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Journal articles on the topic 'Lunar Soft-Landing'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 6 September 2023

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1

Bojun, Zhang, and Liu Zhanchao. "Iterative Guidance Algorithm for Lunar Soft Landing." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2235, no. 1 (May 1, 2022): 012017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2235/1/012017.

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Abstract A closed-form explicit guidance algorithm for the deceleration, attitude adjustment and final landing phases before lunar probe soft landing is presented in this paper. Guidance with a variable-thrust engine is extended from the iterative guidance mode (IGM) to satisfy the terminal velocity, position, and attitude constraints. The closed form expression, obtained by integrating the acceleration and shutdown time, is analysed to obtain an explicit ex-pression for the velocity and position requirements and vertical touchdown of the spacecraft toward a designated landing site with high terminal accuracy. The influence of the attitude constraint on the motion equation is analysed to calculate the attitude, which is the physical control variable for the guidance loop. The variable thrust IGM formulation ensures the least switch of the thrust magnitude profile based on the analysis result of the residual flight altitude. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed multi-constrained iterative guidance method can help accomplish an accurate lunar soft landing and that employed the algorithm is simple and easy to implement in engineering practice.

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2

Lin, Qing, and Jie Ren. "Investigation on the Horizontal Landing Velocity and Pitch Angle Impact on the Soft-Landing Dynamic Characteristics." International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2022 (January 25, 2022): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/3277581.

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The dynamic analysis of the soft landing of the lunar probe is very important to the design of the probe. The initial movement and attitude parameters of the probe during landing have a direct influence on the landing impact. In order to investigate the lunar probe soft-landing dynamic impact by different initial horizontal velocities, pitch angles, and inclinations of the lunar slope, an inertial force-based 7-DOF soft-landing dynamic model is applied under two conditions: the upward and downward slope landing surfaces. The impact on the dynamic characteristics of soft landing is analyzed in terms of body displacement, body overload, and the forces of the primary and secondary buffer struts due to the change of initial horizontal velocity and initial pitch angle of the probe. The result shows that, in 2-2 landing mode, the stress conditions on the primary and secondary struts are obviously impacted by initial horizontal velocity, and the initial pitch angle affects the body overload and the loading state of the secondary buffer strut. The body overload and landing impact could be significantly mitigated if the lunar probe’s horizontal landing speed is limited within 1 m/s, the pitch angle is limited within 12°, and the landing is along the uphill terrain with the inclination of the lunar slope less and equal to 9°. The analysis can directly determine the range of the horizontal speed and pitch attitude angle to ensure the safety of landing, and provide a reference for the reasonable control design of the lander’s horizontal speed and pitch attitude.

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3

Shijie, Xu, and Zhu Jianfeng. "A new strategy for lunar soft landing." Journal of the Astronautical Sciences 55, no. 3 (September 2007): 373–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03256530.

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4

Kim, Yeong-Bae, Hyun-Jae Jeong, Shin-Mu Park, Jae Hyuk Lim, and Hoon-Hee Lee. "Prediction and Validation of Landing Stability of a Lunar Lander by a Classification Map Based on Touchdown Landing Dynamics’ Simulation Considering Soft Ground." Aerospace 8, no. 12 (December 6, 2021): 380. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120380.

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In this paper, a method for predicting the landing stability of a lunar lander by a classification map of the landing stability is proposed, considering the soft soil characteristics and the slope angle of the lunar surface. First, the landing stability condition in terms of the safe (=stable), sliding (=unstable), and tip-over (=statically unstable) possibilities was checked by dropping a lunar lander onto flat lunar surfaces through finite-element (FE) simulation according to the slope angle, friction coefficient, and soft/rigid ground, while the vertical touchdown velocity was maintained at 3 m/s. All of the simulation results were classified by a classification map with the aid of logistic regression, a machine-learning classification algorithm. Finally, the landing stability status was efficiently predicted by Monte Carlo (MC) simulation by just referring to the classification map for 10,000 input datasets, consisting of the friction coefficient, slope angles, and rigid/soft ground. To demonstrate the performance, two virtual lunar surfaces were employed based on a 3D terrain map of the LRO mission. Then, the landing stability was validated through landing simulation of an FE model of a lunar lander requiring high computation cost. The prediction results showed excellent agreement with those of landing simulations with a negligible computational cost of around a few seconds.

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Wang, Dayi, Xiangyu Huang, and Yifeng Guan. "GNC system scheme for lunar soft landing spacecraft." Advances in Space Research 42, no. 2 (July 2008): 379–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2007.08.031.

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6

Banerjee, Avijit, and Radhakant Padhi. "Multi-phase MPSP Guidance for Lunar Soft Landing." Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering 5, no. 1 (March 2020): 61–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41403-020-00090-1.

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7

Park, Bong-Gyun, Jong-Sun Ahn, and Min-Jea Tahk. "Two-Dimensional Trajectory Optimization for Soft Lunar Landing Considering a Landing Site." International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences 12, no. 3 (September 30, 2011): 288–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.5139/ijass.2011.12.3.288.

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8

Qu, Mo Feng. "Lunar Soft - Landing Trajectory of Mechanics Optimization Based on the Improved Ant Colony Algorithm." Applied Mechanics and Materials 721 (December 2014): 446–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.721.446.

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Based on research carried out for the most fuel-lunar soft landing trajectory optimization problem. First, by improving the function approximation method, the lunar soft landing trajectory optimization problem into a parameter optimization problem, and the optimization variables and state variables have a clear physical meaning. Then use the decimal ant colony algorithm adds local search strategy to study the optimization problem. Finally, the optimization algorithm to optimize term direction angle simulation and error analysis.

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9

Yin, Ke, Songlin Zhou, Qiao Sun, and Feng Gao. "Lunar Surface Fault-Tolerant Soft-Landing Performance and Experiment for a Six-Legged Movable Repetitive Lander." Sensors 21, no. 17 (August 24, 2021): 5680. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21175680.

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The cascading launch and cooperative work of lander and rover are the pivotal methods to achieve lunar zero-distance exploration. The separated design results in a heavy system mass that requires more launching costs and a limited exploration area that is restricted to the vicinity of the immovable lander. To solve this problem, we have designed a six-legged movable repetitive lander, called “HexaMRL”, which congenitally integrates the function of both the lander and rover. However, achieving a buffered landing after a failure of the integrated drive units (IDUs) in the harsh lunar environment is a great challenge. In this paper, we systematically analyze the fault-tolerant capacity of all possible landing configurations in which the number of remaining normal legs is more than two and design the landing algorithm to finish a fault-tolerant soft-landing for the stable configuration. A quasi-incentre stability optimization method is further proposed to increase the stability margin during supporting operations after landing. To verify the fault-tolerant landing performance on the moon, a series of experiments, including five-legged, four-legged and three-legged soft-landings with a vertical landing velocity of −1.9 m/s and a payload of 140 kg, are successfully carried out on a 5-DoF lunar gravity ground-testing platform. The HexaMRL with fault-tolerant landing capacity will greatly promote the development of a next-generation lunar prober.

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10

Yuan, Qi, Heng Chen, Hong Nie, Guang Zheng, Chen Wang, and Likai Hao. "Soft-Landing Dynamic Analysis of a Manned Lunar Lander Em-Ploying Energy Absorption Materials of Carbon Nanotube Buckypaper." Materials 14, no. 20 (October 19, 2021): 6202. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14206202.

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With the rapid development of the aerospace field, traditional energy absorption materials are becoming more and more inadequate and cannot meet the requirements of having a light weight, high energy absorption efficiency, and high energy absorption density. Since existing studies have shown that carbon nanotube (CNT) buckypaper is a promising candidate for energy absorption, owing to its extremely high energy absorption efficiency and remarkable mass density of energy absorption, this study explores the application of buckypaper as the landing buffer material in a manned lunar lander. Firstly, coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations were implemented to investigate the compression stress-strain relationships of buckypapers with different densities and the effect of the compression rate within the range of the landing velocity. Then, based on a self-designed manned lunar lander, buckypapers of appropriate densities were selected to be the energy absorption materials within the landing mechanisms of the lander. For comparison, suitable aluminum honeycomb materials, the most common energy absorption materials in lunar landers, were determined for the same landing mechanisms. Afterwards, the two soft-landing multibody dynamic models are established, respectively, and their soft-landing performances under three severe landing cases are analyzed, respectively. The results depicted that the landers, respectively, adopting the two energy absorption materials well, satisfy the soft-landing performance requirements in all the cases. It is worth mentioning that the lander employing the buckypaper is proved to demonstrate a better soft-landing performance, mainly reflected in reducing the mass of the energy absorption element by 8.14 kg and lowing the maximum center-of-mass overload of the lander by 0.54 g.

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11

Rijesh, M. P., G. Sijo, N. K. Philip, and P. Natarajan. "Geometrical Guidance Algorithm for Soft Landing on Lunar Surface." IFAC Proceedings Volumes 47, no. 1 (2014): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3182/20140313-3-in-3024.00093.

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12

Zhou, Jingyang, Kok Lay Teo, Di Zhou, and Guohui Zhao. "Nonlinear optimal feedback control for lunar module soft landing." Journal of Global Optimization 52, no. 2 (February 2, 2011): 211–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10898-011-9659-4.

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13

Chu, Huiping, Lin Ma, Kexin Wang, Zhijiang Shao, and Zhengyu Song. "Trajectory optimization for lunar soft landing with complex constraints." Advances in Space Research 60, no. 9 (November 2017): 2060–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2017.07.024.

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14

LUO, Zongfu, Yunhe MENG, and Guojian TANG. "Lunar Soft-landing Trajectory Design Based on Evolutionary Strategy." Chinese Journal of Space Science 32, no. 1 (2012): 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.11728/cjss2012.01.092.

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15

Yang, Bo, Jun Miao, and Yong Yang. "Terminal Sliding Mode Control of a Lunar Lander with Electric Propulsion." Applied Mechanics and Materials 494-495 (February 2014): 1195–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.494-495.1195.

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This paper presents an attitude control method based on electric propulsion systems for the lunar lander that considers the important characteristics of nonlinearity and uncertainty of lunar soft landing maneuvers with large attitudes. The attitude control law is designed according to the terminal sliding mode variable structure control method. A soft lunar landing utilizing the proposed control method is simulated, and the results show that this attitude control system demonstrates superior global robustness, consumes less propellant, and can achieve higher precision than a conventional chemical propulsion-based control system. For a lunar lander with a pulse plasma thruster as the propulsion system, the attitude control precision of the system is 0.002 degrees when the attitude control force is 0.1 Newtons. When a conventional chemical, not electric, propulsion thruster is used, if the attitude control force decreases by one order of magnitude, then the control precision of the lunar lander decreases 10-fold. This study demonstrates that a terminal sliding mode variable structure control method combined with low level thrust electric propulsion can improve the precision of lunar soft landings.

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16

Liu, Hengxi, Yongzhi Wang, Shibo Wen, Jianzhong Liu, Jiaxiang Wang, Yaqin Cao, Zhiguo Meng, and Yuanzhi Zhang. "A New Blind Selection Approach for Lunar Landing Zones Based on Engineering Constraints Using Sliding Window." Remote Sensing 15, no. 12 (June 19, 2023): 3184. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15123184.

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Deep space exploration has risen in interest among scientists in recent years, with soft landings being one of the most straightforward ways to acquire knowledge about the Moon. In general, landing mission success depends on the selection of landing zones, and there are currently few effective quantitative models that can be used to select suitable landing zones. When automatic landing zones are selected, the grid method used for data partitioning tends to miss potentially suitable landing sites between grids. Therefore, this study proposes a new engineering-constrained approach for landing zone selection using LRO LOLA-based slope data as original data based on the sliding window method, which solves the spatial omission problem of the grid method. Using the threshold ratio, mean, coefficient of variation, Moran’s I, and overall rating, this method quantifies the suitability of each sliding window. The k-means clustering algorithm is adopted to determine the suitability threshold for the overall rating. The results show that 20 of 22 lunar soft landing sites are suitable for landing. Additionally, 43 of 50 landing sites preselected by the experts (suitable landing sites considering a combination of conditions) are suitable for landing, accounting for 90.9% and 86% of the total number, respectively, for a window size of 0.5° × 0.5°. Among them, there are four soft landing sites: Surveyor 3, 6, 7, and Apollo 15, which are not suitable for landing in the evaluation results of the grid method. However, they are suitable for landing in the overall evaluation results of the sliding window method, which significantly reduces the spatial omission problem of the grid method. In addition, four candidate landing regions, including Aristarchus Crater, Marius Hills, Moscoviense Basin, and Orientale Basin, were evaluated for landing suitability using the sliding window method. The suitability of the landing area within the candidate range of small window sizes was 0.90, 0.97, 0.49, and 0.55. This indicates the capacity of the method to analyze an arbitrary range during blind landing zone selection. The results can quantify the slope suitability of the landing zones from an engineering perspective and provide different landing window options. The proposed method for selecting lunar landing zones is clearly superior to the gridding method. It enhances data processing for automatic lunar landing zone selection and progresses the selection process from qualitative to quantitative.

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17

Kislitsyna, Irina A., and Galina F. Malykhina. "Mathematical modeling of altimeter." ACTA IMEKO 4, no. 4 (December 23, 2015): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.21014/acta_imeko.v4i4.263.

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The aim of the survey is to simulate photon altimeter designed for a soft landing on the lunar surface. Simulation of the process of scattering of gamma rays from the lunar surface with a typical composition of the lunar soil was implemented.

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18

Lu, Yun Tong, Chun Jie Wang, Ang Li, and Han Wang. "Multidisciplinary Design Optimization of a Lunar Lander’s Soft-Landing Gear." Applied Mechanics and Materials 42 (November 2010): 118–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.42.118.

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The rapid development of Multidisciplinary Design Optimization (MDO) approach can simultaneously guarantee the cut of cost on design and optimal performance of spacecraft. Based on the theory of Collaborative Optimization approach (CO) of MDO, present paper proposes the method of CO by integrating Pro/E(3D modeling), Patran/Nastran(FEM analysis) and ADAMS(multi-body dynamic analysis) with the Isight software. In the analysis of the soft-landing gear of Lunar Lander, this method can optimize the mass of the landing gear and meanwhile ensures the reliability of structure statics, structure dynamics and multi-body dynamics. Thus the feasibility, applied value and guideline significance of this method in spacecraft structural design are proven.

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19

UTASHIMA, Masayoshi. "Optimization of Lunar Soft Landing with Constraints of Thrust Direction." Journal of the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences 45, no. 527 (1997): 744–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2322/jjsass1969.45.744.

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20

Wei, Xiaohui, Qing Lin, Hong Nie, Ming Zhang, and Jie Ren. "Investigation on soft-landing dynamics of four-legged lunar lander." Acta Astronautica 101 (August 2014): 55–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.04.001.

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21

ITAGAKI, Haruaki. "B1 Towards the Realization of Lunar soft landing in Japan." Proceedings of the Space Engineering Conference 2001.9 (2001): 29–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmesec.2001.9.29.

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22

Huang, Guoqiang. "Global 4D Trajectory Optimization Design for Lunar Vertical Soft Landing." Chinese Journal of Space Science 34, no. 3 (2014): 313. http://dx.doi.org/10.11728/cjss2014.03.313.

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23

Mou, N., J. Li, Z. Meng, L. Zhang, and W. Liu. "MULTI-FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR SELECTING LUNAR EXPLORATION SOFT LANDING AREA AND THE BEST CRUISE ROUTE." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-3 (April 30, 2018): 1291–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-3-1291-2018.

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Selecting the right soft landing area and planning a reasonable cruise route are the basic tasks of lunar exploration. In this paper, the Von Karman crater in the Antarctic Aitken basin on the back of the moon is used as the study area, and multi-factor analysis is used to evaluate the landing area and cruise route of lunar exploration. The evaluation system mainly includes the factors such as the density of craters, the impact area of craters, the formation of the whole area and the formation of some areas, such as the vertical structure, rock properties and the content of (FeO&thinsp;+&thinsp;TiO<sub>2</sub>), which can reflect the significance of scientific exploration factor. And the evaluation of scientific exploration is carried out on the basis of safety and feasibility. On the basis of multi-factor superposition analysis, three landing zones A, B and C are selected, and the appropriate cruising route is analyzed through scientific research factors. This study provides a scientific basis for the lunar probe landing and cruise route planning, and it provides technical support for the subsequent lunar exploration.

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24

Anthony Thomas, Digina Derose, Sahaya Cyril, and Smita Dange. "Intelligent Lunar Landing Site Recommender." International Journal of Engineering and Management Research 11, no. 2 (April 30, 2021): 184–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.31033/ijemr.11.2.26.

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Space exploration is brewing to be one of the most sought after fields in today’s world with each country pooling in resources and skilled minds to be one step ahead of the other. The core aspect of space exploration is exoplanet exploration, i.e., by sending unmanned rovers or manned spaceships to planets and celestial bodies within and beyond our solar system to determine habitable planets. Landscape inspection and traversal is the core feature of any planetary exploration mission. It is often a strenuous task to carry out a machine learning experiment on an extraterrestrial surface like the Moon. Consequent lunar explorations undertaken by various space agencies in the last four decades have helped to analyze the nature of the Lunar Terrain through satellite images. The motion of the rovers has traditionally been governed by the use of sensors that achieve obstacle avoidance. In this project we aim to detect craters on the lunar landscape which in turn will be used to determine soft landing sites on the lunar landscape for exploring the terrain, based on the classified lunar landscape images.

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25

D’Ambrosio, Andrea, Andrea Carbone, Dario Spiller, and Fabio Curti. "PSO-Based Soft Lunar Landing with Hazard Avoidance: Analysis and Experimentation." Aerospace 8, no. 7 (July 19, 2021): 195. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8070195.

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The problem of real-time optimal guidance is extremely important for successful autonomous missions. In this paper, the last phases of autonomous lunar landing trajectories are addressed. The proposed guidance is based on the Particle Swarm Optimization, and the differential flatness approach, which is a subclass of the inverse dynamics technique. The trajectory is approximated by polynomials and the control policy is obtained in an analytical closed form solution, where boundary and dynamical constraints are a priori satisfied. Although this procedure leads to sub-optimal solutions, it results in beng fast and thus potentially suitable to be used for real-time purposes. Moreover, the presence of craters on the lunar terrain is considered; therefore, hazard detection and avoidance are also carried out. The proposed guidance is tested by Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate its performances and a robust procedure, made up of safe additional maneuvers, is introduced to counteract optimization failures and achieve soft landing. Finally, the whole procedure is tested through an experimental facility, consisting of a robotic manipulator, equipped with a camera, and a simulated lunar terrain. The results show the efficiency and reliability of the proposed guidance and its possible use for real-time sub-optimal trajectory generation within laboratory applications.

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26

Remesh, N., R. V. Ramanan, and V. R. Lalithambika. "Fuel Optimum Lunar Soft Landing Trajectory Design Using Different Solution Schemes." International Review of Aerospace Engineering (IREASE) 9, no. 5 (October 31, 2016): 131. http://dx.doi.org/10.15866/irease.v9i5.10119.

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27

Aravind, G., S. Vishnu, K. V. Amarnath, U. Hithesh, P. Harikrishnan, Pramod Sreedharan, and Ganesh Udupa. "Design, Analysis and Stability testing of Lunar Lander for Soft-Landing." Materials Today: Proceedings 24 (2020): 1235–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.438.

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28

Zhang, Bo, Shuo Tang, and Binfeng Pan. "Multi-constrained suboptimal powered descent guidance for lunar pinpoint soft landing." Aerospace Science and Technology 48 (January 2016): 203–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2015.11.018.

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29

Wei, Wei, Shijie Zhang, Ximing Zhao, Xinyu Quan, Jie Zhou, Nan Yu, Hongxiang Wang, Meng Li, and Xuyan Hou. "Research on Aluminum Honeycomb Buffer Device for Soft Landing on the Lunar Surface." International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2021 (October 31, 2021): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/7686460.

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To obtain the resources of the moon, humans have launched a series of exploration activities on the moon, and the landing buffer device is an indispensable device on the lander required to perform lunar surface exploration missions. It can effectively protect the lander during landing scientific payloads such as instruments on the lander. Based on the mechanical properties and deformation mechanism of the aluminum honeycomb as buffer material, this paper compares and analyzes different simulation schemes and finally establishes the bonding model of the honeycomb by using the discrete element method; the parameters of the honeycomb material are matched through compression experiments to verify the discrete element honeycomb simulation and the feasibility of the scheme and its parameters. To meet the buffering requirements of large landers, a spider web honeycomb structure is proposed, its modeling method is studied by using the discrete element secondary development program, and the model is compressed as a whole to verify the energy consumption characteristics of the spider web honeycomb structure. Aiming at the honeycomb buffer device during the landing process, the cobweb honeycomb buffer structure and its corresponding landing coupling model were established using the discrete element method, the landing process was simulated and analyzed, and the landing results were predicted to verify the feasibility of the device, providing a reference for the design of the lander and its buffer device.

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30

Sachan, Kapil, and Radhakant Padhi. "Waypoint Constrained Multi-Phase Optimal Guidance of Spacecraft for Soft Lunar Landing." Unmanned Systems 07, no. 02 (April 2019): 83–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s230138501950002x.

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A waypoint constrained multi-phase nonlinear optimal guidance scheme is presented in this paper for the soft landing of a spacecraft on the Lunar surface by using the recently developed computationally efficient Generalized Model Predictive Static Programming (G-MPSP). The proposed guidance ensures that the spacecraft passes through two waypoints, which is a strong requirement to facilitate proper landing site detection by the on-board camera for mission safety. Constraints that are required at the waypoints as well as at the terminal point include position, velocity, and attitude of the spacecraft. In addition to successfully meeting these hard constraints, the G-MPSP guidance also minimizes the fuel consumption, which is a very good advantage. An optimal final time selection procedure is also presented in this paper to facilitate minimization of fuel requirement to the best extent possible. Extensive simulation studies have been carried out with various perturbations to illustrate the effectiveness of the algorithm. Finally, processor-in-loop simulation has been carried out, which demonstrates the feasibility of on-board implementation of the proposed guidance.

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31

Zhang, Lihua. "Development and Prospect of Chinese Lunar Relay Communication Satellite." Space: Science & Technology 2021 (April 27, 2021): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.34133/2021/3471608.

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Relay communication satellites play a very important role on the lunar far side and pole areas exploration missions. Queqiao relay communication satellite was developed to provide relay communication support for the lander and the rover of Chang’e-4 mission landing on the far side of the Moon. From entering into the halo mission orbit around Earth-Moon libration point 2 on June 14, 2018, it has operated on the orbit more than thirty months. It worked very well and provided reliable, continuous relay communication support for the lander and the rover to accomplish the goals of Chang’e-4 lunar far side soft landing and patrol exploration mission. Exploration of the lunar south polar regions is of high scientific interest. A new relay communication satellite for Chinese south pole exploration mission is also under study. The system design and on-orbit operation status of Queqiao relay communication satellite were summarized in this paper. The system concept of the relay communication satellite for lunar south pole exploration missions is proposed. Finally, the future development and prospect of the lunar relay communication satellite system are given.

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32

Yu, Qiang, Tianshu Wang, and Zirui Li. "Rapid Simulation of 3D Liquid Sloshing in the Lunar Soft-Landing Spacecraft." AIAA Journal 57, no. 10 (October 2019): 4504–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/1.j058160.

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33

Ahn, Jong-Sun, Bong-Gyun Park, and Min-Jea Tahk. "Two-dimensional Trajectory Optimization of a Soft Lunar Landing from a Parking Orbit Considering a Landing Site." IFAC Proceedings Volumes 43, no. 15 (2010): 178–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.3182/20100906-5-jp-2022.00031.

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34

Zhang, Xue Yuan. "Optimal Control Strategy at the Main Reduction Process for Lunar Spacecraft Soft Landing." Applied Mechanics and Materials 775 (July 2015): 334–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.775.334.

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According to the law of energy conservation and the second law of Kepler, this paper obtains the spacecraft velocity in perilune and apolune. Based on trajectory inversion thought, this paper obtains position and velocity direction in the perilune and apolune. For the five sub stages of soft landing, this paper discusses the optimal control strategy: establishing optimization model of genetic algorithm for the main deceleration section, the terminal constraint condition is reflected on the fitness function through the penalty function, combined with linear iterative thought, the winner engine thrust and direction angle are obtained. Aiming at the rapid adjustment period, the spacecraft angle change is done equivalent decomposition and discrete linear, so the thrust can be obtained through the angle change provided by adjusting attitude engine and combined with rigid body motion law.

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35

Remesh, N., R. V. Ramanan, and V. R. Lalithambika. "A Novel Indirect Scheme for Optimal Lunar Soft Landing at a Target Site." Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series C 102, no. 6 (September 30, 2021): 1379–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40032-021-00748-x.

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36

Wu, Xiang, Kanjian Zhang, Xin Xin, and Ming Cheng. "Fuel-optimal control for soft lunar landing based on a quadratic regularization approach." European Journal of Control 49 (September 2019): 84–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcon.2019.02.003.

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37

Zheng, Guang, Hong Nie, Jinbao Chen, Chuanzhi Chen, and Heow Pueh Lee. "Dynamic analysis of lunar lander during soft landing using explicit finite element method." Acta Astronautica 148 (July 2018): 69–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.04.014.

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38

Borse, Janhavi H., Dipti D. Patil, Vinod Kumar, and Sudhir Kumar. "Soft Landing Parameter Measurements for Candidate Navigation Trajectories Using Deep Learning and AI-Enabled Planetary Descent." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2022 (August 27, 2022): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/2886312.

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Smart instruments, sensors, and AI technologies are playing an important role in many fields such as medical science, Earth science, astronomy physics, and space study. This article attempts to study the role of sensors, instruments, and AI (artificial intelligence) based smart technologies in lunar missions during navigation of trajectories. Lunar landing missions usually divide the power descent phase into three to four sub-phases. Each sub-phase has its own set of initial and final constraints for the desired system state. The landing systems depend on human competencies for making the most crucial landing decisions. Trajectory planning and designing are very significant in lunar missions, and it requires inputs with precision. The manual systems may be prone to errors. In contrast, AI and smart sensor-based measurements give an accurate idea about the trajectory paths and make appropriate decisions where manual systems may turn into disasters. The manual systems are either pre-fed or have manual controls to guide the trajectory. For autonomous landing problems, trajectory design is a very crucial task. The automated trajectories play a vital role in the measurement and prediction of landing state parameters of the space rocket. Nowadays, sensors, intelligent instruments, and the latest technologies go hand in hand to devise measurement methods for accurate calculations and make appropriate decisions during landing space rockets at the designated destination. Space missions are very expensive and require huge efforts to design smart systems for navigation trajectories. This paper attempts to design all possible candidates of reference navigation trajectories for autonomous lunar descent by employing 3D non-linear system dynamics with randomly chosen initial state conditions. The generated candidates do not rely on multiple hops and thus exhibit an ability to serve autonomous missions. This research work makes use of smart sensors and AI federated techniques for smartly training the system to serve the ultimate purpose. The trajectories are simulated in an automated simulating environment to perform exhaustive analyses. The results accurately approximate the trajectories analogous to their numerical counterparts and converge to their measured final state estimates. The generation rate of feasible trajectories measures the accuracy of the algorithm. The algorithm’s accuracy is near 0.87 for 100 sec flight time, which is reasonable.

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Strashnov, E. V., and M. V. Mikhaylyuk. "Simulation of Spacecraft Moon Landing Control in Virtual Environment Complexes." Mekhatronika, Avtomatizatsiya, Upravlenie 24, no. 3 (March 28, 2023): 158–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.17587/mau.24.158-167.

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The paper considers the task for simulation of final stage spacecraft landing on the Moon in virtual environment systems. To solve this task, methods and algorithms are proposed for the lunar module motion control with the implementation of fast attitude maneuvers and minimum fuel consumption during its deceleration. The spacecraft control is based on virtual sensors feedback and makes it possible to implement stabilization, reorientation, deceleration, maneuvers, hovering and soft landing of the spacecraft on the Moon. The work involves virtual reality technologies with the implementation of human interaction with a computer-synthesized environment. In this case, to control the spacecraft in manual mode, virtual hands are used that copy the movements of the operator’s hands and act on the elements of virtual controls (joystick, buttons, etc.) inside the spacecraft model. Approbation of methods and algorithms proposed in the paper was carried out in our software package of virtual environment system on the example for landing simulation of virtual model Orel spacecraft in semi-automatic mode. In this software package the spacecraft control in manual mode is implemented by data which transit from Oculus Rift CV1 VR headset and Oculus Touch controllers designed for tracking the operator’s head and hands, as well as displaying synthesized stereopair to his eyes. The simulation of spacecraft landing on the Moon was carried out for stages that begin immediately after the basic deceleration at an altitude of about 2 km and including the free fall of the lunar vehicle, its verticalization, horizontal and vertical deceleration, hovering, and soft landing. The results of approbation showed the adequacy and quality of the solutions proposed in the paper, which can be further used to create simulators designed to train cosmonauts how to control a spacecraft during landing on the Moon.

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Wang, J., J. Li, S. Wang, T. Yu, Z. Rong, X. He, Y. You, et al. "COMPUTER VISION IN THE TELEOPERATION OF THE YUTU-2 ROVER." ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences V-3-2020 (August 3, 2020): 595–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-v-3-2020-595-2020.

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Abstract. On January 3, 2019, the Chang'e-4 (CE-4) probe successfully landed in the Von Kármán crater inside the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin. With the support of a relay communication satellite "Queqiao" launched in 2018 and located at the Earth-Moon L2 liberation point, the lander and the Yutu-2 rover carried out in-situ exploration and patrol surveys, respectively, and were able to make a series of important scientific discoveries. Owing to the complexity and unpredictability of the lunar surface, teleoperation has become the most important control method for the operation of the rover. Computer vision is an important technology to support the teleoperation of the rover. During the powered descent stage and lunar surface exploration, teleoperation based on computer vision can effectively overcome many technical challenges, such as fast positioning of the landing point, high-resolution seamless mapping of the landing site, localization of the rover in the complex environment on the lunar surface, terrain reconstruction, and path planning. All these processes helped achieve the first soft landing, roving, and in-situ exploration on the lunar farside. This paper presents a high-precision positioning technology and positioning results of the landing point based on multi-source data, including orbital images and CE-4 descent images. The method and its results have been successfully applied in an actual engineering mission for the first time in China, providing important support for the topographical analysis of the landing site and mission planning for subsequent teleoperations. After landing, a 0.03 m resolution DOM was generated using the descent images and was used as one of the base maps for the overall rover path planning. Before each movement, the Yutu-2 rover controlled its hazard avoidance cameras (Hazcam), navigation cameras (Navcam), and panoramic cameras (Pancam) to capture stereo images of the lunar surface at different angles. Local digital elevation models (DEMs) with a 0.02 m resolution were routinely produced at each waypoint using the Navcam and Hazcam images. These DEMs were then used to design an obstacle recognition method and establish a model for calculating the slope, aspect, roughness, and visibility. Finally, in combination with the Yutu-2 rover mobility characteristics, a comprehensive cost map for path search was generated.By the end of the first 12 lunar days, the Yutu-2 rover has been working on the lunar farside for more than 300 days, greatly exceeding the projected service life. The rover was able to overcome the complex terrain on the lunar farside, and travelled a total distance of more than 300 m, achieving the "double three hundred" breakthrough. In future manned lunar landing and exploration of Mars by China, computer vision will play an integral role to support science target selection and scientific investigations, and will become an extremely important core technology for various engineering tasks.

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Liu, Yuanyuan, Shunguang Song, and Chunjie Wang. "Multi-objective optimization on the shock absorber design for the lunar probe using nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II." International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems 14, no. 4 (July 1, 2017): 172988141772046. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1729881417720467.

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In this article, the design on the shock absorber of the lunar probe soft landing can be considered as a single- or multi-objective optimization problem. Here, the optimized objective parameters include the maximum toppling stability, defined as Dmin, and the minimum stroke of primary strut energy absorption, SPmax. However, the two optimized variables are conflict objectives. In order to give an overall consideration about the multi-performances of landing, the multi-objective optimization strategy is proposed and nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II is employed to find the best decision parameters of the shock absorber design. To conduct the optimizations, firstly, the worst landing cases and safety boundaries for both toppling and primary strut energy absorptions are obtained by the computer simulation experiments. Both single- and multi-objective optimizations are then implemented aiming to expand the stability boundary. The results show that the landing stability is effectively improved after optimizations, and also demonstrate that the multi-objective optimization strategy is superior to that of the single-objective optimization.

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Dong, Zejun, Xuan Feng, Haoqiu Zhou, Cai Liu, Zhaofa Zeng, Jing Li, and Wenjing Liang. "Properties Analysis of Lunar Regolith at Chang’E-4 Landing Site Based on 3D Velocity Spectrum of Lunar Penetrating Radar." Remote Sensing 12, no. 4 (February 13, 2020): 629. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12040629.

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The Chinese Chang’E-4 mission for moon exploration has been successfully completed. The Chang’E-4 probe achieved the first-ever soft landing on the floor of Von Kármán crater (177.59°E, 45.46°S) of the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin on January 3, 2019. Yutu-2 rover is mounted with several scientific instruments including a lunar penetrating radar (LPR), which is an effective instrument to detect the lunar subsurface structure. During the interpretation of LPR data, subsurface velocity of electromagnetic waves is a vital parameter necessary for stratigraphic division and computing other properties. However, the methods in previous research on Chang’E-3 cannot perform velocity analysis automatically and objectively. In this paper, the 3D velocity spectrum is applied to property analysis of LPR data from Chang’E-4. The result shows that 3D velocity spectrum can automatically search for hyperbolas; the maximum value at velocity axis with a soft threshold function can provide the horizontal position, two-way reflected time and velocity of each hyperbola; the average maximum relative error of velocity is estimated to be 7.99%. Based on the estimated velocities of 30 hyperbolas, the structures of subsurface properties are obtained, including velocity, relative permittivity, density, and content of FeO and TiO2.

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Yue, Zongyu, Ke Shi, Gregory Michael, Kaichang Di, Sheng Gou, Jianzhong Liu, and Shengli Niu. "Chronology of the Basalt Units Surrounding Chang’e-4 Landing Area." Remote Sensing 14, no. 1 (December 23, 2021): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14010049.

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The Chang’e-4 (CE-4) lunar probe, the first soft landing spacecraft on the far side of the Moon, successfully landed in the Von Kármán crater on 3 January 2019. Geological studies of the landing area have been conducted and more intensive studies will be carried out with the in situ measured data. The chronological study of the maria basalt surrounding the CE-4 landing area is significant to the related studies. Currently, the crater size-frequency distribution (CSFD) technique is the most popular method to derive absolute model ages (AMAs) of geological units where no returned sample is available, and it has been widely used in dating maria basalt on the lunar surface. In this research, we first make a mosaic with multi-orbital Chang’e-2 (CE-2) images as a base map. Coupled with the elevation data and FeO content, nine representative areas of basalt units surrounding the CE-4 landing area are outlined and their AMAs are derived. The dating results of the nine basalt units indicate that the basalts erupted from 3.42 to 2.28 Ga ago in this area, a period much longer than derived by previous studies. The derived chronology of the above basalt units establishes a foundation for geological analysis of the returned CE-4 data.

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Moon, Yongjun, and Sejin Kwon. "Lunar soft landing with minimum-mass propulsion system using H2O2/kerosene bipropellant rocket system." Acta Astronautica 99 (June 2014): 153–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.02.003.

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Ma, Lin, Zhijiang Shao, Weifeng Chen, and Zhengyu Song. "Trajectory optimization for lunar soft landing with a Hamiltonian-based adaptive mesh refinement strategy." Advances in Engineering Software 100 (October 2016): 266–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2016.08.002.

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Ramanan, R. V., and Madan Lal. "Analysis of optimal strategies for soft landing on the Moon from lunar parking orbits." Journal of Earth System Science 114, no. 6 (December 2005): 807–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02715967.

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Latif, Shaikh Abdul, Ibrahim M. Mehedi, Ahmed I. M. Iskanderani, Mahendiran T. Vellingiri, and Rahtul Jannat. "Hybrid Approach Named HUAPO Technique to Guide the Lander Based on the Landing Trajectory Generation for Unmanned Lunar Mission." Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience 2022 (June 7, 2022): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/4698936.

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This manuscript proposes a hybrid method for landing trajectory generation of unmanned lunar mission. The proposed hybrid control scheme is the joint execution of the human urbanization algorithm (HUA) and political optimizer (PO) with radial basis functional neural network (RBFNN); hence it is named as HUA-PORFNN method. The HUA is a metaheuristic method, and it is used to solve several optimization issues and several nature-inspired methods to enhance the convergence speed with quality. On the other hand, multiple-phased political processes inspire the PO. The work aims to guide the lander with minimal fuel consumption from the initial to the final stage, thus minimizing the lunar soft landing issues based on the given cost of operation. Here, the HUAPO method is implemented to overcome thrust discontinuities, checkpoint constraints are suggested for connecting multi-landing phases, angular attitude rate is modeled to obtain radical change rid, and safeguards are enforced to deflect collision along with obstacles. Moreover, first, the issues have been resolved according to the proposed HUAPO method. Here, energy trajectories with 3 terminal processes are deemed. Additionally, the proposed HUAPO method is executed on MATLAB/Simulink site, and the performance of the proposed method is compared with other methods.

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Wu, Bo, Fei Li, Han Hu, Yang Zhao, Yiran Wang, Peipei Xiao, Yuan Li, et al. "Topographic and Geomorphological Mapping and Analysis of the Chang'E-4 Landing Site on the Far Side of the Moon." Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 86, no. 4 (April 1, 2020): 247–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.14358/pers.86.4.247.

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The Chinese lunar probe Chang'E-4 successfully landed in the Von Kármán crater on the far side of the Moon. This paper presents the topographic and geomorphological mapping and their joint analysis for selecting the Chang'E-4 landing site in the Von Kármán crater. A digital topographic model (<small>DTM</small>) of the Von Kármán crater, with a spatial resolution of 30 m, was generated through the integrated processing of Chang'E-2 images (7 m/pixel) and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (<small>LRO</small>) Laser Altimeter (<small>LOLA</small>) data. Slope maps were derived from the <small>DTM</small>. Terrain occlusions to both the Sun and the relay satellite were studied. Craters with diameters ≥ 70 m were detected to generate a crater density map. Rocks with diameters ≥ 2 m were also extracted to generate a rock abundance map using an <small>LRO</small> narrow angle camera (<small>NAC</small>) image mosaic. The joint topographic and geomorphological analysis identified three subregions for landing. One of them, recommended as the highest-priority landing site, was the one in which Chang'E-4 eventually landed. After the successful landing of Chang'E-4, we immediately determined the precise location of the lander by the integrated processing of orbiter, descent and ground images. We also conducted a detailed analysis around the landing location. The results revealed that the Chang'E-4 lander has excellent visibility to the Sun and relay satellite; the lander is on a slope of about 4.5° towards the southwest, and the rock abundance around the landing location is almost 0. The developed methods and results can benefit future soft-landing missions to the Moon and other celestial bodies.

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Han, SongTao, ZhongKai Zhang, Jing Sun, JianFeng Cao, Lue Chen, Weitao Lu, and WenXiao Li. "Lunar Radiometric Measurement Based on Observing China Chang’E-3 Lander with VLBI—First Insight." Advances in Astronomy 2019 (June 2, 2019): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/7018620.

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China Chang’E-3 performed soft landing at the plains of Sinus Iridum on lunar surface on December 14th 2013 successfully; it opened a new window for observing lunar surface with radiometric tracking which many lunar scientific researchers always pursue for. Since July 2014, OCEL (Observing Chang’E-3 Lander with VLBI) project has been conducted jointly by IVS (International VLBI Service of Geodesy and Astrometry) and BACC (Beijing Aerospace Control Center), a global IVS R&D network augmented with two China Deep Space Stations configured for OCEL. This paper presents the current status and preliminary result of the OCEL and mainly focuses on determination of the lander position, which is about 7 meter in height and 14 meter in plane of lunar surface with respect to LRO (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter). Based on accuracy analysis, further optimized OCEL sessions will make use of this target-of-opportunity, the Chang’E-3 lunar lander, as long as it is working. With higher accurate radiometric observables, more prospective contribution to earth and lunar science is expected by combining with LLR.

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Remesh, N., R. V. Ramanan, and V. R. Lalithambika. "Fuel-optimal and Energy-optimal guidance schemes for lunar soft landing at a desired location." Advances in Space Research 67, no. 6 (March 2021): 1787–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2020.12.030.

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