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Journal articles on the topic 'Low-angle normal fault'

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Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Haines, Samuel, Chris Marone, and Demian Saffer. "Frictional properties of low-angle normal fault gouges and implications for low-angle normal fault slip." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 408 (December 2014): 57–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.09.034.

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2

Axen, Gary J. "Low-angle normal fault earthquakes and triggering." Geophysical Research Letters 26, no. 24 (December 15, 1999): 3693–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999gl005405.

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3

Axen, Gary J. "How a strong low-angle normal fault formed: The Whipple detachment, southeastern California." GSA Bulletin 132, no. 9-10 (December 31, 2019): 1817–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/b35386.1.

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Abstract Many low-angle normal faults (dip ≤30°) accommodate tens of kilometers of crustal extension, but their mechanics remain contentious. Most models for low-angle normal fault slip assume vertical maximum principal stress σ1, leading many authors to conclude that low-angle normal faults are poorly oriented in the stress field (≥60° from σ1) and weak (low friction). In contrast, models for low-angle normal fault formation in isotropic rocks typically assume Coulomb failure and require inclined σ1 (no misorientation). Here, a data-based, mechanical-tectonic model is presented for formation of the Whipple detachment fault, southeastern California. The model honors local and regional geologic and tectonic history and laboratory friction measurements. The Whipple detachment fault formed progressively in the brittle-plastic transition by linking of “minidetachments,” which are small-scale analogs (meters to kilometers in length) in the upper footwall. Minidetachments followed mylonitic anisotropy along planes of maximum shear stress (45° from the maximum principal stress), not Coulomb fractures. They evolved from mylonitic flow to cataclasis and frictional slip at 300–400 °C and ∼9.5 km depth, while fluid pressure fell from lithostatic to hydrostatic levels. Minidetachment friction was presumably high (0.6–0.85), based upon formation of quartzofeldspathic cataclasite and pseudotachylyte. Similar mechanics are inferred for both the minidetachments and the Whipple detachment fault, driven by high differential stress (∼150–160 MPa). A Mohr construction is presented with the fault dip as the main free parameter. Using “Byerlee friction” (0.6–0.85) on the minidetachments and the Whipple detachment fault, and internal friction (1.0–1.7) on newly formed Reidel shears, the initial fault dips are calculated at 16°–26°, with σ1 plunging ∼61°–71° northeast. Linked minidetachments probably were not well aligned, and slip on the evolving Whipple detachment fault probably contributed to fault smoothing, by off-fault fracturing and cataclasis, and to formation of the fault core and fractured damage zone. Stress rotation may have occurred only within the mylonitic shear zone, but asymmetric tectonic forces applied to the brittle crust probably caused gradual rotation of σ1 above it as a result of: (1) the upward force applied to the base of marginal North America by buoyant asthenosphere upwelling into an opening slab-free window and/or (2) basal, top-to-the-NE shear traction due to midcrustal mylonitic flow during tectonic exhumation of the Orocopia Schist. The mechanical-tectonic model probably applies directly to low-angle normal faults of the lower Colorado River extensional corridor, and aspects of the model (e.g., significance of anisotropy, stress rotation) likely apply to formation of other strong low-angle normal faults.

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4

YANG, KENN-MING, RUEY-JUIN RAU, HAO-YUN CHANG, CHING-YUN HSIEH, HSIN-HSIU TING, SHIUH-TSANN HUANG, JONG-CHANG WU, and YI-JIN TANG. "The role of basement-involved normal faults in the recent tectonics of western Taiwan." Geological Magazine 153, no. 5-6 (August 5, 2016): 1166–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756816000637.

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AbstractIn the foreland area of western Taiwan, some of the pre-orogenic basement-involved normal faults were reactivated during the subsequent compressional tectonics. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the role played by the pre-existing normal faults in the recent tectonics of western Taiwan. In NW Taiwan, reactivated normal faults with a strike-slip component have developed by linkage of reactivated single pre-existing normal faults in the foreland basin and acted as transverse structures for low-angle thrusts in the outer fold-and-thrust belt. In the later stage of their development, the transverse structures were thrusted and appear underneath the low-angle thrusts or became tear faults in the inner fold-and-thrust belt. In SW Taiwan, where the foreland basin is lacking normal fault reactivation, the pre-existing normal faults passively acted as ramp for the low-angle thrusts in the inner fold-and-thrust belt. Some of the active faults in western Taiwan may also be related to reactivated normal faults with right-lateral slip component. Some main earthquake shocks related to either strike-slip or thrust fault plane solution occurred on reactivated normal faults, implying a relationship between the pre-existing normal fault and the triggering of the recent major earthquakes. Along-strike contrast in structural style of normal fault reactivation gives rise to different characteristics of the deformation front for different parts of the foreland area in western Taiwan. Variations in the degree of normal fault reactivation also provide some insights into the way the crust embedding the pre-existing normal faults deformed in response to orogenic contraction.

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5

Styron, Richard H., and Eric A. Hetland. "Estimated likelihood of observing a large earthquake on a continental low-angle normal fault and implications for low-angle normal fault activity." Geophysical Research Letters 41, no. 7 (April 9, 2014): 2342–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014gl059335.

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6

Vadacca, Luigi. "The Altotiberina Low-Angle Normal Fault (Italy) Can Fail in Moderate-Magnitude Earthquakes as a Result of Stress Transfer from Stable Creeping Fault Area." Geosciences 10, no. 4 (April 16, 2020): 144. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10040144.

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Geological and geophysical evidence suggests that the Altotiberina low-angle (dip angle of 15–20 ° ) normal fault is active in the Umbria–Marche sector of the Northern Apennine thrust belt (Italy). The fault plane is 70 km long and 40 km wide, larger and hence potentially more destructive than the faults that generated the last major earthquakes in Italy. However, the seismic potential associated with the Altotiberina fault is strongly debated. In fact, the mechanical behavior of this fault is complex, characterized by locked fault patches with a potentially seismic behavior surrounded by aseismic creeping areas. No historical moderate (5 ≤ Mw ≤ 5.9) nor strong (6 ≤ Mw ≤ 6.9)-magnitude earthquakes are unambiguously associated with the Altotiberina fault; however, microseismicity is scattered below 5 km within the fault zone. Here we provide mechanical evidence for the potential activation of the Altotiberina fault in moderate-magnitude earthquakes due to stress transfer from creeping fault areas to locked fault patches. The tectonic extension in the Umbria–Marche crustal sector of the Northern Apennines is simulated by a geomechanical numerical model that includes slip events along the Altotiberina and its main seismic antithetic fault, the Gubbio fault. The seismic cycles on the fault planes are simulated by assuming rate-and-state friction. The spatial variation of the frictional parameters is obtained by combining the interseismic coupling degree of the Altotiberina fault with friction laboratory measurements on samples from the Zuccale low- angle normal fault located in the Elba island (Italy), considered an older exhumed analogue of Altotiberina fault. This work contributes a better estimate of the seismic potential associated with the Altotiberina fault and, more generally, to low-angle normal faults with mixed-mode slip behavior.

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7

Dennis, Allen J. "Is the central Piedmont suture a low-angle normal fault?" Geology 19, no. 11 (1991): 1081. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<1081:itcpsa>2.3.co;2.

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8

Keener, Charles, Laura Serpa, and Terry L. Pavlis. "Faulting at Mormon Point, Death Valley, California: A low-angle normal fault cut by high-angle faults." Geology 21, no. 4 (1993): 327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0327:fampdv>2.3.co;2.

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9

Zhang, Tian, Weilin Zhu, Qiang Fu, and Xiaowei Fu. "Structural Characteristics and Tectonic Evolution of the Wunansha Uplift in the South Yellow Sea Basin, China." Geofluids 2022 (May 25, 2022): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/1565978.

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By selecting typical seismic sections to carry out detailed structural interpretation, the structural style features of the Wunansha Uplift in the South Yellow Sea basin were systematically combined, and the compressional structures (imbricate, opposite/back thrust, and Y-shaped structures), strike-slip faults (positive flower-shaped faults), and extensional normal faults (listric-shaped normal faults) were identified. On this basis, combined with the characteristics of the regional stress field and the background of deep geodynamics, the genetic mechanism and structural evolution of the structural style in the Wunansha Uplift were defined. The stress mechanism of the compressional structures originated from the initial high-speed and low-angle NW subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate during the early Yanshanian movement in the Early Jurassic. The regional strike-slip fault was mainly a positive flower structure with compression and torsion characteristics, and its stress mechanism originated from sinistral shear caused by the Early Cretaceous low-angle NNW subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate. The Tan-Lu fault in eastern China also had sinistral shear characteristics in this period. The extensional normal fault was characterized by a listric shape, which developed along the northern boundary of the Wunansha Uplift, that is, the connection between the Wunansha Uplift and the Southern Depression of the South Yellow Sea basin. The stress mechanism was derived from the transition of the paleo-Pacific plate from low-angle to high-angle subduction during the late Yanshanian movement in the Late Cretaceous. Simultaneously, the tectonic stress system in eastern China also changed from compressional to tensional.

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10

FLOTTÉ, N., and D. SOREL. "Structural cross sections through the Corinth-Patras detachment fault-system in Northern Peloponnesus (Aegean Arc, Greece)." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 34, no. 1 (January 1, 2001): 235. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.17018.

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Structural mapping in northern Peloponnesus reveals the emergence of an E-W striking, more than 70km long, low angle detachment fault dipping to the north beneath the Gulf of Corinth. This paper describes four north-south structural cross-sections in northern Peloponnesus. Structural and sedimentological field observations show that in the studied area the normal faults of northern Peloponnesus branch at depth on this major low angle north-dipping brittle detachment. The southern part of the detachment and the related normal faults are now inactive. To the north, the active Helike and Aigion normal faults are connected at depth with the seismically active northern part of the detachment beneath the Gulf of Corinth.

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11

Floyd, J. S., J. C. Mutter, A. M. Goodliffe, and B. Taylor. "Evidence for fault weakness and fluid flow within an active low-angle normal fault." Nature 411, no. 6839 (June 2001): 779–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35081040.

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12

Deng, Chao, Rixiang Zhu, Jianhui Han, Yu Shu, Yuxiang Wu, Kefeng Hou, and Wei Long. "Impact of basement thrust faults on low-angle normal faults and rift basin evolution: a case study in the Enping sag, Pearl River Basin." Solid Earth 12, no. 10 (October 14, 2021): 2327–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2327-2021.

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Abstract. Reactivation of pre-existing structures and their influence on subsequent rift evolution have been extensively analysed in previous research on rifts that experienced multiple phases of rifting, where pre-existing structures were deemed to affect nucleation, density, strike orientation, and displacement of newly formed normal faults during later rifting stages. However, previous studies paid less attention to the extensional structures superimposing onto an earlier compressional background, leading to a lack of understanding of, e.g. the reactivation and growth pattern of pre-existing thrust faults as low-angle normal faults and the impact of pre-existing thrust faults on newly formed high-angle faults and subsequent rift structures. This study investigating the spatial relationship between intra-basement thrust and rift-related faults in the Enping sag, in the northern South China Sea, indicates that the rift system is built on the previously deformed basement with pervasive thrusting structures and that the low-angle major fault of the study area results from reactivation of intra-basement thrust faults. It also implies that the reactivation mode of basement thrust faults is dependent on the overall strain distribution across rifts, the scale of basement thrust faults, and the strain shadow zone. In addition, reactivated basement thrust faults influence the nucleation, dip, and displacement of nearby new faults, causing them to nucleate at or merge into downwards it, which is representative of the coupled and decoupled growth models of reactivated thrust faults and nearby new faults. This work not only provides insights into the growth pattern of rift-related faults interacting with reactivated low-angle faults but also has broader implications for how basement thrust faults influence rift structures, normal fault evolution, and syn-rift stratigraphy.

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13

Numelin, T., C. Marone, and E. Kirby. "Frictional properties of natural fault gouge from a low-angle normal fault, Panamint Valley, California." Tectonics 26, no. 2 (March 16, 2007): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005tc001916.

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14

BOZKURT, ERDİN, and HASAN SÖZBİLİR. "Tectonic evolution of the Gediz Graben: field evidence for an episodic, two-stage extension in western Turkey." Geological Magazine 141, no. 1 (January 2004): 63–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756803008379.

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Western Turkey is one of the most spectacular regions of widespread active continental extension in the world. The most prominent structures of this region are E–W-trending grabens (e.g. Gediz and Büyük Menderes grabens) and intervening horsts, exposing the Menderes Massif. This paper documents the result of a recent field campaign (field geological mapping and structural analysis) along the southern margin of the modern Gediz Graben of Pliocene (∼ 5 Ma) age. This work provides field evidence that the presently low-angle ductile-brittle detachment fault is cut and displaced by the high-angle graben-bounding normal faults with total displacement exceeding 2.0 km. The evolution of the N–S extension along the Gediz Graben occurred during two episodes, each characterized by a distinct structural styles: (1) rapid exhumation of Menderes Massif in the footwall of low-angle normal fault (core-complex mode) during the Miocene; (2) late stretching of crust producing E–W grabens along high-angle normal faults (rift mode) during Pliocene–Quaternary times, separated by a short-time gap. The later phase is characterized by the deposition of now nearly horizontal sediments of Pliocene age in the hanging walls of the high-angle normal faults and present-day graben floor sediments. The evolution of extension is at variance with orogenic collapse and/or back-arc extension followed by the combined effect of tectonic escape and subduction rollback processes along the Aegean-Cyprean subduction zone. Consequently, it is misleading to describe the Miocene sediments exhumed on shoulders of the Gediz Graben as simple graben fill.

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15

Collettini, C., and R. E. Holdsworth. "Fault zone weakening and character of slip along low-angle normal faults: insights from the Zuccale fault, Elba, Italy." Journal of the Geological Society 161, no. 6 (December 2004): 1039–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/0016-764903-179.

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16

Axen, Gary J. "Pore pressure, stress increase, and fault weakening in low-angle normal faulting." Journal of Geophysical Research 97, B6 (1992): 8979. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92jb00517.

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17

Numelin, Tye, Eric Kirby, J. Douglas Walker, and Brad Didericksen. "Late Pleistocene slip on a low-angle normal fault, Searles Valley, California." Geosphere 3, no. 3 (2007): 163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/ges00052.1.

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18

Hreinsdottir, S., and R. A. Bennett. "Active aseismic creep on the Alto Tiberina low-angle normal fault, Italy." Geology 37, no. 8 (July 30, 2009): 683–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g30194a.1.

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19

Argante, Valentina, David Colin Tanner, Christian Brandes, Christoph von Hagke, and Sumiko Tsukamoto. "The Memory of a Fault Gouge: An Example from the Simplon Fault Zone (Central Alps)." Geosciences 12, no. 7 (June 30, 2022): 268. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12070268.

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A fault gouge forms at the core of the fault as the result of a slip in the upper brittle crust. Therefore, the deformation mechanisms and conditions under which the fault gouge was formed can document the stages of fault movement in the crust. We carried out a microstructural analysis on a fault gouge from a hanging-wall branch fault of the Simplon Fault Zone, a major low-angle normal fault in the Alps. We use thin-section analysis, together with backscattered electron imaging and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), to show that a multistage history from ductile to brittle deformation, together with a continuous exhumation history from high to low temperature, took place within the fault gouge. Because of the predominance of pressure solution and veining, we associated a large part of the deformation in the fault gouge with viscous-frictional behaviour that occurred at the brittle-ductile transition. Phyllosilicates and graphite likely caused fault lubrication that we suggested played a role in the formation of this major low-angle normal fault.

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20

Chávez‐Pérez, Sergio, John N. Louie, and Sathish K. Pullammanappallil. "Seismic depth imaging of normal faulting in the southern Death Valley Basin." GEOPHYSICS 63, no. 1 (January 1998): 223–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1444316.

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Motivated by the need to image faults to test Cenozoic extension models for the Death Valley region of the western basin and range province, an area of strong lateral velocity variations, we examine the geometry of normal faulting in southern Death Valley by seismic depth imaging. We analyze COCORP Death Valley Line 9 to attain an enhanced image of shallow fault structure to 2.5 km depth. Previous work used standard seismic processing to infer normal faults from bed truncations, displacement of horizontal reflectors, and diffractions. We obtain a detailed velocity model by nonlinear optimization of first‐ arrival times picked from shot gathers, examine the unprocessed data for fault reflections, and use a Kirchhoff prestack depth imaging procedure to handle lateral velocity variations and arbitrary dips properly. Fault‐plane reflections reveal the listric true‐depth geometry of the normal fault at the Black Mountains range front in southern Death Valley. This is consistent with the concept of low‐angle extension in this region and strengthens its association with crustal‐scale magmatic plumbing.

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21

Reston, Tim. "On the rotation and frictional lock-up of normal faults: Explaining the dip distribution of normal fault earthquakes and resolving the low-angle normal fault paradox." Tectonophysics 790 (September 2020): 228550. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2020.228550.

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22

Luther, Amy, Gary Axen, and Jane Selverstone. "Particle-size distributions of low-angle normal fault breccias: Implications for slip mechanisms on weak faults." Journal of Structural Geology 55 (October 2013): 50–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2013.07.009.

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23

Lagabrielle, Yves, and Alain Chauvet. "The role of extensional tectonics in shaping Cenozoic New-Caledonia." Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 179, no. 3 (May 1, 2008): 315–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.179.3.315.

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Abstract New-Caledonia island consists of an ultramafic nappe thrusted over a continental and arc-derived basement as the result of the closure of a back-arc basin during the upper Eocene. The morphology of New-Caledonia is mostly characterized by its elongated shape and rectilinear coastline. Indeed, the western and eastern edges of the island are delineated by N140 trending normal faults that are well imaged on seismic lines. Major tectonic lineaments onland, including the scarps corresponding to the main boundary of the ultramafic nappe, also trend N140 suggesting a morphotectonic control by faults having similar kinematics (longitudinal flexure-fault of previous authors). We provide detailed observations from some of these scarps demonstrating indeed that these are not erosional features in origin. We explore the possibility that such surfaces do represent major tectonic limits that accommodated extension and significant tectonic thinning of both the peridotite nappe and its basement. Remnants of a complex extensional fault zone, 200 m wide, are still preserved along the western scarp of the Mont Dore mountain, close to Nouméa city. The deformed zone is composed of an early shallow dipping detachment fault, some decimeters thick, offset by a group of late high angle normal faults and is bounded by cataclastic breccias that progressively pass into the fractured host peridotite. The late high angle fault zones have been the site of important syn-tectonic fluid circulation and are underlined by cm-thick silica infills bearing vertical striae. Typical morphology of the main scarps with break of slope is related to the combination of high angle normal faults and low angle detachment. Similar shallow dipping detachment surfaces have been observed along the east coast of southern New-Caledonia as well as within the ultramafic nappe itself and its basement. This study confirms that N140 oriented, large fault zones, with pure-normal to transtensional component of displacement, controlled the morphotectonic evolution of New-Caledonia at the regional scale, after the obduction of ophiolite nappe at the end of the Eocene. Such a fact has to be taken into account when attempting to reconstruct the post-obduction evolution of the island and more particularly when considering the development and distribution of the Ni-rich lateritic surfaces.

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24

Vadacca, Luigi, Emanuele Casarotti, Lauro Chiaraluce, and Massimo Cocco. "On the mechanical behaviour of a low-angle normal fault: the Alto Tiberina fault (Northern Apennines, Italy) system case study." Solid Earth 7, no. 6 (November 8, 2016): 1537–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/se-7-1537-2016.

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Abstract. Geological and seismological observations have been used to parameterize 2-D numerical elastic models to simulate the interseismic deformation of a complex extensional fault system located in the Northern Apennines (Italy). The geological system is dominated by the presence of the Alto Tiberina fault (ATF), a large (60 km along strike) low-angle normal fault dipping 20° in the brittle crust (0–15 km). The ATF is currently characterized by a high and constant rate of microseismic activity, and no moderate-to-large magnitude earthquakes have been associated with this fault in the past 1000 years. Modelling results have been compared with GPS data in order to understand the mechanical behaviour of this fault and a suite of minor syn- and antithetic normal fault segments located in the main fault hanging wall. The results of the simulations demonstrate the active role played by the Alto Tiberina fault in accommodating the ongoing tectonic extension in this sector of the chain. The GPS velocity profile constructed through the fault system cannot be explained without including the ATF's contribution to deformation, indicating that this fault, although misoriented, has to be considered tectonically active and with a creeping behaviour below 5 km depth. The low-angle normal fault also shows a high degree of tectonic coupling with its main antithetic fault (the Gubbio fault), suggesting that creeping along the ATF may control the observed strain localization and the pattern of microseismic activity.

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Axen, Gary J., Amy Luther, and Jane Selverstone. "Paleostress directions near two low-angle normal faults: Testing mechanical models of weak faults and off-fault damage." Geosphere 11, no. 6 (October 2, 2015): 1996–2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/ges01211.1.

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26

Reston, T. J., T. Leythaeuser, G. Booth-Rea, D. Sawyer, D. Klaeschen, and C. Long. "Movement along a low-angle normal fault: The S reflector west of Spain." Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, no. 6 (June 2007): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006gc001437.

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27

Cape, C. D., R. M. O'Connor, J. M. Ravens, and D. J. Woodward. "Seismic expression of shallow structures in active tectonic settings in New Zealand." Exploration Geophysics 20, no. 2 (1989): 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/eg989287.

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Late Cenozoic deformation along the Australian/Pacific plate boundary is seen in onshore New Zealand as zones characterised by extension- or transcurrent- or contraction-related structures. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection data were acquired in several of these tectonic zones and successfully reveal the shallow structures within them. Thirty kilometres of dynamite reflection data in the Rangitaiki Plains, eastern Bay of Plenty, define a series of NE-trending normal faults within this extensional back-arc volcanic region. The data cross surface ruptures activated during the 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake. In the southern North Island, a 20 km Mini-Sosie? seismic profile details the Quaternary sedimentation history and reveals the structure of the active strike-slip and thrust fault systems that form the western and eastern edges of the Wairarapa basin, respectively. This basin is considered to sit astride the boundary between a zone of distributed strike-slip faults and an active accretionary prism. In the Nelson area, northwestern South Island, previously unrecognised low-angle thrust faults of Neogene or Quaternary age are seen from Mini-Sosie data to occur at very shallow depths. Crustal shortening here was previously thought to arise from movement on high-angle reverse faults, and the identification of these low-angle faults has prompted a reassessment of that model. A grid of 18 km of Mini-Sosie seismic data from the central eastern South Island delineates Neogene or Quaternary thrust faults in Cenozoic sediments. The thrusts are interpreted as reactivated Early Eocene normal faults, and the thrust fault geometry is dominated by these older structures.

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Searle, Michael P., and Thomas N. Lamont. "Compressional metamorphic core complexes, low-angle normal faults and extensional fabrics in compressional tectonic settings." Geological Magazine 157, no. 1 (April 2, 2019): 101–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756819000207.

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AbstractMetamorphic core complexes (MCCs) are interpreted as domal structures exposing ductile deformed high-grade metamorphic rocks in the core underlying a ductile-to-brittle high-strain detachment that experienced tens of kilometres of normal sense displacement in response to lithospheric extension. Extension is supposedly the driving force that has governed exhumation. However, numerous core complexes, notably Himalayan, Karakoram and Pamir domes, occur in wholly compressional environments and are not related to lithospheric extension. We suggest that many MCCs previously thought to form during extension are instead related to compressional tectonics. Pressures of kyanite-and sillimanite-grade rocks in the cores of many of these domes are c. 10–14 kbar, approximating to exhumation from depths of c. 35–45 km, too great to be accounted for solely by isostatic uplift. The evolution of high-grade metamorphic rocks is driven by crustal thickening, shortening, regional Barrovian metamorphism, isoclinal folding and ductile shear in a compressional tectonic setting prior to regional extension. Extensional fabrics commonly associated with all these core complexes result from reverse flow along an orogenic channel (channel flow) following peak metamorphism beneath a passive roof stretching fault. In Naxos, low-angle normal faults associated with regional Aegean extension cut earlier formed compressional folds and metamorphic fabrics related to crustal shortening and thickening. The fact that low-angle normal faults exist in both extensional and compressional tectonic settings, and can actively slip at low angles (< 30°), suggests that a re-evaluation of the Andersonian mechanical theory that requires normal faults to form and slip only at high angles (c. 60°) is needed.

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29

Kapp, Paul, Michael Taylor, Daniel Stockli, and Lin Ding. "Development of active low-angle normal fault systems during orogenic collapse: Insight from Tibet." Geology 36, no. 4 (2008): 336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2008)36[336:doalnf]2.0.co;2.

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30

Boncio, Paolo, Francesco Brozzetti, and Giusy Lavecchia. "Architecture and seismotectonics of a regional low-angle normal fault zone in central Italy." Tectonics 19, no. 6 (December 2000): 1038–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000tc900023.

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31

Kapp, Paul, Michael Taylor, Daniel Stockli, and Lin Ding. "Development of active low-angle normal fault systems during orogenic collapse: Insight from Tibet." Geology 36, no. 1 (2008): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g24054a.1.

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32

Zanchetta, Stefano, Sofia Locchi, Gregorio Carminati, Manuel Mancuso, Chiara Montemagni, and Andrea Zanchi. "Metasomatism by Boron-Rich Fluids along Permian Low-Angle Normal Faults (Central Southern Alps, N Italy)." Minerals 12, no. 4 (March 25, 2022): 404. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min12040404.

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Low-Angle Normal Faults (LANFs) represent in the central Southern Alps area (N Italy) the main structures along which the Variscan basement is in contact with the Upper Carboniferous-Permian volcanic-sedimentary succession. Tourmalinites frequently occur along LANFs, usually replacing former cataclasites. The mineralogy and chemical composition of tourmalinites point to a metasomatic origin. LANFs, together with high-angle faults, controlled the opening of the Permian Orobic Basin and likely acted as a preferred pathway for hydrothermal fluids that triggered the Boron-metasomatism. Along the Aga-Vedello LANF, tourmalinites appear to have formed after the cessation of fault activity, as no brittle post-metasomatism deformation overprint has been observed. These relationships suggest that the circulation of B-rich fluids occurred after the opening of the Orobic Basin that is broadly constrained to the Early Permian. At the same time, ca. 285–270 Ma, a strong magmatic activity affected all the Southern Alps, ranging in composition from mafic to acidic rocks and from intrusions at deep crustal levels to effusive volcanic products. The Early Permian magmatism was likely the source of the late-stage hydrothermal fluids that formed the tourmalinites. The same fluids could also have played a significant role in the formation of the Uranium ore deposit of the Novazza-Vedello mining district, as the ore bodies in the Vedello valley are concentrated along the basement-cover contact.

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33

Boulton, Carolyn, Tim Davies, and Mauri McSaveney. "The frictional strength of granular fault gouge: application of theory to the mechanics of low-angle normal faults." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 321, no. 1 (2009): 9–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp321.2.

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34

Axen, Gary J., John M. Fletcher, Eric Cowgill, Michael Murphy, Paul Kapp, Ian MacMillan, Ernesto Ramos-Velázquez, and Jorge Aranda-Gómez. "Range-front fault scarps of the Sierra El Mayor, Baja California: Formed above an active low-angle normal fault?" Geology 27, no. 3 (1999): 247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0247:rffsot>2.3.co;2.

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35

Anderlini, L., E. Serpelloni, and M. E. Belardinelli. "Creep and locking of a low-angle normal fault: Insights from the Altotiberina fault in the Northern Apennines (Italy)." Geophysical Research Letters 43, no. 9 (May 7, 2016): 4321–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2016gl068604.

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36

Debacker, T. N., A. Herbosch, J. Verniers, and M. Sintubin. "Faults in the Asquempont area, southern Brabant Massif, Belgium." Netherlands Journal of Geosciences - Geologie en Mijnbouw 83, no. 2 (June 2004): 49–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016774600020047.

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AbstractThe literature suggests that the Asquempont fault, a supposedly important reverse fault forming the limit between the Lower to lower Middle Cambrian and the Ordovician in the Sennette valley, is poorly understood. Nevertheless, this fault is commonly equated with a pronounced NW-SE-trending aeromagnetic lineament, the Asquempont lineament, and both the geometry of the Asquempont lineament and the supposed reverse movement of the Asquempont fault are used to develop large-scale tectonic models of the Brabant Massif. New outcrop observations in the Asquempont area, the “type locality” of the Asquempont fault, in combination with outcrop and borehole data from surrounding areas, show that the Asquempont fault is not an important reverse fault, but instead represents a pre-cleavage, low-angle extensional detachment. This detachment formed between the Caradoc and the timing of folding and cleavage development and is not related to the aeromagnetic Asquempont lineament. The Asquempont area also contains several relatively important, steep, post-cleavage normal faults. Apparently, these occur in a WNW-ESE-trending zone between Asquempont and Fauquez, extending westward over Quenast towards Bierghes. This zone coincides with the eastern part of the WNW-ESE-trending Nieuwpoort-Asquempont fault zone, for which, on the basis of indirect observations, previously a strike-slip movement has been proposed. Our outcrop observations question this presumed strike-slip movement. The Asquempont fault may be related to the progressive unroofing of the core of the Brabant Massif from the Silurian onwards. Possibly, other low-angle extensional detachments similar to the Asquempont fault occur in other parts of the massif. Possible candidates are the paraconformity-like contacts depicted on the most recent geological map of the Brabant Massif.

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37

Debacker, T. N., A. Herbosch, J. Verbiers, and M. Sintubin. "Faults in the Asquempont area, southern Brabant Massif, Belgium." Netherlands Journal of Geosciences - Geologie en Mijnbouw 83, no. 1 (March 2004): 49–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016774600020461.

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AbstractThe literature suggests that the Asquempont fault, a supposedly important reverse fault forming the limit between the Lower to lower Middle Cambrian and the Ordovician in the Sennette valley, is poorly understood. Nevertheless, this fault is commonly equated with a pronounced NW-SE-trending aeromagnetic lineament, the Asquempont lineament, and both the geometry of the Asquempont lineament and the supposed reverse movement of the Asquempont fault are used to develop large-scale tectonic models of the Brabant Massif. New outcrop observations in the Asquempont area, the “type locality” of the Asquempont fault, in combination with outcrop and borehole data from surrounding areas, show that the Asquempont fault is not an important reverse fault, but instead represents a pre-cleavage, low-angle extensional detachment. This detachment formed between the Caradoc and the timing of folding and cleavage development and is not related to the aeromagnetic Asquempont lineament. The Asquempont area also contains several relatively important, steep, post-cleavage normal faults. Apparently, these occur in a WNW-ESE-trending zone between Asquempont and Fauquez, extending westward over Quenast towards Bierghes. This zone coincides with the eastern part of the WNW-ESE-trending Nieuwpoort-Asquempont fault zone, for which, on the basis of indirect observations, previously a strike-slip movement has been proposed. Our outcrop observations question this presumed strike-slip movement. The Asquempont fault may be related to the progressive unroofing of the core of the Brabant Massif from the Silurian onwards. Possibly, other low-angle extensional detachments similar to the Asquempont fault occur in other parts of the massif. Possible candidates are the paraconformity-like contacts depicted on the most recent geological map of the Brabant Massif.

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Abbott, Robert E., John N. Louie, S. John Caskey, and Satish Pullammanappallil. "Geophysical confirmation of low-angle normal slip on the historically active Dixie Valley fault, Nevada." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 106, B3 (March 10, 2001): 4169–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000jb900385.

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39

Caricchi, Chiara, Luca Aldega, Massimiliano R. Barchi, Sveva Corrado, Domenico Grigo, Francesco Mirabella, and Massimiliano Zattin. "Exhumation patterns along shallow low-angle normal faults: an example from the Altotiberina active fault system (Northern Apennines, Italy)." Terra Nova 27, no. 4 (June 22, 2015): 312–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ter.12163.

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40

Haines, Samuel H., and Ben A. van der Pluijm. "Dating the detachment fault system of the Ruby Mountains, Nevada: Significance for the kinematics of low-angle normal faults." Tectonics 29, no. 4 (August 2010): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009tc002552.

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41

Smith, S. A. F., R. E. Holdsworth, C. Collettini, and M. A. Pearce. "The microstructural character and mechanical significance of fault rocks associated with a continental low-angle normal fault: the Zuccale Fault, Elba Island, Italy." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 359, no. 1 (2011): 97–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp359.6.

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42

Maffione, Marco, Stefano Pucci, Leonardo Sagnotti, and Fabio Speranza. "Magnetic fabric of Pleistocene continental clays from the hanging-wall of an active low-angle normal fault (Altotiberina Fault, Italy)." International Journal of Earth Sciences 101, no. 3 (August 21, 2011): 849–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00531-011-0704-9.

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43

Sibson, Richard H., and Guoyuan Xie. "Dip range for intracontinental reverse fault ruptures: Truth not stranger than friction?" Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 88, no. 4 (August 1, 1998): 1014–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0880041014.

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Abstract Histograms of fault dips have been compiled for moderate to large (M > 5.5) reverse-slip intracontinental earthquakes with the slip-vector raking 90 ± 30° in the fault plane. The principal data set is restricted to earthquakes where the fault plane in the focal mechanism can be unambiguously distinguished from the auxilliary plane; the reverse fault dips are bracketed within the range 12° < δ < 60° with a prominent peak in the 25° to 35° interval and a subsidiary peak in the 45° to 55° interval. Assuming horizontal trajectories for maximum compressive stress (σ1), the observed dip range is consistent with reactivation of faults possessing rock friction coefficients within Byerlee's (1978) range (0.85 > μs > 0.6), undergoing frictional lockup at dips approaching 60°. The broad 25° to 35° peak may arise from progressive domino steepening of imbricate reverse faults above the optimal dip for reactivation in regions undergoing bulk shortening. Paucity of very low-angle thrusts implies that it is generally the steeper ramps within ramp-flat assemblages that fail in moderate to large earthquakes. The subsidiary peak at 45° to 55° likely results from compressional reactivation of former normal faults in areas undergoing tectonic inversion, requiring some degree of fluid overpressuring. The results are consistent with previous studies on the dip range for active normal faults that again demonstrate frictional lockup at reactivation angles approaching 60°; together, these analyses suggest that “Byerlee” friction coefficients apply to faults with displacements of up to a few kilometers.

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44

Webber, S., T. A. Little, K. P. Norton, J. Österle, M. Mizera, D. Seward, and G. Holden. "Progressive back-warping of a rider block atop an actively exhuming, continental low-angle normal fault." Journal of Structural Geology 130 (January 2020): 103906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2019.103906.

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45

Steltenpohl, Mark G., David Moecher, Arild Andresen, Jacob Ball, Stephanie Mager, and Willis E. Hames. "The Eidsfjord shear zone, Lofoten–Vesterålen, north Norway: An Early Devonian, paleoseismogenic low-angle normal fault." Journal of Structural Geology 33, no. 5 (May 2011): 1023–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2011.01.017.

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46

Iglseder, Christoph, Bernhard Grasemann, A. Hugh N. Rice, Konstantin Petrakakis, and David A. Schneider. "Miocene south directed low-angle normal fault evolution on Kea Island (West Cycladic Detachment System, Greece)." Tectonics 30, no. 4 (August 2011): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010tc002802.

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47

Niemeijer, André R., and Cristiano Collettini. "Frictional Properties of a Low-Angle Normal Fault Under In Situ Conditions: Thermally-Activated Velocity Weakening." Pure and Applied Geophysics 171, no. 10 (December 15, 2013): 2641–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-013-0759-6.

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48

Prante, Mitchell R., James P. Evans, Susanne U. Janecke, and Alexander Steely. "Evidence for paleoseismic slip on a continental low-angle normal fault: Tectonic pseudotachylyte from the West Salton detachment fault, CA, USA." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 387 (February 2014): 170–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.10.048.

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49

Mahdi, Hayder A., Manal Sh Al-Kubaisi, and Samir Nouri Al-Jawad. "Structural Study of the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Sequence in Khabaz Oil Field, NE of Iraq." Iraqi Geological Journal 55, no. 1F (June 30, 2022): 70–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.46717/igj.55.1f.6ms-2022-06-21.

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Khabaz Oil Field is located in Kirkuk, about 20 Km southwest of Kirkuk City between Jambour and Bai Hassan oil fields. Tectonically, it is located on the Unstable Shelf within the Low Folded Zone (Zagros Fold Belt). Six wells in Khabaz oil field with two seismic lines (Line K8 and KK54) are used to conduct the geometric analysis, which include the description of fold and fault systems for the purpose of understanding the structural setting of Jeribe (Early Miocene) and Azkand (Late Oligocene) formations in this field. Khabaz structure is a double plunging positively inverted subsurface asymmetrical anticline influence the whole pre-Holocene sedimentary sequence. The interlimb angle of this structure ranges between 137º to 151º which is classified as a gentle anticline. The dip values of the axial surface range between 82 – 84º, so it can be classified as an upright fold with a general trend NW-SE. The core of the anticline is bounded by two high angle dipping reverse fault splay dipping toward each other. These faults pushed the core of the anticline upward with respect to the limbs of the structure. The Southwestern limb is affected by several high angle inverted faults that were possibly bifurcated from one or two major faults. The Northeastern limb is also influenced by a series of high angle reverse, some are dipping toward the core of the structure and few others are dipping toward the limbs. Some of these faults especially those influenced the southwestern limb of the anticline were inherited from the original normal faults that bounding the graben structure developed during the deposition of the Shiranish Formation. During the Late Plio-Plistocene contraction phase, the sense of slip on these faults were inverted and the faults migrated upward into the Tertiary sequence resulting in the formation of the positively inverted structure.

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Galanakis, Dimitrios, Sotiris Sboras, Garyfalia Konstantopoulou, and Markos Xenakis. "Neogene-Quaternary tectonic regime and macroseismic observations in the Tyrnavos-Elassona broader epicentral area of the March 2021, intense earthquake sequence." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 58 (September 24, 2021): 200. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.27196.

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On March 3, 2021, a strong (Mw6.3) earthquake occurred near the towns of Tyrnavos and Elassona. One day later (March 4), a second strong (Mw6.0) earthquake occurred just a few kilometres toward the WNW. The aftershock spatial distribution and the focal mechanisms revealed NW-SE-striking normal faulting. The focal mechanisms also revealed a NE-SW oriented extensional stress field, different from the orientation we knew so far (ca. N-S). The magnitude and location of the two strongest shocks, and the spatiotemporal evolution of the sequence, strongly suggest that two adjacent fault segments were ruptured respectively. The sequence was followed by several coseismic ground deformational phenomena, such as landslides/rockfalls, liquefaction and ruptures. The landslides and rockfalls were mostly associated with the ground shaking. The ruptures were observed west of the Titarissios River, near to the Quaternary faults found by bore-hole lignite investigation. In the same direction, a fault scarp separating the alpidic basement from the alluvial deposits of the Titarissios valley implies the occurrence of a well-developed fault system. Some of the ground ruptures were accompanied by extensive liquefaction phenomena. Others cross-cut reinforced concrete irrigation channels without changing their direction. We suggest that this fault system was partially reactivated, as a secondary surface rupture, during the sequence as a steeper splay of a deeper low-to-moderate angle normal fault.

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