Academic literature on the topic 'Load spectra'

Helicopter load histories applied to notched metal samples are taken as examples, and their fatigue lives are predicted by using a simplified version of the local strain approach. This simplified method requires an input load history in the form of the rain-flow matrix and places bounds on the fatigue life. A peak-valley reconstructed history is generated based on the standard spectrum Helix. A second history studied is a more irregular one based on actual flight data. lt is used to generate three reconstructed histories based on three principles: peak-valley, to-from, and rain-flow. Emphasis is given to the rain-flow reconstruction method, and different reconstruction methods based on rain-flow cycle counting are presented. Life predictions are presented for all of the above cases, and the comparison with test data and other considerations suggest that the most promising reconstruction approach is one based on rain-flow cycle counting. Finally, a method is presented which reconstructs a history with the same rain-flow cycles and also the same distribution of relative time increments between adjacent peaks and valleys. This reconstructed history gives the same fatigue life as the original history.<br>Ph. D.

An extensive research program was performed to investigate the load interaction effect of the combined action of small amplitude high R ratio cycles and large amplitude low R ratio underloads on the crack growth of large cracks. The study was driven by the needs of the damage tolerance approach in the helicopter structures, which requires robust knowledge on the crack growth behaviour of the advance high strength alloys under the characteristic helicopter spectra loading. The study was conducted on three metallic alloys, Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al, Al8090 T852 and Al7010 T76351 using compact tension specimens (w=70mm, t=17mm). The potential drop technique was used for the measurements of the crack length. The crack opening loads were determined from the applied load versus crack opening mouth displacement curve using a curve fitting technique and crack opening displacement gauge. The experimental results show that cracks can grow faster than the life predictions with no load interaction effects under spectra containing tensile underloads. The acceleration effects are different depending on the number of the small cycles, the Kmax, the R ratio of the small cycles, the underload cycle and the material. Significant closure observations on the underloads and on the small cycles of variable amplitude loading spectra were made. Based on the test finding and on the studies of other researchers, it is suggested that the acceleration effects are mainly due to the reduction of crack opening point of the tensile underloads comparing with the Constant Amplitude Loading (CAL) data. An extensive evaluation of the ability of FASTRAN model to predict the fatigue lives under the tested loading spectra was carried out. The evaluation focuses on the influence of the constraint factor a and the ∆Keff curve inputs on the predictions. The model produces very good and consistent predictions for the three alloys, when the inputs represent adequately the actual fatigue mechanism. The model predicts the measured acceleration effects by reducing the closure level of the underloads.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--State University of New York at Binghamton, Thomas J. Watson School of Engineering and Applied Science, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 2009.<br>Includes bibliographical references.

Vehicle over loading, or single axle over loading, is one of the major causes of pavement deterioration. Trafik Verket (TV), the Swedish Transport Administration, recognized that the current process for estimating traffic volume should be reevaluated, and if possible improved. This degree project uses data from the Bridge Weigh in Motion (BWIM) system to study the actual loads applied to Swedish highways. The axle load spectrum is plotted with the conventional frequency distribution plots, and with a new cumulative distribution approach. The paper introduces the maximum allowable potential vehicle weight MAPVW concept, and uses this visual technique to identify overloads for different vehicle geometries. The paper concludes that for 5 and 6 axle trucks the triple axle is frequently overloaded, while for longer trucks one of the dual axles is often over loaded. The highest over loads tend to be on the driving axle, suggesting incorrect loading procedures.

A caracterização das cargas do tráfego é de grande importância para o dimensionamento de pavimentos, bem como para a quantificação do desempenho para fins de gerência de pavimentos. A utilização de abordagens empíricas para determinar os efeitos das cargas do tráfego nas estruturas de pavimentos, datadas dos anos 1960, apresentam sérias limitações, pois seus resultados são válidos somente para os mesmos, ou muito similares, fatores intervenientes que prevaleciam quando do seu desenvolvimento. Os fatores relativos às solicitações do tráfego e às características dos veículos (tipo de eixo, tipo de rodagem, pressão de enchimento dos pneus e tipo de suspensão) são bem diferentes, atualmente, daquelas existentes há 50 anos. Tendo em vista que os modelos de desempenho são importantes ferramentas dos sistemas de gerência de pavimentos (SGP) para prever a evolução da condição ao longo do tempo e/ou tráfego acumulado e, portanto, dependentes de uma consistente caracterização do tráfego, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi analisar os efeitos da caracterização do tráfego sobre o desempenho dos pavimentos, a partir da geração de modelos estatísticos baseados no conceito proposto pelo método da AASHTO 2002, de espectros de carga por eixo dos veículos comerciais de carga, comparando-os com o conceito de equivalência de carga, desenvolvido a partir do AASHO Road Test na década de 1950. Dados de pesagens realizadas no ano de 2008 no Posto de Pesagem de Veículos da SP-160 Rodovia dos Imigrantes, km 28, pista Sul, foram utilizados para o desenvolvimento dos espectros de carga e posterior modelagem. Testes estatísticos e práticos foram realizados para determinar a variabilidade mensal dos Fatores de Veículos (FV) em relação ao valor médio do ano de 2008. Apesar da análise estatística com a aplicação do teste Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) ter apresentado diferenças significativas entre os espectros mensais e anuais, a variação observada nos fatores de tráfego não resultou em diferenças práticas na espessura final do pavimento. Os modelos estatísticos foram desenvolvidos separadamente para cada classe de veículo e de eixos que o compunha, tendo sido usadas distribuições de probabilidade Log-normal e Weibull para modelar os espectros de carga. Os parâmetros dos modelos foram obtidos através do método dos mínimos quadrados, complementado com a realização de testes K-S e Qui-quadrado, destacando-se a obtenção de coeficientes de determinação (R2) superiores a 0,90. A comparação entre os resultados previstos pelos modelos e os dados originais, feita tanto pela abordagem empírica como empírico-mecanística, com uso dos programas computacionais ELSYM5 e MEPDG, evidencia o modelo Weibull como o mais indicado para aplicação em rodovias brasileiras com características de tráfego semelhantes às da Rodovia dos Imigrantes.<br>The characterization of traffic loads is of great importance for pavement design, as well as for the measurement of performance in a pavement management system. The use of empirical approaches to determine the effects of traffic load on pavement structures, dating from the 1960\'s, presents serious limitations, since its results are just valid for the same or very similar intervening factors that prevailed at the time of its development. The traffic load factors and vehicle characteristics (axle type, tire type, tire inflation pressure, and suspension type) are quite different today from those existing 50 years ago. Given that the performance models are important tools of pavement management systems (PMS) to predict the evolution of pavement condition over time and/or accumulated traffic and therefore dependent on a consistent characterization of the traffic, the objective of this research was to analyze the effects of traffic characteristics on pavement performance through the generation of statistical models based on the concept proposed by the AASHTO 2002 method, axle load spectra of commercial vehicles, comparing them with the concept of load equivalence factor, developed through the AASHO Road Test in the 1950s. Data collected in 2008 in a weighing station located on Immigrant Highway - SP-160, km 28, southern runway, were used for the development of load spectra and subsequent modeling. Practical and statistical tests were performed to determine the variability of monthly vehicle-factors (FV) to the mean value for the year 2008. Despite the statistical analysis, performed by applying the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test, have shown significant differences between the monthly and annual spectra variation, there were not practical differences in the final thickness of the pavement associated to changes in vehicle-factors. Statistical models were developed for each vehicle class and for its axles, having been used Log-normal and Weibull probability distributions to model the load spectra. The model parameters were obtained from the method of least squares, complemented by the KS and chi-square tests, being important to mention that the coefficients of determination (R2) were greater than 0.90. The comparison between the results predicted by the models and the original data, made either by empirical and empiricalmechanistic approaches, with use of computer programs ELSYM5 and MEPDG, shows that the Weibull model is the most suitable for application in Brazilian highways with similar traffic characteristics to the Immigrants Highway.

Cette thèse est consacrée à l'analyse de fatigue et de tolérance aux dommages des structures d'avions soumis aux rafales de vent. L'analyse de fatigue et de tolérance aux dommages est un enjeu essentiel dans la conception des structures d'avions. Elle permet de définir un programme d'inspection de la structure afin d'assurer sa sécurité tout au long de la vie de l'avion. La première partie passe en revue l'état de l'art dans les différents domaines impliqués dans le processus global d'analyse de fatigue des structures d'avions soumis aux rafales de vent: la modélisation de la turbulence atmosphérique, le calcul des charges et des contraintes à l'aide d'analyses par éléments finis, la construction du spectre de fatigue et enfin, l'analyse de fatigue et de tolérance aux dommages. La deuxième partie présente le processus complet actuellement implémenté au sein d'Airbus. Les points forts et les points faibles de ce processus sont d'identifiés et permettent de dégager des axes d'amélioration. A partir du modèle de turbulence continue basé sur la densité spectrale de puissance (DSP) de Von Karman, les contraintes calculées sont insérées selon des statistiques établies par des mesures envol dans le spectre de fatigue pour former une séquence de cycles de contraintes. Les données d'entrée pour l'analyse de fatigue et tolérance aux dommages sont obtenues à partir de la définition des différents profils de mission, des valeurs de contraintes unitaires, de la réponse dynamique de la structure et des statistiques de turbulence. Dans la troisième partie, une nouvelle méthodologie est présentée afin d'obtenir des séquences temporelles des contraintes dues à la turbulence de manière précise et efficace. Cette méthode s'appuie sur de nouveaux résultats permettant de générer des signaux temporels corrélés à partir des DSP. Tout d'abord, les DSP des différentes composantes des contraintes sont directement obtenues à l'aide d'une analyse par éléments finis à partir de la DSP de Von Karman. Puis, les séquences temporelles corrélées de ces contraintes sont générées et sont ensuite distribuées dans le spectre de fatigue selon la loi statistique de l'intensité de la turbulence atmosphérique. Ce nouveau processus permet d'améliorer le calcul des contraintes et la génération du spectre de fatigue. Il remplace les statistiques de turbulence par des statistiques de franchissement de niveaux de contraintes raisonnablement conservatives définies par une formule analytique. De plus, le temps de livraison des données d'entrée pour l'analyse de fatigue et tolérance aux dommages est significativement réduit. Les résultats présentés, issus de l'analyse de fatigue et de tolérance aux dommages, permettent de souligner la qualité des améliorations apportées à la fois en termes de précision et de durée du processus<br>This thesis is dedicated to the fatigue and damage tolerance analysis of the aircraft structures under gust loads. The fatigue and damage tolerance analysis is a significant issue in the aircraft structure design. It aims at defining the inspection program of the aircraft structure in order to ensure its safety through its entire life. The first part reviews the state-of-the-art in the various involved topics for the global process for fatigue analysis of aircraft structure under gust loads: the atmospheric turbulence modelling, the load and stress computation by a finite element analysis, the generation of the fatigue spectrum and at the end, the fatigue and damage tolerance analysis. The second part presents the whole process currently implemented at Airbus. The main strengths and weaknesses are pointed out and this en-ables the identification of several improvement axes. From the continuous turbulence model based on the Von Karman Power Spectral Density(PSD), the computed stresses are included according to statistics established from in-flight measurements in the fatigue spectrum in order to build a stress cycle sequence. The input data for the fatigue and damage tolerance analysis are obtained from the definition of the various fatigue mission profiles, the unitary stress values, the dynamic response of the structure and the turbulence statistics. In the third part,a new methodology is presented in order to obtaine efficiently and accurately the temporal stress sequences due to the atmospheric turbulence. This method relies on new results enabling the generation of correlated time signals from the PSD functions. First, the PSD of the various stress components are directly obtained from the Von Karman PSD via a finite element analysis. Then, the correlated temporal stress sequences are generated and distributed in the fatigue spectrum according to the turbulence intensity statistical law. This new process enables the improvement of the stress computation and the fatigue spectrum generation. It replaces the turbulence statistics by stress exceedance statistics which are defined by an analytical formula in a reasonably conservative way. In addition, the lead time to build the input data for the fatigue and damage tolerance analysis is significantly reduced. Results from the fatigue and damage tolerance analysis are presented in order to highlight the quality of the improved processes both in terms of accuracy and lead time