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Published: 9 March 2023
Last updated: 10 March 2023

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1

Rao, Nagaraja P., Glenn M. Preminger, and John P. Kavanagh, eds. Urinary Tract Stone Disease. London: Springer London, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-362-0.

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2

M, Preminger Glenn, Kavanagh John P, and SpringerLink (Online service), eds. Urinary Tract Stone Disease. London: Springer-Verlag London Limited, 2011.

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3

Enterprises, Pro-Visions Pet Speciality, and Ralston Purina Company, eds. Feline lower urinary tract disease: A roundtable discussion. [United States]: Pro-Visions Pet Speciality Enterprises, 1991.

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4

author, Gunn-Moore Danièlle, ed. Caring for a cat with lower urinary tract disease. United Kingdom]: Cat Professional Ltd., 2009.

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5

Schmitz, Paul G. Renal: An integrated approach to disease. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

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6

1917-, Price Mary, and Magney Jean E, eds. Care of the disabled urinary tract: Prevention of renal deterioration. Springfield, Ill., U.S.A: C.C. Thomas, 1986.

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7

Renal: An integrated approach to disease. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

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8

Donald, Blaufox M., ed. Evaluation of renal function and disease with radionuclides: The upper urinary tract. 2nd ed. Basel: Karger, 1989.

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9

Sebastian, Faro, ed. Diagnosis and management of female pelvic infections in primary care medicine. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1985.

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10

Learning genitourinary medicine and HIV disease through MCQ. Chichester: Wiley, 1990.

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11

Hill's Symposium on Lower Urinary Tract Disease (2007 Sunny Isles Beach, Fla.). Hill's Symposium on Lower Urinary Tract Disease: Symposium proceedings, April 18-20, 2007, Sunny Isles Beach, Florida. [Topeka, Kan.]: Veterinary Consultation Service, Hill's Pet Nutrition, 2007.

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12

M, Ross Linda, ed. Kidney and urinary tract diseases and disorders sourcebook: Basic information about kidney stones, urinary incontinence, bladder disease, end stage renal disease, dialysis, and more, along with statistical and demographic data and reports on current research initiatives. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics, 1997.

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13

Larsen, Laura. Women's health concerns sourcebook: Basic consumer health information about breast and gynecological conditions, menopause, sexuality and female sexual dysfunction, birth control, infertility, pregnancy, common cancers in women, cardiovascular disease, mental health, and chronic disorders that affect women disproportionally, including gastrointestinal disorders, thyroid disease, urinary tract disorders, osteoporosis, chronic pain, and migraines; along with an introduction to the female body, information on maintaining wellness and avoiding risk factors for disease, a glossary, and a directory of resources for additional help and information. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics, Inc., 2013.

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14

Rao, Nagaraja P., Glenn M. Preminger, and John P. Kavanagh. Urinary Tract Stone Disease. Springer, 2016.

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15

Wilson, John W., and Lynn L. Estes. Intra-Abdominal Infections. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199797783.003.0116.

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• Peritoneal infection without an obvious source• Adult patients with cirrhosis and ascites (higher risk: gastrointestinal [GI] bleeding, previous spontaneous bacterial peritonitis [SBP], or low protein concentration in ascitic fluid) or, occasionally, congestive heart failure, malignancy, or connective tissue disease• Pediatric patients with postnecrotic cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome, or urinary tract infections...
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16

Knijnikov, Mikhail. Low Urinary Tract Health: Simple Home Diagnostics. Primedia eLaunch LLC, 2017.

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17

Williams, Angela L. Kidney Disease and Urinary Tract Disorders Sourcebook. Omnigraphics, Incorporated, 2020.

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18

Herrington, William G., Aron Chakera, and Christopher A. O’Callaghan. Urinary tract obstruction. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0165.

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The urinary tract can become obstructed by various disease processes, including tumours. Obstruction at any level of the urinary tract can impair the free flow of urine and may be partial or complete, and unilateral or bilateral. Bilateral obstruction usually occurs at the level of the bladder or lower. Retroperitoneal fibrosis and extrinsic compression of both ureters by a malignancy are exceptions. Children are affected by congenital vesicoureteric junction obstruction or pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction. Young adults suffer stone disease. The elderly are prone to urothelial cancers, and older men to bladder outflow obstruction. Retroperitoneal fibrosis is an inflammatory condition that typically affects men over 50 years of age. Diagnosis should be confirmed by biopsy to exclude a lymphoma or malignancy.
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19

Grabe, Magnus, and Björn Wullt. Urinary tract infection. Edited by Rob Pickard. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0004.

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Infections of the urinary tract are among the most frequent infections encountered in the community and hospital environments. They range from harmless self-curing cystitis to severe pyelonephritis with life-threatening sepsis. Urinary tract infections are often recurrent. Host defence is crucial to control the infection but can also be deleterious in terms of scar formation. Early diagnosis, determination of severity, evaluation of possible risk factors, and assumption of possible pathogen are essential aspects to initiate efficient treatment. Urine culture with antibiotic sensitivity testing is the most important tool to confirm a suspected clinical diagnosis and direct treatment. Patients with urological disease are particularly susceptible to urinary tract infections, and healthcare-associated urinary infections are observed in approximately 10% of hospitalized urological patients. In view of the worsening resistance pattern of common urinary pathogens against available antimicrobial agents, it is important to comply with recommended treatment regimens.
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20

Gupta, Kalpana. Urinary Tract Infections, an Issue of Infectious Disease Clinics. Elsevier - Health Sciences Division, 2014.

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21

Gupta, Kalpana. Urinary Tract Infections, an Issue of Infectious Disease Clinics. Elsevier, 2014.

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22

Smallpeice, Victoria. Urinary Tract Infection in Childhood and Its Relevance to Disease in Adult Life. Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 2013.

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23

Porter, Katherine Anne, and Richard Crawford Pugh. The Kidneys: The Urinary Tract (Systemic Pathology 3rd Edition). W.B. Saunders Company, 1992.

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24

Thomas, David F. M. Urinary tract infection in children. Edited by David F. M. Thomas. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0114.

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Urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the commonest conditions of childhood, affecting an estimated 10% of girls and 3% of boys in the first 16 years of life. Whereas asymptomatic bacteriuria and low-grade lower tract infection pose little or no risk of renal damage, pyelonephritis can cause severe systemic illness and poses a significant threat of long-term renal morbidity. The principal aim of investigation is to identify underlying abnormalities of the urinary tract, notably vesicoureteric reflux. Guidelines on investigation and management published by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence will be reviewed in this chapter. Treatment of dysfunctional voiding and other features of ‘elimination syndrome’ plays an important role in the prevention of urinary tract infection in this age group.
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25

Schiller, Adalbert, Adrian Covic, and Liviu Segall. Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis. Edited by Adrian Covic. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0086_update_001.

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Chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathies (CTINs) are a group of renal diseases, characterized by variable interstitial inflammation and fibrosis and tubular atrophy, and a slow course towards end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The causes of CTIN are numerous, including nephrotoxic drugs and chemicals, infections, autoimmune diseases, obstructive uropathies, and metabolic disorders. Taken together, CTIN are responsible for less than 10% of all ESRD cases requiring renal replacement therapy. The clinical manifestations of CTIN typically comprise low-grade proteinuria, leucocyturia, and variably reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR), whereas the blood pressure is usually normal or moderately increased. Tubular abnormalities are common, including type 2 (proximal) renal tubular acidosis, Fanconi syndrome, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, and type 1 (distal) renal tubular acidosis, with hypokalaemia and nephrolithiasis. Radiology exams reveal shrunken kidneys, sometimes with irregular outlines. A renal biopsy is often required for the diagnosis of CTIN and its aetiology. The treatment of CTIN mainly involves discontinuation of exposure to nephrotoxins and specific therapy of renal infections, urinary tract obstruction, or underlying systemic diseases. Agents like ACE inhibitors and pirfenidone, which might reduce interstitial inflammation and fibrosis, are still under clinical evaluation.
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26

Smedley, Julia, Finlay Dick, and Steven Sadhra. Gastrointestinal and urinary tract disorders. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199651627.003.0010.

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Hepatic angiosarcoma 264Hepatic cirrhosis 266Acute hepatotoxicity 268Gastrointestinal cancers 270Renal failure 272Bladder cancer 274This otherwise very rare hepatic cancer occurs among workers exposed to VCM and, less frequently, pesticide-exposed agricultural workers. Reactor (autoclave) cleaners may be highly exposed to VCM, a genotoxic carcinogen. When this association was first recognized, VCM production workers showed 400× expected incidence of hepatic angiosarcoma. However, owing to improved exposure control, the disease is now very rare in developed countries....
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27

The effective management of benign prostatic disease and lower urinary tract symptoms. London: Aesculapius Medical, 2000.

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28

Blaufox, M. Donald. Evaluation of Renal Function and Disease With Radionuclides: The Upper Urinary Tract. 2nd ed. S Karger Pub, 1989.

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29

Yaqoob, Muhammad M., Katherine Bennett-Richards, and Islam Junaid. The patient with urinary tract obstruction. Edited by Adrian Woolf. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0356.

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Several terms usually describe obstruction of the urinary tract and its consequences such as hydronephrosis, obstructive uropathy, and obstructive nephropathy. Obstruction can be due to anatomical or functional abnormalities of the urethra, bladder, ureter, or renal pelvis. These abnormalities can be congenital or acquired. Obstructive uropathy also can occur during the course of diseases extrinsic to the urinary tract. This is a reversible cause of renal impairment and calls for urgent diagnosis and treatment to prevent chronic irreversible renal scarring and consequent progressive chronic renal disease.
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30

Stoffel, John T., and Yahir Santiago-Lastra. Impact of Neurologic Disease on the Urinary Tract, an Issue of Urologic Clinics. Elsevier - Health Sciences Division, 2017.

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31

Bertz, Simone, and Arndt Hartmann. Pathology of bladder and upper urinary tract tumours. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0072.

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Bladder cancer is the most common malignant tumour of the urinary tract, with approximately 386,000 new cases worldwide per year, and is the fifth most common cancer in humans. Mortality rates range between 1.1 per 100,000 for women to 4 per 100,000 in men. Most bladder and urinary tract cancers are urothelial carcinoma. The remainder are squamous cell carcinoma (5%), adenocarcinoma (<5%) and other rare tumours (<1%). Around 5–10% of urothelial carcinoma are found in the upper urinary tract. Unlike the majority of malignant tumours in other anatomical sites, most urothelial carcinoma have a favourable prognosis. In patients with these tumours, long-term follow-up is crucial but costly (making bladder cancer one of the most expensive to manage). The current WHO classification system of 2004 reflects these molecular and clinical features by the definition of distinct categories for low and high-grade flat or papillary lesions.
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32

Ogbi, Shile. How to Reverse Peptic Ulcer Disease and Urinary Tract Infection with the Use of Herbs. Independently Published, 2019.

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33

Veronica, Ameh. Gentamicin: Best Treatment for Bone Infections, Endocarditis, Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, Meningitis, Pneumonia, Urinary Tract Infections, and SEPSIS. Independently Published, 2019.

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34

(Editor), Linda M. Ross, and Peter Dresser (Editor), eds. Kidney and Urinary Tract Diseases and Disorders Sourcebook: Basic Information About Kidney Stones, Urinary Incontinence, Bladder Disease, End Stage Renal ... Statistical and (Health Reference Series). Omnigraphics, 1997.

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35

OLIVER, Mike. Urinary Tract Infections Treatment Handbook: The Ultimate Remedy Guide on Understanding the Disease, Managing Your Symptoms and Navigating Treatment. Independently Published, 2022.

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36

Amoxicillin: Perfect Medication for the Treatment of Bacterial Infections Like Lyme Disease, Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Pneumonia, Urinary Tract Infections & H. Pylori. Amoley, 2022.

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37

Sobel, Jack D. Genito-urinary fungal infections. Edited by Christopher C. Kibbler, Richard Barton, Neil A. R. Gow, Susan Howell, Donna M. MacCallum, and Rohini J. Manuel. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198755388.003.0027.

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The predominant fungal causes of genitourinary disease are Candida spp.; other fungal genera are uncommon pathogens in both sexes. Vulvovaginal candidiasis affects millions of women worldwide—and includes acute sporadic, recurrent, and chronic syndromes—and considerable progress has been made in understanding its pathophysiology and hence the best therapy. Therapeutic options are still limited, however, and misdiagnosis is common. In contrast, urinary tract candidiasis reflects an entirely different pathogenesis and clinical expression affecting a predominantly hospital-based older population. Candida organisms are extremely difficult to eradicate from often complicated urinary tract infections. Non-Candida fungal species reach the kidney and prostate by the bloodstream rather than the ascending route taken by Candida spp. In women, not infrequently, there is simultaneous lower genital tract and urinary tract infection, requiring attention to both systems.
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38

ken, bale. Amoxil: Perfect Medication for the Treatment of Bacterial Infections Like Chlamydia, Lyme Disease, Pneumonia, Gonorrhea, Urinary Tract Infections and H. Pylori. Independently Published, 2019.

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39

Harris, Kayla. Augmentin: Antibiotic That Works Like Magic for the Treatment of Bacterial Infections Like Lyme Disease, Sinusitis, Ear Infections, Bronchitis, Urinary Tract Infections. Independently Published, 2018.

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40

Fervenza, Fernando C. Evaluation of Kidney Function, Glomerular Disease, and Tubulointerstitial Disease. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199755691.003.0472.

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Several measures are used to evaluate kidney function: serum creatinine, urinalysis, renal clearance, and renal imaging. Creatinine is an end product of muscle catabolism and is commonly used as a filtration marker. Dysmorphic erythrocytes in the urinary sediment indicate bleeding in the upper urinary tract. A urine pH less than 5.5 excludes type 1 renal tubular acidosis. A pH greater than 7 suggests infection. Acidic urine is indicative of a high-protein diet, acidosis, and potassium depletion. Alkaline urine is associated with a vegetarian diet, alkalosis and urease-producing bacteria. Clearance of p-aminohippurate is a measure of renal blood flow. Kidney function is evaluated to determine disease states such as glomeruluar disease or tubulointerstitial disease. Clinical manifestations of glomerular injury can vary from the finding of isolated hematuria or proteinuria, or both. In addition, some patients who present with advanced renal insufficiency, hypertension, and shrunken, smooth kidneys are presumed to have chronic glomerulonephritis. Acute and chronic interstitial disease preferentially involves renal tubules.
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41

Drake, Marcus. Assessment of urinary incontinence. Edited by Christopher R. Chapple. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0037.

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Involuntary loss of urine is subdivided primarily into stress, urgency, or mixed urinary incontinence. The history and examination aim to identify underlying mechanisms, and indicators of more complex causes, or serious medical conditions. Associated lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) should be catalogued in detail. History should also cover symptom bother, as this is the prime driver of therapy. Validated questionnaires are the most effective way to capture aspects of incontinence and associated LUTS. Wider pelvic symptoms, such as pelvic organ prolapse, sexual function, and anal symptoms should also be evaluated. Physical examination needs to cover general aspects, including occult neurological disease. Abdominal and pelvic examination evaluates the genitalia, pelvic floor muscle function, and pelvic masses, along with urethral hypermobility in women and the prostate in men.
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42

Wiles, Kate, Kate Bramham, and Catherine Nelson-Piercy. Kidney disease. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198713333.003.0044.

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This chapter describes the physiological adaptations to pregnancy in women with and without renal disease, reports pregnancy outcomes in women with both acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease, and discusses a management strategy for antenatal and peripartum care. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is difficult to define in pregnancy because of the physiological increase in glomerular filtration. A normal creatinine can mask renal injury in pregnancy. This chapter considers important causes of AKI in pregnancy including pre-eclampsia, HELLP syndrome, thrombotic microangiopathy, acute fatty liver of pregnancy, systemic lupus erythematosus, urinary tract infection, and obstruction. The trend in the developed world for delaying pregnancy and the increasing prevalence of obesity mean that greater numbers of pregnancies will be complicated by chronic kidney disease. Maternal and fetal complications increase with worsening prepregnancy renal function including the development of pre-eclampsia, fetal growth restriction, premature delivery, and fetal loss. Prepregnancy counselling and the intrapartum management for women with lupus nephritis, immunoglobulin A nephropathy, polycystic kidney disease, and diabetic nephropathy are discussed. Renal replacement therapies in pregnancy including both dialysis and renal transplantation are considered, and practical guidance on renal biopsy, anaesthesia, and the pharmacology of renal disease in pregnancy is offered.
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43

Holst, John. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease and Tubo-Ovarian Abscess. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0040.

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Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) consists of inflammation in various parts of the upper genital tract and includes endometritis, salpingitis, tubo-ovarian abscess (TOA), and/or pelvic peritonitis. Overt acute PID patients typically present as ill-appearing with pain, fever, chills, purulent vaginal discharge, nausea, vomiting, and elevated white blood cells. “Silent” PID presents with dyspareunia, irregular bleeding, and urinary and gastrointestinal complaints. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) and associated microorganisms are present in acute PID patients. PID coverage is focused on a polymicrobial infection. HIV patients typically have more severe symptoms and are more likely to have a TOA than an immunocompetent patient, but HIV alone does not mandate hospital admission nor does parenteral therapy improve outcomes compared to non-HIV patients. Gonorrhea and chlamydia cases must be reported to the local health department; it is not mandatory for PID patients to remove an intrauterine device at the time of diagnosis.
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44

Upadhyay, Ashish, Lesley A. Inker, and Andrew S. Levey. Chronic kidney disease. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0094.

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The conceptual model, definition, and classification of chronic kidney disease (CKD) were first described in the National Kidney Foundation’s Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (KDOQI) guidelines in 2002 and have had a major impact on patient care and research. Since this publication there has been an increased recognition that the cause of CKD influences progression and complications. In addition, epidemiologic reports from diverse populations have consistently shown graded relations between higher albuminuria and adverse kidney outcomes and complications, in addition to, and independent of, low GFR. Given these new understanding in risk relationships, Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) updated the original guidelines in 2012. The updated guidelines retain the KDOQI definition of CKD, but recommend classifying CKD by the cause, level of GFR, and level of urinary albumin to creatinine ratio. Specialized nephrology care is recommended for severe reduction in GFR or high albuminuria, uncertain diagnosis, or difficult to manage complications.
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45

Davenport, Dr Andrew. Renal diseases and emergencies. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199565979.003.00011.

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Chapter 11 discusses diseases and emergencies involving renal medicine, including investigation of the renal tract, acute kidney injury (AKI), haematuria and proteinuria, urinary tract infection (UTI), urinary tract obstruction, tumours of the renal tract, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and renal transplant patients.
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46

Bowker, Lesley K., James D. Price, Ku Shah, and Sarah C. Smith. Infection and immunity. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198738381.003.0024.

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This chapter provides information on the ageing immune system, an overview of infection in older people, antibiotic use in older patients, meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), disease caused by MRSA, Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, near-patient urine tests, asymptomatic bacteriuria, urinary tract infection, treatment of urinary tract infection, recurrent urinary tract infection, and varicella-zoster infection.
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47

Watson, Max, Caroline Lucas, Andrew Hoy, and Jo Wells. Genitourinary problems. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199234356.003.0018.

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This chapter focuses on the anatomy and physiology of the bladder and micturition. It covers bladder wall, sphincter active urethra, nerve supply, bladder pain and its treatment, blood supply of the bladder, urinary tract infection (UTI), renal pain, ureteric colic, pelvic pain, urinary retention, ureteric obstruction, urinary incontinence, haematuria, catheterization, genitourinary fistulae, vesicoenteric fistulae, vesicovaginal fistulae, and sexual health in advanced disease.
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48

Wiles, Kate, and Catherine Nelson-Piercy. Acute kidney injury in pregnancy. Edited by Norbert Lameire and Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0297.

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The diagnosis of acute kidney injury in pregnancy is complicated by physiological changes to both kidney and circulation; although a serum creatinine of higher than 90 μ‎‎‎mol/L is considered diagnostic of kidney injury in pregnancy. The aetiology of acute kidney injury in pregnancy mirrors that of the non-pregnant patient with the addition of pregnancy-specific conditions such as pre-eclampsia, HELLP syndrome (haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets), post-partum haemorrhage, and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. In early pregnancy, the major additional concerns are septic abortion and hyperemesis. Urinary tract infection is common in pregnancy. Surveillance and treatment thresholds reflect the recognized association between urinary tract infection and adverse pregnancy outcome. Obstructive nephropathy is difficult to diagnose in pregnancy due to a physiological dilatation of the renal tract. Radiological assessment and intervention to the renal tract in pregnancy are also discussed in this chapter.
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49

Teoh, Eugene, and Michael J. Weston. Computed tomography. Edited by Christopher G. Winearls. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0014.

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Computed tomography (CT) has increased in use exponentially for the assessment of patients with renal tract pathology. This has been promoted by the availability of multidetector thin-slice CT so that intravenous urography has been superseded by CT urography. The latter may be considered as a ‘one-stop’ imaging investigation for haematuria, with increased detection of both urinary tract cancers and urolithiasis. Multiplanar reformats are made possible with the use of thin slices, allowing clear delineation of other pathologies such as urinary tract injury. In the transplant recipient, protocols have been developed for the assessment of more immediate complications such as thrombotic and stenotic disease. During follow-up, CT continues to inform the management of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder and other immunosuppressant-related complications. Unenhanced CT of the urinary tract has established its role in assessment of patients with renal colic, with the ability to detect pathology outside of the urinary tract. Renal CT has been developed for the characterization of renal masses, accompanied by the now well-established Bosniak renal cyst classification system. As the usefulness of CT increases, clear awareness of safety issues has to be maintained. These include the administration of intravenous iodinated contrast medium in higher-risk patient groups, particularly those with renal impairment. The radiation burden that comes with CT poses an added risk to the patient that should not be ignored. This necessitates clear referral guidelines for its use, which should be applied in careful balance with the global assessment of the patient.
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50

Jolly, Elaine, Andrew Fry, and Afzal Chaudhry, eds. Renal medicine. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199230457.003.0017.

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Chapter 17 covers the basic science and clinical topics relating to ophthalmology which trainees are required to learn as part of their basic training and demonstrate in the MRCP. It covers renal basic science, pathophysiology of renal disease, the kidney as an 'endocrine' organ, renal investigations, acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease/renal failure, renal replacement therapy, renal transplantation, haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, nephrotic syndrome, primary glomerular causes of nephrotic syndrome/proteinuria, rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, IgA nephropathy, mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis, tubulointerstitial nephritis, renal tubular disorders, urinary tract obstruction, renal stone disease, urinary tract infection in adults, renovascular disease, renal tumours, inherited renal disease, and renal disease and pregnancy.
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