Academic literature on the topic 'Low latitude circulation'
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Journal articles on the topic "Low latitude circulation"
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KALSI, S. R., and S. R. HALDER. "Satellite observations of interaction between tropics and mid-latitudes." MAUSAM 43, no. 1 (December 30, 2021): 59–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.54302/mausam.v43i1.3318.
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In certain seasons and over certain locations, the mid-latitude westerlies invade subtropical and tropical areas. Short wave perturbations moving in the broad mid-latitude westerlies amplify the. long wave troughs creating new baroclinic zones in relatively southern latitudes. These. baroclinic zones Interact .with the low-latitude circulations thus leading to development of new circulation pattern .In which low level easterlies extend northward over the Peninsula, central and northwest .India. The paper describes the role of short waves in the interaction between tropics and mid-latitudes and presents satellite data of a few sequences In which such Interactions have actually taken place.
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Bosmans, J. H. C., F. J. Hilgen, E. Tuenter, and L. J. Lourens. "Obliquity forcing of low-latitude climate." Climate of the Past Discussions 11, no. 1 (February 11, 2015): 221–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cpd-11-221-2015.
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Abstract. The influence of obliquity, the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis, on incoming solar radiation at low latitudes is small, yet many tropical and subtropical paleoclimate records reveal a clear obliquity signal. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain this signal, such as the remote influence of high-latitude glacials, the remote effect of insolation changes at mid- to high latitudes independent of glacial cyclicity, shifts in the latitudinal extent of the tropics, and changes in latitudinal insolation gradients. Using a sophisticated coupled ocean–atmosphere global climate model, EC-Earth, without dynamical ice sheets, we performed two experiments of obliquity extremes. Our results show that obliquity-induced changes in tropical climate can occur without high-latitude ice sheet fluctuations. Furthermore, the tropical circulation changes are consistent with obliquity-induced changes in the cross-equatorial insolation gradient, implying that this gradient may be used to explain obliquity signals in low-latitude paleoclimate records instead of the classic 65° N summer insolation curve.
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Bosmans, J. H. C., F. J. Hilgen, E. Tuenter, and L. J. Lourens. "Obliquity forcing of low-latitude climate." Climate of the Past 11, no. 10 (October 9, 2015): 1335–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-1335-2015.
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Abstract. The influence of obliquity, the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis, on incoming solar radiation at low latitudes is small, yet many tropical and subtropical palaeoclimate records reveal a clear obliquity signal. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain this signal, such as the remote influence of high-latitude glacials, the remote effect of insolation changes at mid- to high latitudes independent of glacial cyclicity, shifts in the latitudinal extent of the tropics, and changes in latitudinal insolation gradients. Using a sophisticated coupled ocean–atmosphere global climate model, EC-Earth, without dynamical ice sheets, we performed two idealized experiments of obliquity extremes. Our results show that obliquity-induced changes in tropical climate can occur without high-latitude ice sheet fluctuations. Furthermore, the tropical circulation changes are consistent with obliquity-induced changes in the cross-equatorial insolation gradient, suggesting that this gradient may be used to explain obliquity signals in low-latitude palaeoclimate records instead of the classical 65° N summer insolation curve.
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Stone, Peter H., and Yuriy P. Krasovskiy. "An Interhemispheric Four-Box Model of the Meridional Overturning Circulation." Journal of Physical Oceanography 41, no. 3 (March 1, 2011): 516–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jpo4123.1.
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Abstract The authors introduce a four-box interhemispheric model of the meridional overturning circulation. A single box represents high latitudes in each hemisphere, and in contrast to earlier interhemispheric box models, low latitudes are represented by two boxes—a surface box and a deep box—separated by a thermocline in which a balance is assumed between vertical advection and vertical diffusion. The behavior of the system is analyzed with two different closure assumptions for how the low-latitude upwelling depends on the density contrast between the surface and deep low-latitude boxes. The first is based on the conventional assumption that the diffusivity is a constant, and the second on the assumption that the energy input to the mixing is constant. There are three different stable equilibrium states that are closely analogous to the three found by Bryan in a single-basin interhemispheric ocean general circulation model. One is quasi-symmetric with downwelling in high latitudes of both hemispheres, and two are asymmetric solutions, with downwelling confined to high latitudes in one or the other of the two hemispheres. The quasi-symmetric solution becomes linearly unstable for strong global hydrological forcing, while the two asymmetric solutions do not. The qualitative nature of the solutions is generally similar for both the closure assumptions, in contrast to the solutions in hemispheric models. In particular, all the stable states can be destabilized by finite amplitude perturbations in the salinity or the hydrological forcing, and transitions are possible between any two states. For example, if the system is in an asymmetric state, and the moisture flux into the high-latitude region of downwelling is slowly increased, for both closure assumptions the high-latitude downwelling decreases until a critical forcing is reached where the system switches to the asymmetric state with downwelling in the opposite hemisphere. By contrast, in hemispheric models with the energy constraint, the downwelling increases and there is no loss of stability.
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Black, Robert X., and Brent A. McDaniel. "Interannual Variability in the Southern Hemisphere Circulation Organized by Stratospheric Final Warming Events." Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 64, no. 8 (August 2007): 2968–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jas3979.1.
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A composite observational analysis is presented demonstrating that austral stratospheric final warming (SFW) events provide a substantial organizing influence upon the large-scale atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere. In particular, the annual weakening of high-latitude westerlies in the upper troposphere and stratosphere is accelerated during SFW onset. This behavior is associated with a coherent annular circulation change with zonal wind decelerations (accelerations) at high (low) latitudes. The high-latitude stratospheric decelerations are induced by the anomalous wave driving of upward-propagating tropospheric waves. Longitudinally asymmetric circulation changes occur in the lower troposphere during SFW onset with regionally localized height increases (decreases) at subpolar (middle) latitudes. Importantly, the tropospheric and stratospheric circulation change patterns identified here are structurally distinct from the Southern Annular Mode. It is concluded that SFW events are linked to interannual atmospheric variability with potential bearing upon weather and climate prediction.
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Blackport, Russell, and Paul J. Kushner. "Isolating the Atmospheric Circulation Response to Arctic Sea Ice Loss in the Coupled Climate System." Journal of Climate 30, no. 6 (March 6, 2017): 2163–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-16-0257.1.
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Abstract In this study, coupled ocean–atmosphere–land–sea ice Earth system model (ESM) simulations driven separately by sea ice albedo reduction and by projected greenhouse-dominated radiative forcing are combined to cleanly isolate the sea ice loss response of the atmospheric circulation. A pattern scaling approach is proposed in which the local multidecadal mean atmospheric response is assumed to be separately proportional to the total sea ice loss and to the total low-latitude ocean surface warming. The proposed approach estimates the response to Arctic sea ice loss with low-latitude ocean temperatures fixed and vice versa. The sea ice response includes a high northern latitude easterly zonal wind response, an equatorward shift of the eddy-driven jet, a weakening of the stratospheric polar vortex, an anticyclonic sea level pressure anomaly over coastal Eurasia, a cyclonic sea level pressure anomaly over the North Pacific, and increased wintertime precipitation over the west coast of North America. Many of these responses are opposed by the response to low-latitude surface warming with sea ice fixed. However, both sea ice loss and low-latitude surface warming act in concert to reduce subseasonal temperature variability throughout the middle and high latitudes. The responses are similar in two related versions of the National Center for Atmospheric Research Earth system models, apart from the stratospheric polar vortex response. Evidence is presented that internal variability can easily contaminate the estimates if not enough independent climate states are used to construct them.
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Zhai, Xiaoming, Helen L. Johnson, and David P. Marshall. "A Model of Atlantic Heat Content and Sea Level Change in Response to Thermohaline Forcing." Journal of Climate 24, no. 21 (November 1, 2011): 5619–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-10-05007.1.
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Abstract The response of ocean heat content in the Atlantic to variability in the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) at high latitudes is investigated using a reduced-gravity model and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) general circulation model (MITgcm). Consistent with theoretical predictions, the zonal-mean heat content anomalies are confined to low latitudes when the high-latitude MOC changes rapidly, but extends to mid- and high latitudes when the high-latitude MOC varies on decadal or multidecadal time scales. This low-pass-filtering effect of the mid- and high latitudes on zonal-mean heat content anomalies, termed here the “Rossby buffer,” is shown to be associated with the ratio of Rossby wave basin-crossing time to the forcing period at high northern latitudes. Experiments using the MITgcm also reveal the importance of advective spreading of cold water in the deep ocean, which is absent in the reduced-gravity model. Implications for monitoring ocean heat content and sea level changes are discussed in the context of both models. It is found that observing global sea level variability and sea level rise using tide gauges can substantially overestimate the global-mean values.
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Simpson, Isla R., Michael Blackburn, and Joanna D. Haigh. "A Mechanism for the Effect of Tropospheric Jet Structure on the Annular Mode–Like Response to Stratospheric Forcing." Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 69, no. 7 (July 1, 2012): 2152–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jas-d-11-0188.1.
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Abstract For many climate forcings the dominant response of the extratropical circulation is a latitudinal shift of the tropospheric midlatitude jets. The magnitude of this response appears to depend on climatological jet latitude in general circulation models (GCMs): lower-latitude jets exhibit a larger shift. The reason for this latitude dependence is investigated for a particular forcing, heating of the equatorial stratosphere, which shifts the jet poleward. Spinup ensembles with a simplified GCM are used to examine the evolution of the response for five different jet structures. These differ in the latitude of the eddy-driven jet but have similar subtropical zonal winds. It is found that lower-latitude jets exhibit a larger response due to stronger tropospheric eddy–mean flow feedbacks. A dominant feedback responsible for enhancing the poleward shift is an enhanced equatorward refraction of the eddies, resulting in an increased momentum flux, poleward of the low-latitude critical line. The sensitivity of feedback strength to jet structure is associated with differences in the coherence of this behavior across the spectrum of eddy phase speeds. In the configurations used, the higher-latitude jets have a wider range of critical latitude locations. This reduces the coherence of the momentum flux anomalies associated with different phase speeds, with low phase speeds opposing the effect of high phase speeds. This suggests that, for a given subtropical zonal wind strength, the latitude of the eddy-driven jet affects the feedback through its influence on the width of the region of westerly winds and the range of critical latitudes on the equatorward flank of the jet.
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Rajaram, R., and S. Gurubaran. "Seasonal variabilities of low-latitude mesospheric winds." Annales Geophysicae 16, no. 2 (February 28, 1998): 197–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00585-998-0197-4.
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Abstract. Observations of mesospheric winds over a period of four years with the partial reflection radar at Tirunelveli (8.7°N, 77.8°E), India, are presented in this study. The emphasis is on describing seasonal variabilities in mean zonal and meridional winds in the altitude region 70–98 km. The meridional winds exhibit overall transequatorial flow associated with differential heating in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. At lower altitudes (70–80 km) the mean zonal winds reveal easterly flow during summer and westerly flow during winter, as expected from a circulation driven by solar forcing. In the higher altitude regime (80–98 km) and at all altitudes during equinox periods, the mean zonal flow is subjected to the semi-annual oscillation (SAO). The interannual variability detected in the occurrence of SAO over Tirunelveli has also been observed in the data sets obtained from the recent UARS satellite mission. Harmonic analysis results over a period of two years indicate the presence of long-period oscillations in the mean zonal wind at specific harmonic periods near 240, 150 and 120 days. Results presented in this study are discussed in the context of current understanding of equatorial wave propagation.Key words. Meteorological and atmospheric dynamics · General circulation · Middle atmosphere dynamics · waves and tides.
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Bailey, G. J., Y. Z. Su, and K. I. Oyama. "Yearly variations in the low-latitude topside ionosphere." Annales Geophysicae 18, no. 7 (July 31, 2000): 789–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00585-000-0789-0.
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Abstract. Observations made by the Hinotori satellite have been analysed to determine the yearly variations of the electron density and electron temperature in the low-latitude topside ionosphere. The observations reveal the existence of an equinoctial asymmetry in the topside electron density at low latitudes, i.e. the density is higher at one equinox than at the other. The asymmetry is hemisphere-dependent with the higher electron density occurring at the March equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and at the September equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. The asymmetry becomes stronger with increasing latitude in both hemispheres. The behaviour of the asymmetry has no significant longitudinal and magnetic activity variations. A mechanism for the equinoctial asymmetry has been investigated using CTIP (coupled thermosphere ionosphere plasmasphere model). The model results reproduce the observed equinoctial asymmetry and suggest that the asymmetry is caused by the north-south imbalance of the thermosphere and ionosphere at the equinoxes due to the slow response of the thermosphere arising from the effects of the global thermospheric circulation. The observations also show that the relationship between the electron density and electron temperature is different for daytime and nighttime. During daytime the yearly variation of the electron temperature has negative correlation with the electron density, except at magnetic latitudes lower than 10°. At night, the correlation is positive.Key words: Ionosphere (equatorial ionosphere; ionosphere-atmosphere interactions; plasma temperature and density)
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Low latitude circulation"
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Oliver, Kevin Ian Colmcille. "Elements of the thermohaline circulation : high latitude buoyancy forcing and low latitude mixing." Thesis, University of East Anglia, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.396699.
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Springer, Scott R. "Dynamics of western boundary currents in simple models of low-latitude circulations /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/11010.
Full textBooks on the topic "Low latitude circulation"
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Yang, Kun. Observed Regional Climate Change in Tibet over the Last Decades. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.587.
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The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is subjected to strong interactions among the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and biosphere. The Plateau exerts huge thermal forcing on the mid-troposphere over the mid-latitude of the Northern Hemisphere during spring and summer. This region also contains the headwaters of major rivers in Asia and provides a large portion of the water resources used for economic activities in adjacent regions. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the TP has undergone evident climate changes, with overall surface air warming and moistening, solar dimming, and decrease in wind speed. Surface warming, which depends on elevation and its horizontal pattern (warming in most of the TP but cooling in the westernmost TP), was consistent with glacial changes. Accompanying the warming was air moistening, with a sudden increase in precipitable water in 1998. Both triggered more deep clouds, which resulted in solar dimming. Surface wind speed declined from the 1970s and started to recover in 2002, as a result of atmospheric circulation adjustment caused by the differential surface warming between Asian high latitudes and low latitudes.The climate changes over the TP have changed energy and water cycles and has thus reshaped the local environment. Thermal forcing over the TP has weakened. The warming and decrease in wind speed lowered the Bowen ratio and has led to less surface sensible heating. Atmospheric radiative cooling has been enhanced, mainly through outgoing longwave emission from the warming planetary system and slightly enhanced solar radiation reflection. The trend in both energy terms has contributed to the weakening of thermal forcing over the Plateau. The water cycle has been significantly altered by the climate changes. The monsoon-impacted region (i.e., the southern and eastern regions of the TP) has received less precipitation, more evaporation, less soil moisture and less runoff, which has resulted in the general shrinkage of lakes and pools in this region, although glacier melt has increased. The region dominated by westerlies (i.e., central, northern and western regions of the TP) received more precipitation, more evaporation, more soil moisture and more runoff, which together with more glacier melt resulted in the general expansion of lakes in this region. The overall wetting in the TP is due to both the warmer and moister conditions at the surface, which increased convective available potential energy and may eventually depend on decadal variability of atmospheric circulations such as Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation and an intensified Siberian High. The drying process in the southern region is perhaps related to the expansion of Hadley circulation. All these processes have not been well understood.
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Tibaldi, Stefano, and Franco Molteni. Atmospheric Blocking in Observation and Models. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.611.
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The atmospheric circulation in the mid-latitudes of both hemispheres is usually dominated by westerly winds and by planetary-scale and shorter-scale synoptic waves, moving mostly from west to east. A remarkable and frequent exception to this “usual” behavior is atmospheric blocking. Blocking occurs when the usual zonal flow is hindered by the establishment of a large-amplitude, quasi-stationary, high-pressure meridional circulation structure which “blocks” the flow of the westerlies and the progression of the atmospheric waves and disturbances embedded in them. Such blocking structures can have lifetimes varying from a few days to several weeks in the most extreme cases. Their presence can strongly affect the weather of large portions of the mid-latitudes, leading to the establishment of anomalous meteorological conditions. These can take the form of strong precipitation episodes or persistent anticyclonic regimes, leading in turn to floods, extreme cold spells, heat waves, or short-lived droughts. Even air quality can be strongly influenced by the establishment of atmospheric blocking, with episodes of high concentrations of low-level ozone in summer and of particulate matter and other air pollutants in winter, particularly in highly populated urban areas.Atmospheric blocking has the tendency to occur more often in winter and in certain longitudinal quadrants, notably the Euro-Atlantic and the Pacific sectors of the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, blocking episodes are generally less frequent, and the longitudinal localization is less pronounced than in the Northern Hemisphere.Blocking has aroused the interest of atmospheric scientists since the middle of the last century, with the pioneering observational works of Berggren, Bolin, Rossby, and Rex, and has become the subject of innumerable observational and theoretical studies. The purpose of such studies was originally to find a commonly accepted structural and phenomenological definition of atmospheric blocking. The investigations went on to study blocking climatology in terms of the geographical distribution of its frequency of occurrence and the associated seasonal and inter-annual variability. Well into the second half of the 20th century, a large number of theoretical dynamic works on blocking formation and maintenance started appearing in the literature. Such theoretical studies explored a wide range of possible dynamic mechanisms, including large-amplitude planetary-scale wave dynamics, including Rossby wave breaking, multiple equilibria circulation regimes, large-scale forcing of anticyclones by synoptic-scale eddies, finite-amplitude non-linear instability theory, and influence of sea surface temperature anomalies, to name but a few. However, to date no unique theoretical model of atmospheric blocking has been formulated that can account for all of its observational characteristics.When numerical, global short- and medium-range weather predictions started being produced operationally, and with the establishment, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, it quickly became of relevance to assess the capability of numerical models to predict blocking with the correct space-time characteristics (e.g., location, time of onset, life span, and decay). Early studies showed that models had difficulties in correctly representing blocking as well as in connection with their large systematic (mean) errors.Despite enormous improvements in the ability of numerical models to represent atmospheric dynamics, blocking remains a challenge for global weather prediction and climate simulation models. Such modeling deficiencies have negative consequences not only for our ability to represent the observed climate but also for the possibility of producing high-quality seasonal-to-decadal predictions. For such predictions, representing the correct space-time statistics of blocking occurrence is, especially for certain geographical areas, extremely important.
Book chapters on the topic "Low latitude circulation"
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Satoh, Masaki. "Low-latitude circulations." In Atmospheric Circulation Dynamics and General Circulation Models, 420–40. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13574-3_16.
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Wang, Xianfeng, R. Lawrence Edwards, Augusto S. Auler, Hai Cheng, and Emi Ito. "Millennial-scale interhemispheric asymmetry of low-latitude precipitation: Speleothem evidence and possible high-latitude forcing." In Ocean Circulation: Mechanisms and Impacts—Past and Future Changes of Meridional Overturning, 279–94. Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/173gm18.
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Karrouk, Mohammed-Said. "The Shift of the Atmospheric Circulation Patterns and Its Impacts on Western Mediterranean." In Patterns and Mechanisms of Climate, Paleoclimate and Paleoenvironmental Changes from Low-Latitude Regions, 107–10. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01599-2_25.
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Rodriguez, Luciano, Cyril Rakovski, Mohamed Allali, and Hesham El-Askary. "Long-Term Variability of Gauged Precipitation Over California and Its Links to Circulation Patterns." In Patterns and Mechanisms of Climate, Paleoclimate and Paleoenvironmental Changes from Low-Latitude Regions, 95–98. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01599-2_22.
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Ma, H., J. McCaffrey, and S. Piacsek. "A Parallel Implementation of a Spectral Element Ocean Model for Simulating Low-Latitude Circulation System." In Parallel Computational Fluid Dynamics 1997, 641–48. Elsevier, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-044482849-1/50077-4.
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Holbourn, Ann, Wolfgang Kuhnt, Karlos G. D. Kochhann, Kenji M. Matsuzaki, and Nils Andersen. "Middle Miocene climate–carbon cycle dynamics: Keys for understanding future trends on a warmer Earth?" In Understanding the Monterey Formation and Similar Biosiliceous Units across Space and Time. Geological Society of America, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/2022.2556(05).
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ABSTRACT The late early to middle Miocene period (18–12.7 Ma) was marked by profound environmental change, as Earth entered into the warmest climate phase of the Neogene (Miocene climate optimum) and then transitioned to a much colder mode with development of permanent ice sheets on Antarctica. Integration of high-resolution benthic foraminiferal isotope records in well-preserved sedimentary successions from the Pacific, Southern, and Indian Oceans provides a long-term perspective with which to assess relationships among climate change, ocean circulation, and carbon cycle dynamics during these successive climate reversals. Fundamentally different modes of ocean circulation and carbon cycling prevailed on an almost ice-free Earth during the Miocene climate optimum (ca. 16.9–14.7 Ma). Comparison of δ13C profiles revealed a marked decrease in ocean stratification and in the strength of the meridional overturning circulation during the Miocene climate optimum. We speculate that labile polar ice sheets, weaker Southern Hemisphere westerlies, higher sea level, and more acidic, oxygen-depleted oceans promoted shelf-basin partitioning of carbonate deposition and a weaker meridional overturning circulation, reducing the sequestration efficiency of the biological pump. X-ray fluorescence scanning data additionally revealed that 100 k.y. eccentricity-paced transient hyperthermal events coincided with intense episodes of deep-water acidification and deoxygenation. The in-phase coherence of δ18O and δ13C at the eccentricity band further suggests that orbitally paced processes such as remineralization of organic carbon from the deep-ocean dissolved organic carbon pool and/or weathering-induced carbon and nutrient fluxes from tropical monsoonal regions to the ocean contributed to the high amplitude variability of the marine carbon cycle. Stepwise global cooling and ice-sheet expansion during the middle Miocene climate transition (ca. 14.7–13.8 Ma) were associated with dampening of astronomically driven climate cycles and progressive steepening of the δ13C gradient between intermediate and deep waters, indicating intensification and vertical expansion of ocean meridional overturning circulation following the end of the Miocene climate optimum. Together, these results underline the crucial role of the marine carbon cycle and low-latitude processes in driving climate dynamics on an almost ice-free Earth.
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Fleming, James R. "Global Warming? The Early Twentieth Century." In Historical Perspectives on Climate Change. Oxford University Press, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195078701.003.0014.
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In the first half of the twentieth century, most scientists did not believe that increased CO2 levels would result in global warming. It was thought that at current atmospheric concentrations, the gas already absorbed all the available long-wave radiation; thus any increases in CO2 would not change the radiative heat balance of the planet but might augment plant growth. Other mechanisms of climatic change, although highly speculative, were given more credence, especially changes in solar luminosity, atmospheric transparency, and the Earth’s orbital elements. By the 1950s, as temperatures around the Northern Hemisphere reached early-twentieth-century peaks, global warming first found its way onto the public agenda. Concerns were expressed in both the scientific and popular press about rising sea levels, loss of habitat, and shifting agricultural zones. Amid the myriad mechanisms that could possibly account for climatic changes, several scientists, notably G. S. Callendar, Gilbert Plass, Hans Suess, and Roger Revelle, focused on possible links between anthropogenic CO2 emissions, the geochemical carbon cycle, and climate warming. By 1900, most of the chief theories of climate change had been proposed, if not yet fully explored: changes in solar output; changes in the Earth’s orbital geometry; changes in terrestrial geography, including the form and height of continents and the circulation of the oceans; and changes in atmospheric transparency and composition, in part due to human activities. Of course, there were many others. New climate theories were being proposed and new work was being done on heat budgets, spectroscopy, and the rising CO2 content of the atmosphere. Evidence for glaciation in low latitudes was explained by Wladimir Köppen and Alfred Wegener as the result of continents drifting northward under climate zones controlled mainly by latitude. Although this theory was not widely accepted by geologists, it is now seen as a first step in paleoclimatic reconstruction. In the 1930s, the Serbian astronomer and geophysicist Milutin Milanković, building on earlier work, outlined a comprehensive “astronomical theory of the ice ages” that viewed them as caused by periodic changes in the Earth’s orbital elements. Atmospheric heat budgets were constructed early in the twentieth century by William Henry Dines and George Clark Simpson, among others.
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Palmer, Paul I. "3. Atmospheric motion." In The Atmosphere: A Very Short Introduction, 49–64. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198722038.003.0003.
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Solar activity is the main driver for Earth’s large-scale atmospheric motion. Due to the Earth’s tilt, lower latitudes receive more energy from the Sun that they emit back to space, while the higher latitudes emit more radiation back to space than they receive directly from the Sun. The Earth is in approximate thermal equilibrium, suggesting that energy is being transported from low to high latitudes. The thermal gradient between the tropics and the poles drives the hemispheric circulation. But Earth is rotating and is composed of land and ocean. ‘Atmospheric motion’ outlines the effects of these factors on the atmosphere’s circulation patterns and describes key features such as jet streams and the Southern Oscillation.
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Robinson, Walter A. "Eddy-Mediated Interactions Between Low Latitudes and the Extratropics." In The Global Circulation of the Atmosphere, 104–42. Princeton University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1t1kg52.9.
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Robinson, Walter A. "Chapter 5 Eddy-Mediated Interactions Between Low Latitudes and the Extratropics." In The Global Circulation of the Atmosphere, 104–42. Princeton University Press, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780691236919-007.
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