Books on the topic 'Lower income countries'

This chapter synthesizes statistical information evidencing the proposition that extractive industries are of great significance in many low- and middle-income developing economies, and so to their development prospects. It examines the scale of the current dependence of low- and middle-income economies on both types of extractive resources: metals, and oil and gas. The chapter also assesses how country levels of dependence have changed in the past twenty years, showing that there has been a clear upward trend based on exports. The chapter outlines how the upward trend has continued in many countries despite the recent commodity price collapse, and assesses some of the consequences of that collapse.

This chapter carries out and presents the findings from an in-depth comparative analysis of real income growth around and below the middle of the income distribution across the rich countries of the OECD over recent decades. It examines trends in real incomes for the entire population and for working age households only, and sets the evolution of incomes around the middle in each country against what has been happening lower down and higher up the distribution. This allows the range of experiences across countries in these terms to be captured, providing the base which subsequent chapters seek to probe and get behind.

This chapter takes as its point of departure the distinction featuring extensively in comparative political economy research between liberal versus coordinated market economies, and also that between export- versus consumption-led growth ‘models’. It investigates whether these analytical frameworks help to explain differences in country performance in terms of growth in middle and lower income households, and thus whether the analytical frameworks and distinctions at the core of this strand of research are helpful in understanding country performance on the indicators on which this book is centrally focused.

We evaluate a major personal income tax reform in Uganda that came into effect in 2012–13. The reform increased the tax-free lower threshold, increased tax rates for higher incomes, and introduced an additional highest tax band. Using the universe of pay-as-you-earn administrative data submitted by employers in the formal sector, we analyse the impact on taxable income of the introduction of the additional top tax band. Our results indicate that the elasticity of taxable income in Uganda is larger than in previous results from developed countries. Overall, the additional revenue generated from the introduction of the additional top tax band by far offset the revenues lost from the decreased revenues from employees with medium to lower taxable incomes, despite the large elasticity of taxable income at the top. We contribute to the very scarce literature on the effects of personal income tax reform on employees’ income in a low-income country in Africa.

This book addresses the central challenge facing rich countries: how to promote growth and prosperity that is widely shared rather than concentrated at the top. Rising inequality in income and wealth across the rich-world members of the OECD has been widely recognized and identified as a major concern; this book links this phenomenon with stagnation in wages and incomes for ordinary working households, which are also increasingly seen as threatening social and political stability. The book aims to identify what structures and policies are associated with success or failure in limiting the rise in inequality and promoting income growth for those in the middle and lower reaches of the income distribution. It does so by analysing the varying experiences of ten rich countries over recent decades in depth, through a common analytical lens. This brings out that there are indeed responses that governments and societies can adopt, stagnation and rising do not have to be accepted but can be combatted given the political will and capacity.

This chapter focuses on how the patterns of real income growth or stagnation seen in Chapter 2 are related to changes to inequality in the distribution of income, which has played such a prominent role in recent commentary and debate. It examines how income inequality has evolved over recent decades across the rich countries, both overall and in terms of the share going to the very top of the distribution, and highlights key factors in driving inequality upwards—albeit differentially across countries and time-periods. The ways in which rising inequality may undermine real income growth for middle and lower income households are discussed, and the empirical relationship between inequality and such real income growth over recent decades across the rich countries is analysed. Alongside real income growth or its absence, some other ways of looking at whether ‘the middle’ has been ‘squeezed’ in income terms are also explored.

This article explores the interrelationships among poverty, economic performance, and inequality in rich countries. It argues that poverty rises and falls with the business cycle and economic performance. Business cycle refers to macroeconomic fluctuations in economic growth, unemployment, and employment. Higher economic growth and lower unemployment rates mean more individuals employed. Because a job is one of the most effective ways to remove a household from poverty, macroeconomic performance should directly influence individual poverty. This article first describes the statistical models used to estimate the effects of economic performance on poverty before reviewing studies that assess the effects of economic performance on poverty and income inequality. In terms of economic performance, it analyzes the effects of the business cycle, economic growth, unemployment rates, and GDP per capita.

The book gives broad coverage of monetary policy issues in Low Financial Development Countries (LFDCs). These low- and lower-middle-income countries are characterized by a predominance of bank finance, shallow financial markets, low financial inclusion, weak integration with world capital markets, and a high degree of informality in economic activity. Monetary policy acquires special twists, making it different in many aspects from the policies followed in advanced and emerging market economies. The book covers the main facets of monetary policy-making, using an approach that combines discussion of theoretical arguments, of results from empirical studies, and of policy experiences relevant for LFDCs. The book presents the monetary policy instruments used in these countries, and assesses the specificities of their monetary transmission mechanism. It evaluates the advantages, drawbacks, and challenges of the different nominal anchors they may choose from: exchange rate targeting, monetary targeting, and inflation targeting. This discussion is set against the background of the three main goals pursued by central banks: price, output, and financial stability. Particular attention is devoted to the issue of the credibility of central banks and to the trade-offs they face when external shocks, to which these countries are very vulnerable, lead to conflicts among the three goals they pursue. The book also covers more specific topics, such as challenges raised by fiscal dominance and by dollarization, implications of informal labour markets and of microfinance institutions for monetary policy-making, and the role of models for forecasting and policy evaluation.

Abstract This book explores this developer’s dilemma or ‘Kuznetsian tension’ between structural transformation and income inequality. Developing countries are seeking economic development—that is, structural transformation—which is inclusive in the sense that it is broad-based and raises the income of all, especially the poor. Thus, inclusive economic growth requires steady, or even falling, income inequality if it is to maximize the growth of incomes at the lower end of the distribution. Yet, this is at odds with Simon Kuznets hypothesis that economic development tends to put upward pressure on income inequality, at least initially and in the absence of countervailing policies. The book asks: what are the types or ‘varieties’ of structural transformation that have been experienced in developing countries? What inequality dynamics are associated with each variety of structural transformation? And what policies have been utilized to manage trade-offs between structural transformation, income inequality, and inclusive growth? The book answers these questions using a comparative case study approach, contrasting nine developing countries while employing a common analytical framework and a set of common datasets across the case studies. The intended intellectual contribution of the book is to provide a comparative analysis of the relationship between structural transformation, income inequality, and inclusive growth; to do so empirically at a regional and national level; and to draw conclusions from the cases on the varieties of structural transformation, their inequality dynamics, and the policies that have been employed to mediate the developer’s dilemma.

The value and challenges associated with participatory research are intensified for lower and middle-income countries because of the geographic distance between the primary research team and research setting, the limited resources and infrastructure for health, and the linguistic and cultural diversity of the residents. Dissemination and implementation research is ideally suited to improve health for populations in lower and middle-income countries because the emphasis on local context contributes to building trust between local stakeholders and researchers, and leverages emergent ideas for solutions to local problems. Moreover, the products of dissemination and implementation research include practical information to improve use of evidence-based practices in local settings and generalizable knowledge to advance science.

This chapter provides an overview of how inequality and living standards have evolved across the rich countries of the OECD in recent decades, of the factors driving income inequality upwards in many of them, and of the channels through which this may undermine real income growth and opportunity for households across the middle and lower parts of the income distribution. It presents an overview of key trends drawing on comparative data from the OECD’s Income Distribution Database. It reviews existing evidence on the drivers of income inequality and on how inequality may affect income growth around the middle. It highlights key gaps in knowledge, to be addressed by the in-depth examination of the varying experiences of a range of rich countries in this book.

This chapter highlights just a sample of the many rich areas for dissemination and implementation research that will assist us in shortening the gap between discovery and practice, thus beginning to realize the benefits of research for patients, families, and communities. Greater emphasis on implementation in challenging settings, including lower and middle-income countries and underresourced communities in higher income countries will add to the lessons we must learn to fully reap the benefit of our advances in dissemination and implementation research methods. Moreover, collaboration and multidisciplinary approaches to dissemination and implementation research will help to make efforts more consistent and more effective moving forward. Thus, we will be better able to identify knowledge gaps that need to be addressed in future dissemination and implementation research, ultimately informing the practice and policies of clinical care and public health services.

This study uses detailed household-level data to analyse off-farm self-employment dynamics in Mali and Niger. It adds to the literature that acknowledges the existence of heterogeneities in informal work and the body of evidence on informal self-employment in fragile and conflict-affected countries. It finds that self-employed workers are more represented in the lower-tier informal work status, with a particularly high percentage in Niger and among female, rural, youth, and old adult workers in both countries. The study also finds that monthly average earnings from self-employment are lowest among lower-tier informal workers, who also have a low probability of transitioning out of this status. However, household-related factors such as asset and livestock holdings and non-labour income may play an important role in helping these vulnerable groups of workers move up the self-employment ladder, especially in the event of shocks.

Cancer of the esophagus is the eighth most common malignancy worldwide in terms of incident cases and the sixth most common for cancer deaths. The two main histopathologic subtypes, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EADC), have strikingly different clinical and epidemiologic features. ESCC occurs throughout the esophagus and is the most common histologic subtype globally; over 90% of cases in the traditionally high-risk regions of Eastern Asia and Eastern and Southern Africa are ESCC. The incidence of ESCC is decreasing worldwide. In some high-risk areas in Asia the decrease was preceded by economic development and improvements in diet, whereas in high-income countries the decrease followed reductions in cigarette smoking. In contrast, the incidence of EADC continues to increase in many high- and middle-income countries, especially among white men. EADC develops in the lower third of the esophagus, primarily because of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and obesity.

Migrants are increasingly skilled. Historically British emigration was disproportionately skilled and new comparative OECD data shows the continuing brain drain from Europe to the USA. However skilled migration is best understood as skilled mobility not migration: permanent settlement in a destination country is a limiting case within a multiplicity of movements exemplified by the international commuting of the financial services elite. Immigration policies increasingly attempt to attract the best and the brightest. Rising mobility is driven by firms’ recruitment policies, but also by individuals’ motivations which are often non-financial. Skilled mobility is now claimed to benefit both origin and destination countries through circular migration and knowledge transfer. However, skilled mobility can also promote privatisation of higher education in origin countries and lower investment in training in receiving countries. A typology of skilled mobility suggests some forms can increase income inequality in destination countries.

The concluding chapter provides a thematic overview in order to bring out from the range of findings presented in the book the main messages and their implications. In doing so, it highlights that the wide variation across OECD countries in how the circumstances of middle and lower income households have evolved—documented and analysed throughout the book in various dimensions—has critical implications for the quest for inclusive growth. While there are some important commonalities across rich countries, it may not be helpful to frame their experiences mostly in terms of the types of encompassing ‘grand narratives’ that are now in vogue, and seek on that basis to produce a common set of policy prescriptions where ‘one size fits all’.

Large epidemiologic studies across Western countries that used DSM-IV and DSM-5 diagnostic criteria have found a point prevalence rate of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) of 1.7% to 2.9%. The prevalence of BDD is higher in clinical samples. Gender ratios in epidemiologic studies show a slight preponderance of females, which is confirmed in most convenience and clinical samples. Prevalence rates appear to be highest in younger (adolescent) subsamples. Other demographic correlates include a lower likelihood of being in a committed relationship, less education, lower household income, and higher unemployment rates. Key clinical correlates from epidemiologic studies are greater depression, anxiety, and somatoform symptoms and more frequent suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Reasons for the underrecognition of BDD include shame, fear of not being understood by the clinician, lack of readiness for treatment, skepticism about treatment or belief in the superiority of other forms of treatment (such as cosmetic treatment), and lack of financial coverage for treatment.

The spectrum of acute kidney injury (AKI) encountered in the hospitals of the tropical zone countries is different from that seen in the non-tropical climate countries, most of which are high-income countries. The difference is explained in large part by the influence of environment on the epidemiology of human disease. The key features of geographic regions falling in the tropical zones are climatic, that is, high temperatures and absence of winter frost, and economic, that is, lower levels of income. The causes and presentation of tropical AKI reflect these prevailing cultural, socioeconomic, climatic, and eco-biological characteristics.Peculiarities of tropical climate support the propagation of several infectious organisms that can cause AKI and the disease-transmitting vectors. In contrast to the developed world, where AKI usually develops in already hospitalized patients with multiorgan problems and iatrogenic factors play a major role, tropical AKI is acquired in the community due to issues of public health importance such as safe water, sanitation, infection control, and good obstetric practices. Infections such as malaria, leptospirosis, typhus, HIV, and diarrhoeal diseases; envenomation by animals or insects; ingestion of toxic herbs or chemicals; intravascular haemolysis; poisoning; and obstetric complications form the bulk of AKI in the tropics. Poor access to modern medical facilities and practices such as seeking treatment from traditional faith-healers contribute to poor outcomes.AKI extracts macro- and microeconomic costs from the affected population and reduces productivity. Improvement in the outcomes of tropical AKI requires improvement in basic public health through effective interventions, and accessibility to effective medical care.

Unemployment has a wide range of adverse consequences over and above the effects of the low income which people out of work receive. In the first decades after the war Britain tended to have a lower unemployment rate than most peer countries but this changed in the 1980s and 1990s, when Britain’s unemployment rate surged during the two recessions—possibly as a result of policies designed to tackle inflation. The young, those with less education, and ethnic minorities have higher risks of unemployment and these risks are cumulative. The evidence suggests that the problems facing young men with only low qualifications became relatively worse in the 1990s and 2000s. This perhaps reflects the dark side of educational expansion, young people with low qualifications being left behind and exposed in the labour market.

This chapter addresses the central question of how governments can seek to underpin real wage growth for working households over time. It looks first at the role that minimum wages can play in supporting wages and household incomes in the middle as well as lower parts of the distribution. This is investigated through a simulation exercise looking at the impact of a substantial increase in the minimum wage in the UK, bringing out the broader lessons to be learned for rich countries. A variety of other routes through which policy might seek to support wage growth are then set out and discussed.

This document was inspired by the need to promote comprehensive actions in the management of water and sanitation services with a human rights focus within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) related to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean; in addition, it ratifies the results reported in a PAHO study (2016) on the profound inequalities between urban and rural areas in access to water and sewage services, and the correlation with characteristics such as gender, age, income, education, among others. This report assumed this challenge using a methodology based on the Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation (HRWS) analytical framework. This report seeks to provide the most up-to-date overview of the SDG targets 6.1 and 6.2 situation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Besides outlining the general situation of countries, it presents some elements regarding human rights and the targets 6.1 and 6.2 that have been neglected in the initial monitoring of the 2030 Agenda, above all, the dimensions of inequality and affordability. This report presents four case studies, one per sub-regional block, with a more detailed characterization of the national and subnational situations of Colombia, Brazil, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic. The results of this study show that a significant proportion of the Latin American and Caribbean population still lacks adequate access to water and sanitation services. Only 65% of the population has access to safely managed water services, a percentage lower than that reported worldwide, which is 71%. With regard to safely managed sanitation services, the situation is even more critical, with an access level of 39% worldwide being reported, compared to 22% in our Region.

"Modern-day science is under great pressure. A potent mix of increasing expectations, limited resources, tensions between competition and cooperation, and the need for evidence-based funding is creating major change in how science is conducted and perceived. Amidst this perfect storm is the allure of research excellence, a concept that drives decisions made by universities and funders, and defines scientists research strategies and career trajectories. But what is excellent science? And how to recognise it? After decades of inquiry and debate there is still no satisfactory answer. Are we asking the wrong question? Is reality more complex, and excellence in science more elusive, than many are willing to admit? And how should excellence be defined in different parts of the world, particularly in lower-income countries of the Global South where science is expected to contribute to pressing development issues, despite often scarce resources? Many wonder whether the Global South is importing, with or without consenting, the flawed tools for research evaluation from North America and Europe that are not fit for purpose.This book takes a critical view of these issues, touching on conceptual issues and practical problems that inevitably emerge when excellence is at the center of science systems. Emerging from the capacity-building work of the Science Granting Councils Initiative in sub-Saharan Africa, it speaks to scholars, as well as to managers and funders of research around the world. Confronting sticky problems and uncomfortable truths, the chapters contain insights and recommendations that point towards new solutions both for the Global South and the Global North."

Economy and mankind are inextricably interlinked. Just as the economy or the production of material wealth is unimaginable without a man, so human existence and development are impossible without the wealth created in the economy. Shortly, both the goal and the means of achieving and realization of the economy are still the human resources. People have long ago noticed that it was the economy that created livelihoods, and the delays in their production led to the catastrophic events such as hunger, poverty, civil wars, social upheavals, revolutions, moral degeneration, and more. Therefore, the special interest of people in understanding the regulatory framework of the functioning of the economy has existed and exists in all historical epochs [A. Sisvadze. Economic theory. Part One. 2006y. p. 22]. The system of economic disciplines studies economy or economic activities of a society. All of them are based on science, which is currently called economic theory in the post-socialist space (the science of economics, the principles of economics or modern economics), and in most countries of the world - predominantly in the Greek-Latin manner - economics. The title of the present book is also Modern Economics. Economics (economic theory) is the science that studies the efficient use of limited resources to produce and distribute goods and services in order to satisfy as much as possible the unlimited needs and demands of the society. More simply, economics is the science of choice and how society manages its limited resources. Moreover, it should be emphasized that economics (economic theory) studies only the distribution, exchange and consumption of the economic wealth (food, beverages, clothing, housing, machine tools, computers, services, etc.), the production of which is possible and limited. And the wealth that exists indefinitely: no economic relations are formed in the production and distribution of solar energy, air, and the like. This current book is the second complete updated edition of the challenges of the modern global economy in the context of the coronary crisis, taking into account some of the priority directions of the country's development. Its purpose is to help students and interested readers gain a thorough knowledge of economics and show them how this knowledge can be applied pragmatically (professionally) in professional activities or in everyday life. To achieve this goal, this textbook, which consists of two parts and tests, discusses in simple and clear language issues such as: the essence of economics as a science, reasons for origin, purpose, tasks, usefulness and functions; Basic principles, problems and peculiarities of economics in different economic systems; Needs and demand, the essence of economic resources, types and limitations; Interaction, mobility, interchangeability and efficient use of economic resources. The essence and types of wealth; The essence, types and models of the economic system; The interaction of households and firms in the market of resources and products; Market mechanism and its elements - demand, supply and price; Demand and supply elasticity; Production costs and the ways to reduce them; Forms of the market - perfect and incomplete competition markets and their peculiarities; Markets for Production Factors and factor incomes; The essence of macroeconomics, causes and importance of origin; The essence and calculation of key macroeconomic indicators (gross national product, gross domestic product, net national product, national income, etc.); Macroeconomic stability and instability, unemployment, inflation and anti-inflationary policies; State regulation of the economy and economic policy; Monetary and fiscal policy; Income and standard of living; Economic Growth; The Corona Pandemic as a Defect and Effect of Globalization; National Economic Problems and New Opportunities for Development in the conditions of the Coronary Crisis; The Socio-economic problems of moral obsolescence in digital technologies; Education and creativity are the main solution way to overcome the economic crisis caused by the coronavirus; Positive and negative effects of tourism in Georgia; Formation of the middle class as a contributing factor to the development of tourism in Georgia; Corporate culture in Georgian travel companies, etc. The axiomatic truth is that economics is the union of people in constant interaction. Given that the behavior of the economy reflects the behavior of the people who make up the economy, after clarifying the essence of the economy, we move on to the analysis of the four principles of individual decision-making. Furtermore, the book describes how people make independent decisions. The key to making an individual decision is that people have to choose from alternative options, that the value of any action is measured by the value of what must be given or what must be given up to get something, that the rational, smart people make decisions based on the comparison of the marginal costs and marginal returns (benefits), and that people behave accordingly to stimuli. Afterwards, the need for human interaction is then analyzed and substantiated. If a person is isolated, he will have to take care of his own food, clothes, shoes, his own house and so on. In the case of such a closed economy and universalization of labor, firstly, its productivity will be low and, secondly, it will be able to consume only what it produces. It is clear that human productivity will be higher and more profitable as a result of labor specialization and the opportunity to trade with others. Indeed, trade allows each person to specialize, to engage in the activities that are most successful, be it agriculture, sewing or construction, and to buy more diverse goods and services from others at a relatively lower price. The key to such human interactions is that trade is mutually beneficial; That markets are usually the good means of coordination between people and that the government can improve the results of market functioning if the market reveals weakness or the results of market functioning are not fair. Moroever, it also shows how the economy works as a whole. In particular, it is argued that productivity is a key determinant of living standards, that an increase in the money supply is a major source of inflation, and that one of the main impediments to avoiding inflation is the existence of an alternative between inflation and unemployment in the short term, that the inflation decrease causes the temporary decline in unemployement and vice versa. The Understanding creatively of all above mentioned issues, we think, will help the reader to develop market economy-appropriate thinking and rational economic-commercial-financial behaviors, to be more competitive in the domestic and international labor markets, and thus to ensure both their own prosperity and the functioning of the country's economy. How he/she copes with the tasks, it is up to the individual reader to decide. At the same time, we will receive all the smart useful advices with a sense of gratitude and will take it into account in the further work. We also would like to thank the editor and reviewers of the books. Finally, there are many things changing, so it is very important to realize that the XXI century has come: 1. The century of the new economy; 2. Age of Knowledge; 3. Age of Information and economic activities are changing in term of innovations. 1. Why is the 21st century the century of the new economy? Because for this period the economic resources, especially non-productive, non-recoverable ones (oil, natural gas, coal, etc.) are becoming increasingly limited. According to the World Energy Council, there are currently 43 years of gas and oil reserves left in the world (see “New Commersant 2007 # 2, p. 16). Under such conditions, sustainable growth of real gross domestic product (GDP) and maximum satisfaction of uncertain needs should be achieved not through the use of more land, labor and capital (extensification), but through more efficient use of available resources (intensification) or innovative economy. And economics, as it was said, is the science of finding the ways about the more effective usage of the limited resources. At the same time, with the sustainable growth and development of the economy, the present needs must be met in a way that does not deprive future generations of the opportunity to meet their needs; 2. Why is the 21st century the age of knowledge? Because in a modern economy, it is not land (natural resources), labor and capital that is crucial, but knowledge. Modern production, its factors and products are not time-consuming and capital-intensive, but science-intensive, knowledge-intensive. The good example of this is a Japanese enterprise (firm) where the production process is going on but people are almost invisible, also, the result of such production (Japanese product) is a miniature or a sample of how to get the maximum result at the lowest cost; 3. Why is the 21st century the age of information? Because the efficient functioning of the modern economy, the effective organization of the material and personal factors of production largely depend on the right governance decision. The right governance decision requires prompt and accurate information. Gone are the days when the main means of transport was a sailing ship, the main form of data processing was pencil and paper, and the main means of transmitting information was sending letters through a postman on horseback. By the modern transport infrastructure (highways, railways, ships, regular domestic and international flights, oil and gas pipelines, etc.), the movement of goods, services and labor resoucres has been significantly accelerated, while through the modern means of communication (mobile phone, internet, other) the information is spreading rapidly globally, which seems to have "shrunk" the world and made it a single large country. The Authors of the book: Ushangi Samadashvili, Doctor of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University - Introduction, Chapters - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,12, 15,16, 17.1,18 , Tests, Revaz Shengelia, Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University, Chapters_7, 8, 13. 14, 17.2, 17.4; Zhuzhuna Tsiklauri - Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University - Chapters 13.6, 13.7,17.2, 17.3, 18. We also thank the editor and reviewers of the book.