyelectrolytes and macroions on a systematic level. This equilibrium is determined by the entropy loss a single polyelectrolyte chain suffers as it binds to an oppositely charged macroion. This latter quantity can be calculated from the spectrum of polyelectrolyte fluctuations around a macroion, which is determined by means of a normal-mode analysis. Thereby, a stability phase diagram is obtained, which exhibits qualitative agreement with experimental findings.

At elevated complex concentrations, one needs to account for the inter-complex interactions as well. It will be shown that at small separations, complexes undergo structural changes in such a way that positive patches from one complex match up with negative patches on the other. Furthermore, one of the polyelectrolyte chains may bridge between the two complexes. These mechanisms lead to a strong inter-complex attraction. As a result, the second virial coefficient associated with the inter-complex interaction becomes negative at intermediate salt concentrations in qualitative agreement with recent experiments on solutions of nucleosome core particles.
In dieser Arbeit werden Gleichgewichtsstrukturen und die thermodynamischen Phasen von Komplexen aus geladenen Polymeren (Polyelektrolyten) und entgegengesetzt geladenen Kugeln (Makroionen) untersucht. Polyelektrolyt-Makroion-Komplexe bilden ein grundlegendes und wiederkehrendes Prinzip in der Physik weicher Materie sowie in Chemie und Biologie. In zahlreichen technologischen Prozessen finden sich ebenfalls Anwendungsbeispiele für derartige Komplexe. Zusätzlich zu ihrem häufigen Auftreten sind sie aufgrund ihrer Vielfalt von strukturellen Eigenschaften von grundlegendem Interesse. Diese Vielfalt wird durch ein Zusammenspiel von elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen sowie elastischen und entropischen Effekten aufgrund von Konformationsänderungen in der Polymerkette bedingt und bildet das zentrale Thema der theoretischen Studien, die mit dieser Arbeit vorgelegt werden. Verschiedene Strukturen und Prozesse, die stark gekoppelte Komplexe beinhalten - das sind solche, für die eine hohe Adsorptionsenergie und geringe Fluktuationen in den Polymerketten charakteristisch sind -, bilden das Hauptthema der Arbeit.

Basierend auf einer dimensionslosen Darstellung wird im ersten Teil der Arbeit in einer umfassenden Analyse das strukturelle Phasenverhalten einzelner Polyelektrolyt-Makroion-Komplexe behandelt. Der Schwerpunkt wird hier auf das Wechselspiel zwischen Effekten aufgrund der Polyelektrolytkettenlänge, ihrer mechanischen Persistenzlänge, der Salzkonzentration und der Ladung des Makroions gelegt. Die Ergebnisse werden in allgemeinen Phasendiagrammen zusammengestellt, das das Aufwickeln-Abwickeln-Verhalten der Polyelektrolytkette auf einem Makroion beschreibt. Ein Zustand mit komplett aufgewickelter Kette tritt typischerweise bei mittleren Salzkonzentrationen und Kettenlängen auf; häufig ist hier die auf dem Makroion adsorbierte Gesamtladung des Polyelektrolyts größ er als die Ladung des nackten Makroions, d.h. es findet in hohem Grad Ladungsinversion statt.

Äußerst bemerkenswerte Eigenschaften treten auf, wenn eine einzelne lange Polyelektrolytkette viele, ihr entgegengesetzt geladene Kugeln komplexiert. In biologischen Systemen findet man solche Komplexe zwischen DNS, die die genetische Information einer Zelle trägt, und kleinen, entgegengesetzt geladenen Histonproteinen. Diese Komplexe dienen als effizienter Mechanismus, die groß e Menge an DNS im Mikrometer-groß en Zellkern eukaryotischer Zellen zu komprimieren. Die dadurch erhaltene komplexe Faser, eine Chromatinfaser, hat unter physiologischen Bedingungen einen Durchmesser von nur etwa 30~nm. Neue Experimente haben gezeigt, dass eine räumliche Zickzack-Anordnung einzelner DNA-Histon-Komplexe entlang der Chromatinfaser vorliegt. In der hier vorgelegten Arbeit wird eine numerische Methode vorgestellt, die auf einem einfachen Ketten-Kugel-Zell-Modell basiert und die die systematische Untersuchung des Mechnismus zur Faserbildung ermöglicht, wobei sowohl elektrostatische als auch elastische Wechselwirkungen berücksichtigt werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass stabile Komplexfasern in Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration, der Kugelladung und der Kettenkonturlänge eine Vielfalt von Strukturen aufweisen, darunter Zickzack-, Solenoid- und Perlenkettenformen. Für physiologisch relevante Bedingungen werden mit dieser Methode für DNA-Histon-Komplexe Fasern kompakter Zickzack-Struktur mit einem Durchmesser von etwa 30~nm erhalten.

Im folgenden Teil wird eine numerische Methode entwickelt, um den Einfluss thermischer Fluktuationen auf Struktur und thermodynamisches Phasenverhalten der Polyelektrolyt-Makroion-Komplexe zu untersuchen. Basierend auf der Sattelpunktsnäherung werden die experimentell beobachteten Reaktionsgleichgewichte in verdünnten Lösungen von Polyelektrolyten und Makroionen systematisch beschrieben. Das Gleichgewicht ist durch einen Verlust an Entropie für die einzelne Polyelektrolytkette durch die Bindung an das entgegengesetzt geladene Makroion gekennzeichnet. Diese Größ e wurde aus dem Spektrum der Polyelektrolytfluktuationen um das Makroion erhalten und mittels einer Analyse der Normalmoden berechnet. Hierüber wird ein Phasendiagramm zur Stabilität der Komplexe erhalten, das qualitativ gute Übereinstimmungen mit experimentellen Ergebnissen aufweist.

Bei höheren Komplexkonzentrationen müssen auch die Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Komplexen berücksichtigt werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass sich die Struktur der Komplexe bei kleinen Abständen so ändert, dass positiv geladene Bereiche eines Komplexes mit negativ geladenen auf einem Nachbarkomplex räumlich korrelieren. Weiterhin können einzelne Polyelektrolytketten als verbrückendes Element zwischen zwei Komplexen dienen. Dieser Mechanismus führt zu starker effektiver Anziehung zwischen den Komplexen. In Übereinstimmung mit kürzlich durchgeführten Experimenten ist als Folge davon der zweite Virialkoeffizient der Wechselwirkung zwischen Komplexen bei mittleren Salzkonzentrationen negativ.

"November 2001".
Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Division of Environmental and Life Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, 2002.
Bibliography: leaves 136-157.
General introduction -- Molecular markers for comparative and quantitative studies in macropods -- Genetic linkage map construction in the tammar wallaby (M. eugenii) -- Intraspecific variation, sex-biased dispersal and phylogeography of the eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus) -- General discussion.
The analysis of DNA using molecular techniques is an important tool for studies of evolutionary relationships, population genetics and genome organisation. The use of molecular markers within marsupials is primarily limited by their availability and success of amplification. Within this study, 77 macropodid type II microsatellite loci and two type I genetic markers were characterised within M. eugenii to evaluate polymorphic levels and cross-species amplification artifacts. Results indicated that 65 microsatellite loci amplified a single locus in M. eugenii with 44 exhibiting high levels of variability. The success of crossspecies amplification of microsatellite loci was inversely proportional to the evolutionary distance between the macropod species. It is revealed that the majority of species within the Macropodidae are capable of using many of the available heterologous microsatellites. When comparing the degree of variability between source-species and M. eugenii, most were significantly higher within source species (P < 0.05). These differences were most likely caused by ascertainment bias in microsatellite selection for both length and purity. -- The production of a marsupial genetic linkage map is perhaps one of the most important objectives in marsupial research. This study used a total of 353 informative meioses and 64 genetic markers to construct a framework genetic linkage map for M. eugenii. Nearly all markers (93.7%) formed a significant linkage (LOD > 3.0) with at least one other marker. More than 70% (828 cM) of the genome had been mapped when compared with chiasmata data. Nine linkage groups were identified, with all but one (LG7; X-linked) allocated to the autosomes. Theses groups ranged in size from 15.7 cM to 176.5 cM, and have an average distance of 16.2 cM between adjacent markers. Of the autosomal linkage groups, LG2 and LG3 were assigned to chromosome 1 and LG4 localised to chromosome 3 based on physical localisation of genes. Significant sex-specific distortions towards reduced female recombination rates were revealed in 22% of comparisons. Positive interference was observed within all the linkage groups analysed. When comparing the X-chromosome data to closely related species it is apparent that it is conserved both in synteny and gene order. -- The investigation of population dynamics of eastern grey kangaroos has been limited to a few ecological studies. The present investigation provides analysis of mtDNA and microsatellite data to infer both historical and contemporary patterns of population structuring and dispersal. The average level of genetic variation across sample locations was exceedingly high (h = 0.95, HE = 0.82), and is one of the highest observed for marsupials. Contrary to ecological studies, both genic and genotypic analyses reveal weak genetic structure of populations where high levels of dispersal may be inferred up to 230 km. The movement of individuals was predominantly male-biased (average N,m = 22.61, average N p = 2.73). However, neither sex showed significant isolation by distance. On a continental scale, there was strong genetic differentiation and phylogeographic distinction between southern (TAS, VIC and NSW) and northern (QLD) Australian populations, indicating a current and / or historical restriction of geneflow. In addition, it is evident that northern populations are historically more recent, and were derived from a small number of southern eastern grey kangaroo founders. Phylogenetic comparisons between M. g. giganteus and M. g. tasmaniensis, indicated that the current taxonomic status of these subspecies should be revised as there was a lack of genetic differentiation between the populations sampled.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
xv, 182 leaves ill

In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten die in der veterinärmedizinischen Literatur bisher diskutierten Ursachen für LJD bei Makropoden hinsichtlich ihrer tatsächlichen Bedeutung abgeklärt und die Eignung einer formalininaktivierten, bestandsspezifischen Adsorbatvakzine zur Prophylaxe von LJD getestet werden. Da LJD eine parodontale Erkrankung darstellt, wurden auch die für Entstehung einer humanen Parodontitis prädisponierenden Faktoren mit in die Untersuchung einbezogen. Es wurden Tupferproben zur bakteriologischen Untersuchung von insgesamt 15 gesunden und 11 an LJD erkrankten Kängurus entnommen. Dabei konnten gramnegative Anaerobier bei allen Tieren isoliert werden. Fusobacterium nucleatum wurde in 82% der von an LJD erkrankten und nur in 33% der von gesunden Tieren entnommenen Tupferproben nachgewiesen, womit sich ein signifikanter Zusammenhang (P < 0,05) zwischen diesem Erreger und LJD ergab. Weitere überwiegend bei erkrankten Makropoden nachgewiesene Anaerobier stellten Prevotella oris/oralis (bei 73% der LJD-Fälle und bei 40% der gesunden Tiere) sowie Capnocytophaga spp. (45% vs. 13%) dar. Bacteroides spp. und Porphyromonas gingivalis wurden – wenn auch nur mit 3 bzw. 2 Nachweisen – ausschließlich bei kranken Tieren isoliert. Fusobacterium necrophorum wurde jeweils in 27% der Kängurus gefunden und spielte damit in dieser Studie keine Rolle für die Entstehung von LJD. In Übereinstimmung mit der Literatur konnten Moraxella spp. ausschließlich bei gesunden Makropoden isoliert werden. Vertreter dieser Gattung gehören damit offensichtlich zur normalen Maulflora der Kängurus. Für die Zoos in Halle und Leipzig wurde eine formalininaktivierte, bestandsspezifische Adsorbatvakzine gegen die bei einem an LJD erkrankten Känguru des jeweiligen Bestandes isolierten gramnegativen Anaerobier hergestellt. 7 Tiere (2 Rote Riesenkängurus, 5 Bennettwallabies) des Leipziger Zoos und 6 Bennettkängurus des Zoos in Halle wurden geimpft, wobei Auffrischungsimpfungen nach 4 bzw. 8 Wochen und nach 6 bzw. 12 Monaten erfolgten. Die spezifischen AK gegen das Prüfantigen Fusobacterium necrophorum wurden im SLA bestimmt. Es konnte keine Erhöhung der AK-Titer induziert werden und auch die Todesrate infolge von LJD senkte sich während des Untersuchungszeitraumes von 42 Monaten in den beiden Zoos nicht. Die höchsten AK-Level (1:512 bis 1:2048) ließen sich im Serum von natürlich infizierten und letztendlich tödlich erkrankten Bennettwallabies des Zoos in Hoyerswerda feststellen. Der Nachweis von AK-Titern im Serum von nicht geimpften Jungtieren lässt vermuten, dass AK via Kolostrum oder Dottersackplazenta auf die Jungtiere übertragen werden. Die Untersuchungen hinsichtlich der Fütterung zeigten, dass im Zoo Leipzig eine azidotische Stoffwechsellage induziert wurde, was sich bei den Leipziger Bennettkängurus in einem mit 7,53 signifikant niedrigeren Vormagen-pH-Wert im Vergleich zu den Hallenser und Auer Tieren (8,25 und 8,38) offenbarte. Dies schlug sich auch in erhöhten K-, Cholesterol- und -Amylasewerten im Serum der Leipziger Wallabies nieder, womit gezeigt werden konnte, dass sich diese Parameter offenbar auch bei Makropoden zur Diagnostik einer chronischen Azidose eignen. Die Versorgung der Bennettkängurus in Magdeburg und Halle mit Ca und P war zwar nicht ausreichend, spiegelte sich aber nicht in veränderten Blutwerten dieser Mengenelemente wider. Die Aktivität der AP nimmt mit zunehmenden Alter ähnlich wie bei anderen Tierarten ab. Ihre negative Korrelation mit dem Alter der Tiere war dabei hochsignifikant (P < 0,001, r = 0,77 bzw. 0,62). Beim direkten Vergleich gesunder mit an LJD erkrankten Tieren konnte weder eine Störung im Ca/P-Stoffwechsel noch eine Azidose in Verbindung zu LJD gebracht werden. In allen Zoos erfolgte eine Überversorgung mit Vitamin A, wobei die Bedarfswerte für Schaflämmer um das 3,5fache bis 41fache übertroffen wurden. Den Bedarfswerten am nächsten lagen die Versorgungswerte der Bennettkängurus vom TP Aue und der Östlichen Grauen Riesenkängurus vom Zoo Magdeburg, beides Bestände ohne LJD. Die ermittelten Retinolplasmakonzentrationen standen in keiner Beziehung zu den Vitamin-A-Gehalten im Futter, was darauf hindeutet, dass sich Retinolbestimmungen im Blutplasma ebenso wie bei anderen Tierarten nur in extremsten defizitären Situationen zur Einschätzung des Vitamin-A-Status eignen. Ob eine Hypervitaminose A für die Entstehung von LJD tatsächlich eine Rolle spielt, muss in zukünftigen Arbeiten unter Einbeziehung von Retinolesterbestimmungen in der Leber abgeklärt werden. Die Glukosewerte lagen mit 8,57 mmol/l (M. rufus) bzw. 6,51 mmol/l (M. rufogriseus) über den bisher bekannten Werten aus der Literatur. Da die Werte bei an LJD erkrankten Kängurus niedriger waren als bei gesunden Tieren, kann ein Diabetes mellitus als Ursache für LJD ausgeschlossen werden. Weder die Durchsicht von 144 Sektionsprotokollen noch die Bestimmung der Kreatinin- und Harnstoffkonzentration im Serum von an LJD erkrankten Tieren ließen einen Zusammenhang zwischen Erkrankungen der Nieren und LJD erkennen. 30 Tiere verendeten an LJD, wovon 20% auch an den Nieren erkrankt waren. Allerdings wiesen auch 16,7% der anderweitig gestorbenen Kängurus eine Nierenerkrankung auf. Die Serumkonzentrationen von Harnstoff bzw. Kreatinin der an LJD erkrankten Makropoden unterschieden sich nicht von den für die gesunden Roten Riesenkängurus (7,40 mmol bzw. 114 mmol/l) und Bennettwallabies (7,81 mmol/l bzw. 86 mmol/l) ermittelten Werten. Insgesamt 184 Sera von 107 Kängurus wurden auf AK gegen MaHV-1 und MaHV-2 mittels Neutralisationtest geprüft. Während 94,4% bzw. 97,2% der Roten Riesenkängurus serologisch positiv für MaHV-1 bzw. MaHV-2 waren, reagierten von den 71 überprüften Bennettkängurus nur 4 bzw. 3 Tiere positiv. Unter den Wallabies befanden sich auch 21 an LJD erkrankte Tiere, wovon lediglich 2 Tiere gegen MaHV-1 und 1 Tier gegen MaHV-2 eine Serokonversion zeigten. Die AK-Titer der Roten Riesenkängurus ließen keine Unterschiede zwischen gesunden und an LJD leidenden Tieren zu und die entnommenen Serumpaarproben von 5 zum Zeitpunkt der Blutentnahme an LJD leidenden Riesenkängurus zeigten kein einheitliches Verhalten im Sinne einer Serokonversion. Somit ließ sich der Verdacht, dass die Reaktivierung latenter Herpesinfektionen die Ursache für LJD sein könnte, nicht bestätigen. Im Ergebnis der vorliegenden Studie und im Zusammenhang mit den Angaben aus der Literatur stellt sich LJD primär als eine Infektion mit gramnegativen Anaerobiern dar, wovon Fusobacterium nucleatum, Bacteroides spp., Prophyromonas gingivalis und Fusobacterium necrophorum, Biovar A die größte Bedeutung haben dürften. Den Abschluss der Arbeit bilden Empfehlungen für die Haltung von Kängurus in zoologischen Einrichtungen und für die Therapie von LJD. Im Anhang finden sich Röntgenaufnahmen und Photographien von erkrankten und gesunden Makropoden
The aim of this thesis was the investigation of the aetiology of Lumpy Jaw Disease (LJD) in macropods concentrating specifically on the causes of the diseases in current veterinary medicine literature and to evaluate the use of a group-specific Al(OH)3-adjuvanted, formalin-inactivated whole-cell vaccine for the control of LJD in kangaroos kept in zoos. LJD is regarded as periodontal disease, therefore the risk factors for the development of human periodontitis were also included in this study. The oral flora from 15 healthy macropods and 11 animals suffering from LJD was isolated. At least one anaerobic gram-negative bacterial species was found in swabs of each macropod. The occurrence of Fusobacterium nucleatum was associated with LJD (P < 0.05) by detecting this bacterium in 82% of the kangaroos suffering from LJD compared to only in 33% of the healthy animals. Prevotella oris/oralis and Capnocytophaga spp. were also predominantly found in diseased animals in comparison with healthy macropods (73% vs. 40% and 45% vs. 13% respectively). Bacteroides spp. and Porphyromonas gingivalis were isolated in only 3 and 2 kangaroos suffering from LJD, respectively. Contrary to previously published studies about LJD Fusobacterium necrophorum was not associated with LJD, as this anaerobe was detected in only 27% of the diseased as well as healthy macropods. Moraxella spp. seem to be a part of the normal oral flora of macropods and was found exclusively in healthy animals. 11 Red-necked Wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) and 2 Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus) were immunized with a group-specific Al(OH)3-adjuvanted, formalin-inactivated whole-cell vaccine containing previously in a kangaroo suffering from LJD isolated gramnegative anaerobs. The kangaroos were re-vaccinated after 1, 2, 6 and 12 months. Blood was collected from each animal at the same time. Antibodies were titrated against Fusobacterium necrophorum in an agglutination assay. The vaccine failed to induce increased levels of antibodies as well as to protect wallabies and kangaroos against LJD. As the highest antibody titres were detected in most severely diseased wallabies kept in the Hoyerswerda zoo, the protective role of the humoral immune response in LJD seems to be doubtful. The finding of detectable levels of antibodies in unvaccinated joeys supports the theory, that there is a transmission of antibodies from the mother to the offspring via colostrum or yolk-sac placenta. The diet of the Red-necked Wallabies in one zoo has induced an acidosis: The pH of the forestomach fluid collected by probang was lower in the animals of this zoo (pH = 7.53) than in the wallabies of two other zoos (pH = 8.25 and 8.38, respectively). Potassium, cholesterol and -amylase were also higher in the blood of the animals of this zoo in comparison to the wallabies of the two other ones, hence these blood values seem to be helpful for the diagnosis of chronic acidosis in macropods. There was a calcium and phosphor deficiency in the nutrition of the wallabies in two zoos, but the blood concentration of both of these minerals was not changed. The activity of the ALP correlated negative with the age of the Bennett`s Wallabies (P < 0.001, r = -.77 and r = -.62 respectively, depending on the instruments). All of the above mentioned blood values showed no differences between healthy and diseased animals and could so far not support the assumption, that an imbalance in Ca and P metabolism or an acidosis are important factors for LJD. The macropods of all investigated zoos were fed on a diet rich in vitamin A ranging from the 3.5 to the 41fold requirement for lambs. The vitamin A content of the diets for the 2 collections without a history of LJD was the lowest in this study. These results raised the point, that a hypervitaminosis A could be a more predisposing factor for LJD than a vitamin A deficiency. Due to the fact the plasma retinol concentration was independent from the vitamin A content of the diet and so not helpful in diagnosis of a vitamin A deficiency or toxicity, further investigations regarding the role of vitamin A in the aetiopathogenesis of LJD should include measurements of the liver tissue content of retinol esters. The glucose plasma concentration of the healthy Red Kangaroos (8.57 mmol/l) as well as the Red-necked Wallabies (6.51 mmol/l) was higher than previously published values for macropods, but also higher than the results of the diseased animals in this study. Therefore diabetes mellitus can be ruled out as an underlying factor for LJD. The analysis of 144 pathological records showed, that 30 animals died because of LJD, 20% of them and 16.7% of the other 114 macropods had a concurrent kidney disease. The urea and creatinin concentration in serum samples of healthy animals was not higher than the values of diseased animals. In conclusion, these results suggest kidney diseases are not important for the development of LJD. Altogether 184 sera collected from 107 kangaroos were tested for antibodies against MaHV-1 and MaHV-2 using a neutralisation assay. The prevalence of the MaHV-1- as well as MaHV-2-antibodies was high among the Red Kangaroos (94.4% and 97.2% respectively), but low among the Red-necked Wallabies (5.6% and 4.2% respectively). Seroconversion for MaHV-1 was seen in 2 out of 21 wallabies suffering from LJD, only 1 of these animals also had antibodies against MaHV-2. The antibody-titres against both of the macropodid herpes viruses also did not differ between Red Kangaroos with and without LJD, therefore a reactivation of a latent herpesvirus infection does not appear to be causative for LJD. In summary, considering the results of this study and previously published literature LJD is an infectious disease caused by gramnegative anaerobic bacteria with Fusobacterium nucleatum, Bacteroides spp., Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium necrophorum subsp. necrophorum being of most significance. Recommendations concerning the keeping of kangaroos in captivity and the management of LJD are listed in the conclusion of this thesis. Some radiographs and photos of diseased and healthy kangaroos are attached

The field of ancient DNA (aDNA) involves the isolation and retrieval of trace amounts of degraded DNA from a variety of substrates including fossils, sediments and historical material. The fragmentary nature of aDNA necessitates the use of methods with the ability to capture and amplify short segments of DNA. Collectively aDNA studies have made significant and unique contributions to a wide field of research including conservation, population genetics, taxonomy and phylogeny. The primary aim of this thesis research is to explore the utility of aDNA techniques to study extirpation, extinction and past biodiversity of Australian macropods. Using a combination of historical, Holocene and Pleistocene aged fossils, this research will attempt to investigate what ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) can add to our knowledge of Australia’s macropods. Traditional aDNA techniques have largely been used to isolate mtDNA from single fossil samples - an example of this approach is shown in Chapter Two where a wellpreserved wallaby fossil bone from Depuch Island (Western Australia) was studied. The ancient mtDNA (cytochrome b and control region) data produced strong phylogenetic signal and shows that the Depuch Island rock-wallaby specimen is most similar to the mainland Petrogale lateralis lateralis. This finding has conservation implications for ongoing rehabilitation and translocation efforts in the Pilbara region. Chapter Three of this thesis also uses mitochondrial aDNA techniques, to explore questions regarding interrelationships and former distribution of a macropod species complex; Bettongia spp. Cytochrome b and control region data retrieved from 88 historical samples, along with ~214 already sequenced samples, place the most recent common ancestor of the brush-tailed bettongs at c. 2.5 Myr. Ancient mtDNA is suggestive of connectivity between what are now highly fragmented populations, a result that has implications for how critically endangered brush-tailed bettongs should be managed. Ancient DNA analyses and DNA sequencing technology have evolved over recent years and during the course of this study. Therefore in keeping up with the latest high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technology, aDNA analyses in ~70 bones and 20 sediment samples excavated from a Late Pleistocene–Holocene cave deposit on Kangaroo Island, South Australia was undertaken. Samples were selected from 15 stratigraphic layers, ranging in age from >20 ka to ~6.8 ka. The successful retrieval of bona fide aDNA sequences, back to at least 20 ka, demonstrates excellent longterm DNA preservation at the site. All unidentified bones that were screened revealed a number of taxa from the assemblage including, Macropus, Onychogalea, Potorous, Bettongia, Dasyurus, Rattus and Notechis. The results from this study add significant value to the late Pleistocene-mid-Holocene paleontological record, detailing the past diversity of flora and fauna on Kangaroo Island. Lastly, Chapter 5 introduces the latest molecular techniques in capturing and enriching highly fragmented aDNA bone from four sites across Australia. Ancient DNA extractions techniques, targeting ultra-short DNA fragments, were employed in an attempt to obtain Pleistocene-aged material. The warm conditions, a factor common in Australian caves, are not conductive to long-term DNA preservation at many sites. Shotgun sequencing was only successful on six bone samples (including one incisor) from a total of 25 samples that were screened. Three samples were successfully captured and enriched for endogenous DNA; one bettong sample generated 89.6% of a mtDNA genome with 5.4X coverage. Overall, the decay rate of DNA and preservation across all four sites was high, and extremely degraded, with an average fragment length between 47 bp and 57 bp. These data demonstrate that recovery of Pleistocene-aged aDNA from warm climate sites across Australia will remain a challenge and that better ways to screen and predict DNA survival are needed. This thesis presents a combination of work from multiple sites across Australia using a range of aDNA techniques and sequencing technologies that have evolved over the tenure of this thesis. Collectively, this body of work has demonstrated the value of integrating aDNA data into modern-day conservation decision-making and has contributed to a wider understanding of Australian macropods both past and present.

Marsupials and eutherians are the two principal groups of modern mammals. Mammalian immunological studies, to date, have focused on eutherian systems with little or no comprehensive work having been carried out on marsupials. This project investigates the functional and developmental aspects of T-cell responses in the marsupial, Macropus eugenii (Tammar wallaby) in both adults and pouch young at various stages of development. Determination of the age at which the Tammar wallaby immune system becomes competent has been examined through the use of cellular and molecular studies carried out on developing pouch young tissue. The capacity for generating an immunological response in adult and pouch young marsupials has been studied by following cellular proliferation in response to mitogens or mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC). After examining adult responses to mitogens and allogenic lymphocytes, optimised conditions were then used to examine the development of responsiveness in pouch young. Several further tests were conducted and findings shown. The study has shown that the earliest age at which Macropus eugenii is capable of mounting a T-cell mediated immune response is between 5 to 13 days post-partum
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Several experiments [1, 2, 3, 4] have shown that e ective attractive interactions exist between con ned like-charged macromolecules. Theoretical approaches have not reached consensus as to precisely what the mechanism for the attraction is, but it is agreed that comprehending the role of the counterion arrangement around macromolecules is crucial for understanding the e ective macromolecule interactions. It is generally assumed that attraction only occurs in the limit of strong electrostatic coupling and is driven by correlation e ects that are neglible in a mean- eld approach, which is valid in the weak-coupling limit. However, in some experimental situations attraction occurs even in the limit of weak-coupling. We consider a eld-theoretic approach that includes uctuations to study the Coulomb interactions of con ned counterions with a single exible charged spherical macromolecule that can expand or collapse uniformly by changing its radius. We show how the linearised eld-theory (valid in the weak-coupling limit) is mapped onto the square-well potential of Quantum Mechanics. The con nement leads to bound states being present in the spectrum at all times. Bound states are non-perturbative and we investigate the role they play in the physics of the system. Some of the e ects are rather counter-intuitive. Firstly, upon expanding the macromolecule in a xed con nement volume, the uctuation part of the free energy favours a decrease in the free energy. Secondly, upon increasing the temperature to high but nite values, the uctuation contribution does not dominate the free energy as would be expected. The mathematical origins of these e ects are dicussed in detail and as part of the analysis we introduce a novel regularisation scheme for computing the functional determinant arising in the model considered where the cut-o is speci ed unambiguously in terms of physical parameters.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskeie eksperimente [1, 2, 3, 4] toon dat makro-ione met gelyksoortige ladings, in `n eindige volume, `n e ektiewe aantrekkende krag ondervind. Alhoewel daar nog geen konsensus oor die presiese meganisme vir die aantrekking bereik is nie, is dit duidelik dat die rol van \counter-ion" rangskikking rondom die makro-ione belangrik is om die e ektiewe wisselwerkings te verstaan. Dit word algemeen aanvaar dat die aantrekkende krag slegs in die limiet van sterk elektrostatiese koppeling plaasvind en dat dit `n gevolg van \counter-ion" korrelasies is wat weglaatbaar is in `n gemiddelde veld benadering, wat geldig is in die limiet van swak elektrostatiese koppeling. Daar bestaan egter eksperimentele situasies waar die aantrekking in die limiet van swak elektrostatiese koppeling waargeneem word. Ons bestudeer die Coulomb wisselwerking tussen \counter-ions" en `n enkele rekbare sferiese makro-ioon vanuit `n veld-teoretiese beskouing wat uktuasies in ag neem. Die sferiese makro-ioon kan vergroot of verklein deur sy radius uniform te verander. Ons toon aan dat die gelineariseerde veldeteorie (geldig in die limiet van swak elektrostatiese koppeling) op die eindige-diepte put Kwantummeganiese model afgebeeld kan word. Die eindige volume van die sisteem het tot gevolg dat daar altyd gebonde toestande in die spektrum voorkom. Gebonde toestande is `n suiwer nie-steuringsteoretiese e ek en ons ondersoek die rol wat dit speel in die sika van die sisteem. Die teenwoordigheid van die gebonde toestande in die spektrum het `n paar teen-intuitiewe e ekte tot gevolg. Eerstens word die vrye energie verlaag soos die makro-ioon in `n eindige volume vergroot. Tweedens oorheers die uktuasie bydrae nie die vrye energie met toenemende temperatuur soos verwag sou word nie. Ons bespreek die wiskundige oorsprong van hierdie e ekte. As deel van die analise ontwikkel ons `n nuwe regulariseringstegniek vir die berekening van funksionaalintegrale waar die regulariseringsparameter ondubbelsinnig in terme van siese hoeveelhede uitgedruk kan word.

Marsupials and eutherians are the two principal groups of modern mammals. Mammalian immunological studies, to date, have focused on eutherian systems with little or no comprehensive work having been carried out on marsupials. This project investigates the functional and developmental aspects of T-cell responses in the marsupial, Macropus eugenii (Tammar wallaby) in both adults and pouch young at various stages of development. Determination of the age at which the Tammar wallaby immune system becomes competent has been examined through the use of cellular and molecular studies carried out on developing pouch young tissue. The capacity for generating an immunological response in adult and pouch young marsupials has been studied by following cellular proliferation in response to mitogens or mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC). After examining adult responses to mitogens and allogenic lymphocytes, optimised conditions were then used to examine the development of responsiveness in pouch young. Several further tests were conducted and findings shown. The study has shown that the earliest age at which Macropus eugenii is capable of mounting a T-cell mediated immune response is between 5 to 13 days post-partum

A small-scale filed experiment was conducted on a hillslope plot within the Georgia Piedmont, USA, with the aim of elucidating the hydrological processes which generate storm runoff and its chemistry. Intensive hydrometric and chemical sampling enabled the collection of detailed observations of hillslope processes during rainstorms. The passage of water was traced through a one-dimensional profile in the hillslope, where rainfall, throughfall, forest floor soil water, soil water at 15, 40, 50 and 70 cm depths, groundwaters and streamwaters were monitored, either manually or automatically. Chemical samples for each water type were also collected. From analysis of hydrometric data, several hydrological flowpaths were detected that contribute water to storm runoff. Direct channel rainfall is operative in all storms, although its detection is difficult. Overland flow is in operation at some locations on the hillslope, specially in topographic lows. Macropore and mesopore flow occurred and may lead to groundwater displacement. Groundwater ridging also occurred. Each flowpath was found to vary in its operation, according to a series of controls, namely seasonality, antecedent moisture conditions, rainfall magnitude, duration and intensity, and the timing between rainstorms. Conservative tracers (chloride and temperature) were employed to investigate the contribution of 'old' and 'new' water to storm runoff. The variation in chloride concentrations in samples collected either sequentially or manually at each flowpath was monitored throughout storms. Rainfall, comprising 'new' water, was found to exhibit a distinct chloride chemistry. Most samples contained < 20 μeq/l Cl⁻. A similar trend was observed for samples of through fall and forest floor soil water. Groundwaters and matrix soil waters contained two to three times greater chloride concentrations than in the 'new' waters, due to evaporative mechanisms. Hence, 'new' water could be distinguished from 'old' water on the basis of chloride chemistry. Similarly, the temperature profile of 'new' and 'old' waters were significantly different. During the summer, rainfall ('new' water) is warmer than groundwater ('old' water), and during the winter, the reverse is true. Hence, both chloride and temperature were instrumental in distinguishing 'old' from 'new' waters. Direct channel rainfall, overland flow and macropore flow were important flowpaths for the rapid transport of 'new' water through the system during the growing season. Overland flow contributed some 'old' water during the dormant season. Although macropore flow allowed rapid transit of 'new' water to depth, this led to a groundwater displacement mechanism, which ultimately led to the rapid contribution of 'old' water to storm runoff. The combination of hydrometric and tracer data enabled a conceptual hydrological model to be developed of the responses of the hillslope to storm events.

Résumé : La reproduction entraîne des dépenses énergétiques importantes chez les femelles mammifères. Ces dépenses sont supposées diminuer l'énergie disponible pour d'autres traits positivement corrélés à l'aptitude phénotypique et augmenter les besoins d'alimentation. Toutefois, des différences individuelles dans la capacité d'acquisition et d'allocation peuvent masquer l'impact négatif de l'effort reproducteur. La manipulation expérimentale de l'effort reproducteur et le contrôle statistique des effets individuels sont deux approches puissantes et complémentaires mises en œuvre dans le cadre de mon étude afin de contrôler pour l'hétérogénéité individuelle. Elles ont permis de montrer clairement un coût de la reproduction chez le kangourou gris de l'Est (Macropus giganteus). Dans un premier temps, nous avons trouvé que le coût de la reproduction affectait le montant d'énergie alloué à certaines fonctions somatiques (CHAPITRE I). L'effort reproducteur diminuait le gain de masse et la croissance des jambes pour des intervalles de capture supérieurs à deux ans. Chez les femelles non manipulées, un effet négatif sur le gain de masse était aussi observable pour un intervalle inférieur à 3 ans. À l'échelle de deux événements successifs de reproduction, le gain de masse et dans une moindre mesure la croissance des bras, mais non des jambes diminuaient avec un effort reproducteur plus important à la précédente reproduction. Ensuite, nous avons démontré qu'il y avait un coût de la reproduction en terme de futur succès reproducteur (CHAPITRE II). Les individus dont l'effort reproducteur avait été diminué expérimentalement produisaient davantage de jeunes qui survivaient au stade 'LPY', âgés approximativement de 7 mois, que les femelles contrôles. Ils diminuaient également davantage leur taux de reproduction en allongeant l'intervalle entre les naissances, mais la survie au sevrage n'était pas affectée. Le CHAPITRE III montre que les femelles adaptaient leur comportement alimentaire en fonction de leur statut reproducteur. En comparaison avec les individus manipulés ou ayant perdu leur jeune, les femelles allaitantes augmentaient leur temps passé à s'alimenter durant la journée, l'intensité de leurs bouchées et de leur mastication sans impliquer de compromis avec la vigilance. Nous avons aussi découvert que la survie au sevrage du jeune précédent menait à une augmentation du taux de bouchées pour l'année en cours. Les CHAPITRES I et II ont mis en évidence l'effet non négligeable des différences individuelles sur la détection des coûts de la reproduction. En effet, en l'absence de manipulation expérimentale ou de contrôle statistique, aucun compromis n'était détecté autant en terme de croissance que de prochaine reproduction. Au contraire, des corrélations positives entre l'effort reproducteur et les autres traits ont été trouvées. Le CHAPITRE I suggérait notamment que cette variabilité du succès reproducteur était liée à l'hétérogénéité individuelle dans le gain de masse maternelle qui augmentait la survie du jeune. Dans le CHAPITRE II, une corrélation positive entre les probabilités d'avoir un 'LPY' lors de deux événements successifs de reproduction suggérait que certaines femelles étaient capables de mener à bien ou non leur reproduction, mais cela indépendamment de l'effort reproducteur précédent. Enfin dans le dernier CHAPITRE (III), l'effet aléatoire était significatif dans l'analyse de différents comportements d'alimentation, ce qui pourrait être lié aux différences de gain de masse des femelles présentées dans le CHAPITRE I. Certaines contraintes individuelles affectant le coût de la reproduction ont été identifiées. La masse et la condition corporelle augmentaient le succès reproducteur et diminuaient l'intervalle entre deux naissances successives (CHAPITRES I et II), mais contrairement à de précédentes études le comportement d'alimentation des femelles n'était pas affecté par leur masse (CHAPITRE III). L'âge des individus avait également une influence. Les jeunes femelles croissaient davantage, avaient aussi une prise alimentaire plus importante et subissaient un coût de reproduction supérieur. Ce dernier se traduisait par un taux d'échec plus élevé à la reproduction suivante si les jeunes femelles avaient eu un jeune l'année précédente (CHAPITRES I, II et III). Des contraintes environnementales fortes influençaient la reproduction des femelles. La croissance, le succès reproducteur, l'intervalle entre les naissances et les comportements d'alimentation variaient suivant le site et l'année d'étude. Le site du Promontory et l'année 2011 apparaissaient particulièrement limitants. En effet en 2011, le gain de masse et le succès reproducteur ont diminué et l'intervalle de naissance et la prise de nourriture pour les femelles allaitantes ont augmenté (CHAPITRE I,II et III). Nous cherchions également à mettre au jour une allocation différentielle des mères suivant le sexe de leur jeune. Si le coût supérieur d'avoir un mâle par rapport à une femelle était évident quant aux taux de bouchées (CHAPITRE III), il s'est avéré plus difficile à détecter sur d'autres traits. À Anglesea, les jeunes mères avaient moins de probabilité d'avoir un jeune qui atteigne le stade 'LPY' après avoir eu un fils qu'une fille (CHAPITRE II). Toutefois, des résultats contraires à nos attentes ont été trouvés, du moins au premier abord, sur la croissance et le succès reproducteur subséquent. Ainsi, les femelles qui avaient eu une fille perdaient davantage de masse (CHAPITRE I) et avaient généralement une probabilité moindre de produire un jeune qui atteigne le stade 'LPY' ou qui soit sevré par la suite (CHAPITRE II). En revanche, l'intervalle de naissance n'était pas différent suivant le sexe du jeune alors qu'il était fortement affecté par le coût de la reproduction démontré grâce à la manipulation, invoquant une autre explication qu'un coût supérieur des filles par rapport aux fils. En effet, les femelles qui étaient en mauvaise condition corporelle gagnaient de la masse quand elles produisaient une fille, mais pas un fils (CHAPITRE I). De surcroît, les jeunes mères avaient moins de chances de sevrer un jeune à l'événement de reproduction suivant si elles avaient eu un fils plutôt qu'une fille, et le succès reproducteur des mères des fils n'était plus différent de celui des mères des filles dans les années plus difficiles (CHAPITRE II). Enfin, les mères des fils augmentaient la quantité de nourriture ingérée si elles avaient sevré un jeune l'année précédente, mais les mères des filles la diminuaient. Ces différents résultats suggéraient fortement qu'un ajustement du sexe-ratio était utilisé quand les ressources individuelles ou environnementales contraignaient davantage la reproduction. En conclusion, pour limiter le décalage entre les besoins énergétiques et la disponibilité en nourriture, les femelles chez le kangourou gris de l'Est pourraient modifier l'allocation de leurs ressources à la reproduction en reportant la prochaine mise bas et en produisant un jeune du sexe le moins coûteux en accord avec les contraintes individuelles et environnementales. Ces résultats soulignent l'importance d'études avec un suivi individuel sur plusieurs années afin de pouvoir comprendre la variabilité des stratégies de reproduction et leurs conséquences sur la dynamique des populations. // Abstract : Reproduction in living beings, particularly in female mammals that produce milk, is costly, potentially involving trade-offs with life-history traits if resources are limited and an increase in foraging effort. Individual differences may, however, hide the negative effects of this cost on life-history traits. I used two powerful and complementary approaches, to deal with individual heterogeneity: experimental manipulation of reproductive effort and statistical control of individual effect. Using both approaches, I investigated the effect of presence, size and sex of young on growth, subsequent reproduction and individual foraging behaviours of females. I used data of tagged free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) collected over six years at five study sites in Victoria, Australia. There was a clear cost of reproduction. Reproductive effort decreased mass gain and limb growth for inter-capture intervals greater than two years. Over two successive reproductive events, mass gain and arm growth were reduced but leg growth was independent of reproductive effort (CHAPTER II).In addition, survival to Large Pouch Young ('LPY') stage, about 7 months of age, was higher and birth rate lower in manipulated compared to control females but survival to weaning was not affected (CHAPTER III). CHAPTER IV shows that lactating females cope with current reproductive costs by increasing ivtime spent foraging as well as bite and chewing rates without decreasing vigilance comparedto non lactating ones. Bite rate was also greater for females that weaned a young at the previous reproductive event. My study supports reproductive cost hypothesis while showing substantial individual differences. To limit mismatch between energetic needs and resource availability, females of eastern grey kangaroo could modify resource allocation to reproduction by delaying birth date of subsequent young and producing the less costly sex according to individual and environmental constrains. My thesis shows the importance of experimental approach and individual monitoring over multiple years to understand the diversity of reproductive strategies and their consequences in evolutionary ecology and population dynamic.

Macropods exhibit the second largest sexual dimorphism in body size for any vertebrate, suggesting there is a major role of sexual selection, with the potential for different mating tactics amongst male kangaroos. It is suggested that dominant males invest heavily in large forelimb muscles, which aids in male-male competition, female coercion and increased attractiveness to females, gaining them the majority of matings. A subdominant male may not invest in muscle mass development, but rather rely on other reproductive tactics such as sneaky matings and investment in competitive spermatozoa characteristics; for example more spermatozoa (larger testes) and faster or longer spermatozoa. We examined whether there was a trade-off between investments in forelimb muscle development and sperm competition in the western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus). Sperm traits, body mass, and forelimb muscle masses were measured for 35 male M. fuliginosus and an index of ‘muscularity’ was calculated using the residuals of individual muscle masses against body mass. There were no significant relationships between forelimb muscle investment and sperm competition traits. Significant relationships were recorded between relative testes mass and relative epididymis mass (r2 = 0.26, p = 0.003), total motility and progressive motility (r2 = 0.31, p = 0.001) and spermatozoon velocity and spermatozoon head (r2 = 0.47, p < 0.001) and tail lengths (r2 = 0.19, p = 0.011) with the longer spermatozoa swimming slower. These results suggest that there is no evidence for a significant relationship between sperm competition and forelimb muscles. There was no evidence for a trade-off between these two measures of sexual selection, suggesting that these traits are independent of each other.

O presente relatório resulta do estágio curricular subordinado ao tema Clínica de Animais Selvagens e de Zoo, decorrido no Zoo de Dalas (E.U.A.) e no Zoo da Maia, com duração de 97 dias partilhados entre as duas instituições. Surge na conclusão do Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária da Universidade de Évora A doença periodontal refere-se, geralmente, a alterações que envolvem os dentes e os tecidos adjacentes da cavidade oral e apresenta, na maioria das vezes, etiologia bacteriana associada a alterações da flora microbiana oral. A necrobacilose oral é uma causa comum de morbilidade e mortalidade nos animais do género Macropus, podendo ser o resultado do agravamento da doença periodontal e manifestando-se por lesões supurativas no tecido mole e ossos da face, sendo o Fusobacterium necrophorum o principal agente causal; ABSTRACT: Zoo and Wildlife Medicine The following report results from the externship in Zoo and Wildlife Medicine lasting 97 days, shared between Dalas Zoo (U.S.A.) and Maia Zoo. Appears as the conclusion of the Master in Veterinary Medicine at the University of Évora Periodontal disease generally describes the conditions involving the teeth and adjoining tissues of the oral cavity and presents mostly a bacterial etiology associated with changes in oral microbial flora. Oral necrobacillosis is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in animals of the genus Macropus and may be the result of the progress of periodontal disease, manifesting as suppurative lesions of the soft tissue and bones of the face and the main causal agent seems to be Fusobacterium necrophorum.

R??sum?? : La reproduction entra??ne des d??penses ??nerg??tiques importantes chez les femelles mammif??res. Ces d??penses sont suppos??es diminuer l'??nergie disponible pour d'autres traits positivement corr??l??s ?? l'aptitude ph??notypique et augmenter les besoins d'alimentation. Toutefois, des diff??rences individuelles dans la capacit?? d'acquisition et d'allocation peuvent masquer l'impact n??gatif de l'effort reproducteur. La manipulation exp??rimentale de l'effort reproducteur et le contr??le statistique des effets individuels sont deux approches puissantes et compl??mentaires mises en ??uvre dans le cadre de mon ??tude afin de contr??ler pour l'h??t??rog??n??it?? individuelle. Elles ont permis de montrer clairement un co??t de la reproduction chez le kangourou gris de l'Est (Macropus giganteus). Dans un premier temps, nous avons trouv?? que le co??t de la reproduction affectait le montant d'??nergie allou?? ?? certaines fonctions somatiques (CHAPITRE I). L'effort reproducteur diminuait le gain de masse et la croissance des jambes pour des intervalles de capture sup??rieurs ?? deux ans. Chez les femelles non manipul??es, un effet n??gatif sur le gain de masse ??tait aussi observable pour un intervalle inf??rieur ?? 3 ans. ?? l'??chelle de deux ??v??nements successifs de reproduction, le gain de masse et dans une moindre mesure la croissance des bras, mais non des jambes diminuaient avec un effort reproducteur plus important ?? la pr??c??dente reproduction. Ensuite, nous avons d??montr?? qu'il y avait un co??t de la reproduction en terme de futur succ??s reproducteur (CHAPITRE II). Les individus dont l'effort reproducteur avait ??t?? diminu?? exp??rimentalement produisaient davantage de jeunes qui survivaient au stade 'LPY', ??g??s approximativement de 7 mois, que les femelles contr??les. Ils diminuaient ??galement davantage leur taux de reproduction en allongeant l'intervalle entre les naissances, mais la survie au sevrage n'??tait pas affect??e. Le CHAPITRE III montre que les femelles adaptaient leur comportement alimentaire en fonction de leur statut reproducteur. En comparaison avec les individus manipul??s ou ayant perdu leur jeune, les femelles allaitantes augmentaient leur temps pass?? ?? s'alimenter durant la journ??e, l'intensit?? de leurs bouch??es et de leur mastication sans impliquer de compromis avec la vigilance. Nous avons aussi d??couvert que la survie au sevrage du jeune pr??c??dent menait ?? une augmentation du taux de bouch??es pour l'ann??e en cours. Les CHAPITRES I et II ont mis en ??vidence l'effet non n??gligeable des diff??rences individuelles sur la d??tection des co??ts de la reproduction. En effet, en l'absence de manipulation exp??rimentale ou de contr??le statistique, aucun compromis n'??tait d??tect?? autant en terme de croissance que de prochaine reproduction. Au contraire, des corr??lations positives entre l'effort reproducteur et les autres traits ont ??t?? trouv??es. Le CHAPITRE I sugg??rait notamment que cette variabilit?? du succ??s reproducteur ??tait li??e ?? l'h??t??rog??n??it?? individuelle dans le gain de masse maternelle qui augmentait la survie du jeune. Dans le CHAPITRE II, une corr??lation positive entre les probabilit??s d'avoir un 'LPY' lors de deux ??v??nements successifs de reproduction sugg??rait que certaines femelles ??taient capables de mener ?? bien ou non leur reproduction, mais cela ind??pendamment de l'effort reproducteur pr??c??dent. Enfin dans le dernier CHAPITRE (III), l'effet al??atoire ??tait significatif dans l'analyse de diff??rents comportements d'alimentation, ce qui pourrait ??tre li?? aux diff??rences de gain de masse des femelles pr??sent??es dans le CHAPITRE I. Certaines contraintes individuelles affectant le co??t de la reproduction ont ??t?? identifi??es. La masse et la condition corporelle augmentaient le succ??s reproducteur et diminuaient l'intervalle entre deux naissances successives (CHAPITRES I et II), mais contrairement ?? de pr??c??dentes ??tudes le comportement d'alimentation des femelles n'??tait pas affect?? par leur masse (CHAPITRE III). L'??ge des individus avait ??galement une influence. Les jeunes femelles croissaient davantage, avaient aussi une prise alimentaire plus importante et subissaient un co??t de reproduction sup??rieur. Ce dernier se traduisait par un taux d'??chec plus ??lev?? ?? la reproduction suivante si les jeunes femelles avaient eu un jeune l'ann??e pr??c??dente (CHAPITRES I, II et III). Des contraintes environnementales fortes influen??aient la reproduction des femelles. La croissance, le succ??s reproducteur, l'intervalle entre les naissances et les comportements d'alimentation variaient suivant le site et l'ann??e d'??tude. Le site du Promontory et l'ann??e 2011 apparaissaient particuli??rement limitants. En effet en 2011, le gain de masse et le succ??s reproducteur ont diminu?? et l'intervalle de naissance et la prise de nourriture pour les femelles allaitantes ont augment?? (CHAPITRE I,II et III). Nous cherchions ??galement ?? mettre au jour une allocation diff??rentielle des m??res suivant le sexe de leur jeune. Si le co??t sup??rieur d'avoir un m??le par rapport ?? une femelle ??tait ??vident quant aux taux de bouch??es (CHAPITRE III), il s'est av??r?? plus difficile ?? d??tecter sur d'autres traits. ?? Anglesea, les jeunes m??res avaient moins de probabilit?? d'avoir un jeune qui atteigne le stade 'LPY' apr??s avoir eu un fils qu'une fille (CHAPITRE II). Toutefois, des r??sultats contraires ?? nos attentes ont ??t?? trouv??s, du moins au premier abord, sur la croissance et le succ??s reproducteur subs??quent. Ainsi, les femelles qui avaient eu une fille perdaient davantage de masse (CHAPITRE I) et avaient g??n??ralement une probabilit?? moindre de produire un jeune qui atteigne le stade 'LPY' ou qui soit sevr?? par la suite (CHAPITRE II). En revanche, l'intervalle de naissance n'??tait pas diff??rent suivant le sexe du jeune alors qu'il ??tait fortement affect?? par le co??t de la reproduction d??montr?? gr??ce ?? la manipulation, invoquant une autre explication qu'un co??t sup??rieur des filles par rapport aux fils. En effet, les femelles qui ??taient en mauvaise condition corporelle gagnaient de la masse quand elles produisaient une fille, mais pas un fils (CHAPITRE I). De surcro??t, les jeunes m??res avaient moins de chances de sevrer un jeune ?? l'??v??nement de reproduction suivant si elles avaient eu un fils plut??t qu'une fille, et le succ??s reproducteur des m??res des fils n'??tait plus diff??rent de celui des m??res des filles dans les ann??es plus difficiles (CHAPITRE II). Enfin, les m??res des fils augmentaient la quantit?? de nourriture ing??r??e si elles avaient sevr?? un jeune l'ann??e pr??c??dente, mais les m??res des filles la diminuaient. Ces diff??rents r??sultats sugg??raient fortement qu'un ajustement du sexe-ratio ??tait utilis?? quand les ressources individuelles ou environnementales contraignaient davantage la reproduction. En conclusion, pour limiter le d??calage entre les besoins ??nerg??tiques et la disponibilit?? en nourriture, les femelles chez le kangourou gris de l'Est pourraient modifier l'allocation de leurs ressources ?? la reproduction en reportant la prochaine mise bas et en produisant un jeune du sexe le moins co??teux en accord avec les contraintes individuelles et environnementales. Ces r??sultats soulignent l'importance d'??tudes avec un suivi individuel sur plusieurs ann??es afin de pouvoir comprendre la variabilit?? des strat??gies de reproduction et leurs cons??quences sur la dynamique des populations. // Abstract : Reproduction in living beings, particularly in female mammals that produce milk, is costly, potentially involving trade-offs with life-history traits if resources are limited and an increase in foraging effort. Individual differences may, however, hide the negative effects of this cost on life-history traits. I used two powerful and complementary approaches, to deal with individual heterogeneity: experimental manipulation of reproductive effort and statistical control of individual effect. Using both approaches, I investigated the effect of presence, size and sex of young on growth, subsequent reproduction and individual foraging behaviours of females. I used data of tagged free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) collected over six years at five study sites in Victoria, Australia. There was a clear cost of reproduction. Reproductive effort decreased mass gain and limb growth for inter-capture intervals greater than two years. Over two successive reproductive events, mass gain and arm growth were reduced but leg growth was independent of reproductive effort (CHAPTER II).In addition, survival to Large Pouch Young ('LPY') stage, about 7 months of age, was higher and birth rate lower in manipulated compared to control females but survival to weaning was not affected (CHAPTER III). CHAPTER IV shows that lactating females cope with current reproductive costs by increasing ivtime spent foraging as well as bite and chewing rates without decreasing vigilance comparedto non lactating ones. Bite rate was also greater for females that weaned a young at the previous reproductive event. My study supports reproductive cost hypothesis while showing substantial individual differences. To limit mismatch between energetic needs and resource availability, females of eastern grey kangaroo could modify resource allocation to reproduction by delaying birth date of subsequent young and producing the less costly sex according to individual and environmental constrains. My thesis shows the importance of experimental approach and individual monitoring over multiple years to understand the diversity of reproductive strategies and their consequences in evolutionary ecology and population dynamic.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária
The genus Globocephaloides (Nematoda: Trichostrongyloidea) is a pathogenic group of parasitic nematodes present in the duodenum of kangaroos and wallabies (Marsupialia: Macropodidae) in Australia. Globocephaloides species (G. trifidospicularis, G. macropodis and G. affinis) have been poorly studied and thus, there are significant controversies regarding their systematics and population structures. In the present study, single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) and targeted sequencing of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA, were used to assess the genetic variation within and among Globocephaloides populations and individuals, from different host species and geographical origins. No or minor (0.2%) variation was detected among individuals of G. trifidospicularis and G. affinis. However, within G. macropodis populations there was a consistent heterogeneity in the ITS sequences (5.2 - 7.1%) between worms derived from two different host species (Macropus agilis and M. dorsalis). Under light microscopy, these two G. macropodis genotypes differed by the length, arrangement and tip of the spicules, and by pattern of the bursal rays. Thus, they were considered to represent sibling species. The molecular and morphological evidence culminated with the erection of a new species, namely G. wallabiae, and provided further insights into the host affiliation and geographical ranges of Globocephaloides spp.: G. wallabiae occurs mainly in M. dorsalis (north/east), G. macropodis in M. agilis and Petrogale persephone (north), G. affinis in M. dorsalis (north-east), and G. trifidospicularis in various Macropus species (south). Moreover, in the present study, the phylogenetic analyses between the genus Globocephaloides and other trichostrongyloid genera, using divergent domains of the 28S rRNA genes, gave evidence for the exclusion of the genus Globocephaloides from the Herpetostrongylidae, with the suggestion of a new family, namely „Globocephaloididae‟, within the Heligmosomoidea.
RESUMO - CARACTERIZAÇÃO MOLECULAR E MORFOLÓGICA DO GÉNERO GLOBOCEPHALOIDES EM MARSUPIAIS MACROPODÍDEOS NA AUSTRÁLIA - O género Globocephaloides (Nematoda: Trichostrongyloidea) é um importante grupo de nemátodes patogénicos presente no duodeno de cangurus e wallabies (Marsupialia: Macropodidae) na Austrália. O estudo das espécies de Globocephaloides (G. trifidospicularis, G. macropodis e G. affinis) tem sido limitado, e por isso, existem numerosas controvérsias em relação à sua sistemática e às suas estruturas populacionais. No presente estudo, as técnicas de análise de ácidos nucleicos, „single-strand conformation polymorphism‟ (SSCP) e sequenciação-alvo da região ITS („internal transcribed spacers‟) do DNA ribossomal foram usadas com o objectivo de analisar a variação genética entre indivíduos e populações de Globocephaloides provenientes de diferentes hospedeiros e áreas geográficas. Em ambas as espécies G. trifidospicularis e G. affinis pouca ou nenhuma variação foi encontrada (0.2%). Contudo, nas populações de G. macropodis foi detectada uma consistente heterogeneidade nas sequências ITS (5.2 - 7.1%) entre espécimes provenientes de dois hospedeiros distintos (Macropus agilis e M. dorsalis). Recorrendo à microscopia óptica verificou-se que os dois genótipos de G. macropodis diferiam no comprimento, conformação e ponta das espículas, assim como, no padrão dos raios da bolsa copuladora. Como tal, foi considerado que os dois genótipos representavam duas espécies congéneres. Os resultados da biologia molecular e do estudo morfológico determinaram o reconhecimento de uma nova espécie denominada G. wallabiae e, além disso, forneceram dados sobre a especificidade de hospedeiros e distribuição geográfica do género Globocephaloides. G. wallabiae ocorre principalmente no hospedeiro M. dorsalis (norte/este), G. macropodis no M. agilis e Petrogale persephone (norte), G. affinis no M. dorsalis (nordeste) e G. trifidospicularis em várias espécies do género Macropus (sul). Adicionalmente, a análise das relações filogenéticas entre o género Globocephaloides e outros tricostrongilídeos, empregando os domínios do gene 28S rRNA, deu provas para a exclusão do género Globocephaloides da família Herpetostrongylidae, com a sugestão de uma nova família, denominada „Globocephalidae‟, inserida na superfamília Heligmosomoidea.
Financial support provided to the supervisors for the present study was from bodies including the Australian Research Council (ARC) [to Robin B. Gasser] and Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS) [to Ian Beveridge]

Lumpy jaw is a well-recognised cause of morbidity and mortality in captive macropods (Macropodidae) worldwide. The extent and causes of the disease are largely unknown, although multiple risk factors associated with a captive environment are thought to contribute to the development of clinical disease. Identification of risk factors associated with lumpy jaw would assist with the development of preventive management strategies, potentially reducing mortalities. A cross-sectional study was undertaken from 2011 to 2015, to determine prevalence and risk factors for this disease through the distribution of a survey to 527 institutions across Australia and Europe; two regions where macropods are popular exhibits. Veterinary and husbandry records from the period 1st January 1995 up to and including 28th November 2016 (the last date when data were extracted from zoo records) were analysed in a retrospective cohort study, examining risk factors for developing disease and treatments used, over time. Computed tomography was used to examine disease occurrence in wild macropods using skulls from population management culls. The prevalence of lumpy jaw was found to differ between the two regions (p < 0.0002). A review of 6178 records for 2759 macropods housed within eight zoos across the Australian and European regions, found incidence rates and risk of infection differed between geographic regions and individual institutions. Risk of developing lumpy jaw increased with age, particularly for macropods >10 years (Australia IRR 7.63, p < 0.001; Europe IRR 7.38, p < 0.001). Treatment approach varied and prognosis was typically poor with 62.5% mortality for Australian and European regions combined. Lumpy jaw was detected in all captive genera examined, but was absent from the wild populations studied. Geographic region influenced the incidence of lumpy jaw, the risks associated with developing clinical disease, and preferred treatment approach. Despite advances in antibiotic therapy and surgical techniques, treatment of lumpy jaw is largely unrewarding for the individual and should be approached on an individual basis. This research provides new information about this refractory disease and makes practical recommendations to reduce disease risk. This information may assist institutions in providing optimal long-term health management for captive macropods; such efforts having a positive impact on both welfare and conservation, including but not limited to captive breeding and translocation programs.

A importância do pescado no Brasil tem crescido, principalmente nos últimos 50 anos, com a criação do Ministério da Pesca e Aquicultura, o aumento da produção pesqueira e do consumo de pescado per capita. A pescada-foguete Macrodon ancylodon pertence à família Sciaenidae é um peixe de alto consumo no Brasil. A qualidade do frescor do pescado é avaliada perante diferentes parâmetros: avaliações sensoriais, físico-químicas, microbiológicas, parasitológica e determinação de metais pesados, ou contaminantes inorgânicos. Para as avaliações foram coletados na CEAGESP 60 elementos amostrais para as avaliações sensoriais, microbiológicas, parasitológicas e de contaminantes inorgânicos (30 inverno / 30 verão). Para as avaliações físico-químicas foram coletados 33 elementos amostrais (15 inverno / 18 verão). Pela a avaliação sensorial as amostras do inverno e do verão tiveram resultados entre bom e moderado perante diferentes atributos avaliados. Pela avaliação físico-química os valores de BVT variaram de 7,410 a 39,240mg/100g; os valores de TMA variaram de 0,00 a 11,30mg/100g; os valores de TBA variaram de 0,250 a 1,070mgAM/100g; os valores de pH variaram de 6,890 a 7,200. Pela avaliação microbiológica a contagem de microrganismos mesófilos aeróbios estritos e facultativos viáveis variou de 9,0x103 a 8,5x105UFC/g; a contagem de microrganismos psicrotróficos aeróbios estritos e facultativos viáveis variou de 1,9x104 a >2,5x107UFC/g; a contagem de coliformes totais variou de 8,0x10 a 1,8x105UFC/g; a contagem de coliformes termotolerantes variou de <10 a 7,5x102 UFC/g; não houveram testes positivos na pesquisa de Salmonella spp. Pela avaliação parasitológica 30% dos elementos amostrais foram positivos para anisaquíase, sendo encontrados 17 elementos com Contracaecum spp. e um com Pseudoterranova spp. Pela determinação de contaminantes inorgânicos, os valores de As variaram de 0,011 a 1,700mg/Kg; os valores de Cd variaram de 0,003 a 0,031mg/Kg; os valores de Cr variaram de 0,00 a 0,124mg/Kg; os valores de Pb variaram de 0,007 a 0,458mg/Kg; os valores de Hg total variaram de 0,001 a 0,099mg/Kg. Houve diferença estatisticamente significativa a 5% entre os grupos do inverno e do verão para os seguintes parâmetros: aceitabilidade da aparência e do frescor e intenção de compra na avaliação sensorial; BVT na avaliação físico-química; microrganismos mesófilos, microrganismos psicrotróficos e coliformes totais na avaliação microbiológica; As, Cr e Hg total na determinação de contaminantes inorgânicos. Foi verificado que a análise sensorial e a microbiológica são bons avaliadores do estado de frescor. A análise de BVT e a contagem de coliformes termotolerantes são bons indicadores do frescor da pescada. Os valores de pH obtidos sugerem que para a pescada Macrodon ancylodon ocorra variação em uma escala superior a de outras espécies de pescado. A região de origem parece influenciar nos resultados parasitológicos e de metais pesados. O presente trabalho deve contribuir com o setor da inspeção e sistemas de autocontrole da qualidade comercial e frescor do pescado marinho de origem extrativista nacional.
The importance of seafood in Brazil has grown, especially in the last 50 years, with the creation of the Ministério da Pesca e Aquicultura and the increase in seafood production and consumption of fish per capita. The king weakfish Macrodon ancylodon belongs to the family Sciaenidae and is highly consumed fish in Brazil. The quality of fresh fish is evaluated against different parameters: sensory, physical-chemical and microbiological evaluations, parasitological assessment and determination of heavy metals or inorganic contaminants. For the assessments were collected 60 sample elements at CEAGESP for sensory evaluation, microbiology, parasitology and inorganic contaminants (30 winter / 30 summer). For the physical-chemical evaluations were collected 33 sample elements (15 winter / summer 18). For the sensory evaluation samples of winter and summer were between good and moderate results with regard to different attributes. For physical and chemical evaluation BVT values ranged 7.410 to 39.240 mg/100g; TMA values ranged from 0.00 to 11.30 mg/100g; TBA values ranged from 0.250 to 1.070 mgAM/100g; values pH ranged from 6.890 to 7.200. For the microbiological count of mesophilic and facultative aerobe viable ranged from 9.0x103 to 8.5x105UFC/g; the count of psychrotrophic and facultative aerobe viable ranged from 1.9x104 to >2.5x107UFC/g; count total coliforms ranged from 8.0x10 to 1.8x105UFC/g; fecal coliform counts ranged from <10 to 7.5X102 UFC/g; there were no positive tests for Salmonella spp. Parasitological assessment by 30% of sample elements were positive for anisakiasis, and were found 17 elements with Contracaecum spp. and one with Pseudoterranova spp. For the determination of inorganic contaminants, the As values ranged from 0.011 to 1.700mg/kg; the Cd values ranged from 0.003 to 0.031mg/kg; the Cr values ranged from 0.00 to 0.124mg/kg; the Pb values ranged from 0.007 to 0.458 mg/kg; the total Hg values ranged from 0.001 to 0.099 mg/kg. A statistically significant at 5% between groups of winter and summer for the following parameters: appearance and freshness acceptability and purchase intent in the sensory evaluation; BVT in physical chemistry assessment; mesophilic, psychrotrophic and total coliforms in microbiological evaluation; As, Cr and total Hg in the determination of inorganic contaminants. It was found that the microbiological and sensory analysis are good evaluators of the state of freshness. The analysis of BVT and fecal coliform counts are good indicators of freshness of king weakfish. The pH values obtained suggest that for king weakfish Macrodon ancylodon variation occurs on a scale greater than other species of fish. The region of origin seems to influence the results of parasitological and heavy metals. This work should contribute to the sector of self-control and inspection systems of commercial quality and freshness of marine fisherie in Brazil.

Digital devices have started to replace photographic film inX-ray imaging applications. As compared to photographic films,these devices are more convenient to obtain images and tohandle, treat and store these images. The goal of the presentstudy is to develop macropore arrays and related silicontechnologies in order to fabricate X-ray imaging detectors formedical applications, and in particular for dentistry. Althougha few detectors are already available on the market, theirperformances, such as the X-ray sensitivity, can still beimproved. In addition, the image quality, defined by thespatial resolution and the signalto- noise ratio (SNR), shouldbe sufficiently high to enable diagnosis and, as regard to thepatient health, the X-ray dose should be reduced to aminimum.

Three detector concepts were investigated. All of themrequire the formation of a macropore array in silicon as afirst step in the detector fabrication. Even though deepreactive ion etching was used to form these macropore arrays,silicon electrochemical etching in aqueous hydrofluoric acid(HF) solution has been more intensively studied. The porespacing was fixed to about 50 µm in order to achieve aspatial resolution of 10 lp/mm, as required in dentalapplication. Pore depths up to 420 µm with diameterranging from 10 to 40 µm, depending on the detectorconcept, have been achieved. Electrochemical etching of siliconis, indeed, a very promising technique to fabricate high aspectratio structures and damage-free macropore arrays. Thistechnique is based on a silicon dissolution reaction involvingthe species of the HF solution, silicon atoms and holes, thepositive charge carriers. As holes are the minority carriers inn-type silicon, they are usually photogenerated. However, wealso developed an alternative technique based on hole injectionfrom a forwardbiased p-n junction, and the possibility to formmacropore arrays and diverse threedimensional structures wasdemonstrated.

The first detector concept investigated consists of asilicon charge-coupled device (CCD) in proximity with ascintillating guide screen. This screen is made of a siliconmacropore array filled with CsI(Tl), emitting photons at awavelength of 550 nm (green light) under X-ray exposure. Thevisible light is then reflected on the walls of the pores inorder to be detected by the CCD pixels. Both oxide and metalcan be used as a reflective layer. Such detectors were fullyfabricated and characterized, showing good spatial resolutionand comparable results with currently available detectorsconcerning the SNR and the X-ray dose. The second detectorstudied in this thesis uses photodiodes, instead of a CCD, inorder to detect the photons emitted from the scintillator. Thisconcept would lead to high charge collection efficiency sincethe diodes are formed in the silicon pore walls, making thedistance between the generation and detection points of thevisible photons short. However, this design implies two majordifficulties in the detector fabrication: formation of p-njunction in the pore walls and formation of contacts to thediodes. Thus, boron diffusion from a solid source andlow-pressure chemical vapor deposition of boron-dopedpoly-silicon were experimented. Both techniques were shown tobe successful. The last detector concept is based on thegeneration of electron/hole pairs in the semiconductor bulkunder X-ray exposure. The generated charges would then becollected by electrodes going through the bulk, requiringformation of deep and narrow pores. Siliconphoto-electrochemical etching was used and 425-µm deeppores with a diameter of 14 µm were formed, resulting inan aspect ratio of ~ 30 and an active area of 90 %.

Colloidal macroions are known to interact very strongly with oppositely charged polyionic hydrogels. Sometimes this results in a non-uniform distribution of the macroions within the gel, a phenomenon that is not fully understood. This thesis is a summary of four papers on the development of a theory of the thermodynamics of macroions interacting with hydrogels, aimed at explaining the phenomenon of core/shell separation in spherical gels. It is the first theory of such interactions to use a rigorous approach to whole-gel mechanics, in which the elastic interplay between different parts of the gel is treated explicitly. The thesis shows that conventional theories of elasticity, earlier used on gels in pure solvent, can be generalised to apply also to gels in complex fluids, and that the general features of the phase behaviour are the same if mapped to corresponding system variables. It is found that the emergence of shells is due to attractions between macroions in the gel, mediated by polyions. Since the shell state is unfavourable from the perspective of the shell itself, being deformed from its preferred state, there will be a hysteresis between the uptake and the release of the macroion, like already known to occur with the uptake and release of pure solvent. Due to the elastic interplay, growth of the shell makes further growth progressively more favourable. Thus, unless there is a limited amount of macroions available the system will not reach equilibrium until complete phase transition has taken place. If the amount is limited the core/shell separation can be in equilibrium, so the volume of the solution that the gel is in contact with plays a very important part in determining the thermodynamic resting point of the system. The ability of a macroion/hydrogel to phase separate thus depends on the molecular properties whereas the ultimate fate of such a separation depends on the proportions in number between the ingoing components.

The feeding strategies and habitat utilisation of agile wallabies (Macropus agilis) and swamp wallabies ( Wallabia bicolo() were studied on South Stradbroke Island in Moreton Bay, Queensland. Utilisation of foredunes on the island was chiefly by agile wallabies with higher utilisation recorded on the more lush spinifex grass on the primary dune. The extent of grazing on the foredunes along the island was dependent on a number of factors, especially vegetation composition and abundance of grasses in habitats adjacent to the foredunes. In addition, higher feeding activity by both species of wallaby were found on more abundant areas of foredune. Grazing impact on the principal foredune stabilising species, sand spinifex grass ( Spinifex sericeus) was minimal. However, grazing resulted in a decreased abundance of other sand stabilising species on the foredune and could result in decreased species diversity.

Prediction and modeling of localized flow processes in macropores is of crucial importance for sustaining both soil and water quality. However, currently there are no reliable means to predict preferential flow due to its inherently large spatial variability. The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive performance of previously developed empirical models for both water and air flow and to explore the potential applicability of X-ray computed tomography (CT)-derived macropore network characteristics. For this purpose, 65 cylindrical soil columns (6 cm diameter and 3.5 cm height) were extracted from the topsoil (5 cm to 8.5 cm depth) in a 15 m  ×  15 m grid from an agricultural field located in Silstrup, Denmark. All soil columns were scanned with an industrial X-ray CT scanner (129 µm resolution) and later employed for measurement of saturated hydraulic conductivity, air permeability at −30 and −100 cm matric potential, and gas diffusivity at −30 and −100 cm matric potential. Distribution maps for saturated hydraulic conductivity, air permeability, and gas diffusivity reflected no autocorrelation irrespective of soil texture and organic matter content. Existing empirical predictive models for saturated hydraulic conductivity and air permeability showed poor performance, as they were not able to realistically capture macropore flow. The tested empirical model for gas diffusivity predicted measurements at −100 cm matric potential reasonably well, but failed at −30 cm matric potential, particularly for soil columns with biopore-dominated flow. X-ray CT-derived macroporosity matched the measured air-filled porosity at −30 cm matric potential well. Many of the CT-derived macropore network characteristics were strongly interrelated. Most of the macropore network characteristics were also significantly correlated with saturated hydraulic conductivity, air permeability, and gas diffusivity. The predictive Ahuja et al. (1984) model for saturated hydraulic conductivity, air permeability, and gas diffusivity performed reasonably well when parameterized with novel, X-ray CT-derived parameters such as effective percolating macroporosity for biopore-dominated flow and total macroporosity for matrix-dominated flow. The obtained results further indicate that it is crucially important to discern between matrix-dominated and biopore-dominated flow for accurate prediction of macropore flow from X-ray CT-derived macropore network characteristics.

The large-footed myotis (Myotis macropus) is a specialist trawling bat that can be found roosting in concrete culverts under roads, throughout urban environments. This study used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate culvert roost selection and urban landscape use by a specialist species in a subtropical city. The foundational ecological information detailed in this thesis concerning culvert roost selection and availability, urban movement patterns and gene flow between culvert roosts, will assist in planning future urban conservation initiatives of this specialist bat.

Orientador: Satoshi Tobinaga
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos
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Resumo: A secagem de alimentos em ambientes sob condições de temperatura, pressão e umidade controladas, tem sido um procedimento bastante conveniente na determinação de parâmetros físicos e na avaliação das condições de operação do processo. Neste contexto fez-se aqui, um estudo experimental seguido de um tratamento matemático, da secagem de filés de Tambacu (híbrido de: Colossoma macropum e Colossoma mitrei), em forma de lâminas retangulares, previamente salgados e defumados a líquido com extrato vegetal de nogueira. Para tanto, utilizou-se um secador de prato hermeticamente fechado, à pressão atmosférica, dotado de um leito fixo de sílica-gel para manter a umidade do ar constante. O trabalho visou investigar o processo de secagem, tendo como base o modelo de difusão de Fick considerando a difusividade efetiva constante. A temperatura de bulbo seco no interior do secador foi de 27,5 +- 1 °C e a de bulbo úmido de 18,3 +- 1,5 °C. O ar nestas condições, é soprado com uma velocidade de 1,5 m/s sobre a amostra colocada em um prato de alumínio. Os resultados alcançados demonstram a conveniência da metodologia empregada na determinação de parâmetros difusionais em processos de secagem de peixe gorduroso à baixa temperatura
Abstract: Drying of foodstuff under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure and moisture has been a usefull procedure to determine physical parameters and process conditions. Using this technique an experimental study with the aid of a mathematical analysis, was conducted on drying Tambacu (Colossoma mitrei and Colossoma macropum). These lumps were rectangular cuts from the fish fillets and salted and liquid smoked with hickory extract. Dryer was a closed circuit system under atmospheric pressure with a silica¬ gel fixed bed used to control air moisture. Drying mass transfer was analysed through Ficks law (constant diffusivity). Temperature conditions inside the system were kept at 27,5°C for dry bulb and 18,3°C for wet bulb. Air was blown towards a try containning one fish lumps ata average speed of 1,5 m/s Results proved this tobe a good technique to determine diffusional parameters in drying of fatty fish at low temperatures
Mestrado
Mestre em Engenharia de Alimentos