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Journal articles on the topic 'Load factor design'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 28 July 2024

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1

Poutanen, Tuomo. "Combination of Variable Loads in Structural Design." Applied Sciences 14, no. 15 (July 24, 2024): 6466. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14156466.

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This study delves into the intricacies of variable load combination factors (ψ) within structural codes under fundamental design scenarios, with Eurocodes serving as the primary reference. Currently, variable loads are combined by adding one load, the leading load with its full value, and the other load, the accompanying load, with a reduced value multiplied by a combination factor ψ. This approach employs an independent load combination methodology, utilizing hypothetical reference materials. In contrast, this paper advocates for a shift towards dependent load combination, anchored in the use of actual reference materials. Specifically, it is proposed that imposed loads be combined without the combination factor, i.e., ψ = 1. Given that combination factors are in approximate unity or pertain to infrequent load cases, this research recommends the elimination of ψ from codes altogether. This recommendation stems from the recognition that the current combination factor calculation excels in cases with approximately equal loads with a significant reliability gain, while more frequent unequal loads introduce a minor reliability gain and harmful unsafe errors. Despite the overall minor safety advantage of about 2–3% being negligible considering unavoidable safe errors of about 7% in codes, this simplification significantly reduces code complexity, enhances user-friendliness, and substantially decreases the workload associated with design processes.
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2

Chen, Wai‐Fah, and Suiping Zhou. "Cm Factor in Load and Resistance Factor Design." Journal of Structural Engineering 113, no. 8 (August 1987): 1738–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9445(1987)113:8(1738).

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3

Wahba, Yohanna M. F., Murty K. S. Madugula, and Gerard R. Monforton. "Limit states design of antenna towers." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 21, no. 6 (December 1, 1994): 913–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l94-097.

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The Canadian Standard CAN/CSA-S37-M86 “Antennas, towers and antenna supporting structures” follows a quasi-limit states approach in which the member forces determined for specified loads are multiplied by a unified factor and compared with factored resistances given in CAN3-S16.1-M84. This results in designs basically the same as those resulting from a working stress design with a factor of safety of 5/3. Such structures exhibit a non-linear structural behaviour even under service loads. Thus the effect of ice accretion and direct interaction between wind and ice does not permit the load factors specified in CAN/CSA-S16.1-M89 “Limit states design of steel structures” to be directly applied to antenna supporting structures.In this study, 41 different towers (representing various heights and designed for different ice classes and wind pressures) were analyzed under specified loads and then under a set of factored loads. From the comparison of the design forces in the towers with those calculated according to the existing standard, a set of partial load factors was derived. The new load factors to be used in the 1993 edition of S37 are presented and justified. Key words: antenna towers, guyed towers, ice and wind loads, limit states design, self-supporting towers, working stress design.
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4

Bakht, Baidar, and Leslie G. Jaeger. "Load sharing factors in timber bridge design." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 18, no. 2 (April 1, 1991): 312–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l91-036.

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It is well recognized that the structural capabilities of timber that are relevant to structural design vary not only because of natural variations in the material properties of the timber but also, randomly, as a consequence of several aspects of the structure itself and the loading. These factors are accounted for in the design process through the modification factors applied to the calculated resistance of the various components. One of these factors is the load sharing factor, which is intended to account for the enhanced strength of an assembly of components which results from the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of low strength in more than one component of the grouping. All the modification factors, including the load sharing factor, are usually derived by ignoring the fact that the two sides of the design equation, representing load effects and resistances respectively, may be interrelated. Despite its significance, the load sharing factor has been specified in design codes as a result of only cursory investigations, which have not rigorously considered the mechanics of behaviour of the assembly of timber components. The results of an analytical study are presented in this paper; the load sharing factor is developed by considering the interaction between the two sides of the design equation and also by explicitly taking account of the mechanics of behaviour of groups of timber components. It is shown that the load sharing factor can be conservatively presented as a relatively simple function of the number of timber components that can be assumed to be subjected to the same deformation as one another. Key words: factored resistance, design equation, load sharing, modification factor, modulus of rupture, strength variability, timber bridges.
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5

Hong, H. P., M. A. Nessim, and I. J. Jordaan. "Environmental Load Factors for Offshore Structures." Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering 121, no. 4 (November 1, 1999): 261–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2829577.

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An analysis of the impact of model uncertainties on the design factors for environmental loads on offshore structures was carried out. Considering uncertainties in environmental processes, the load effect models and the member resistance, an approach was developed that gives explicit consideration to model uncertainty in codified design. For frequent environmental load effects, a two-factor approach was developed that defines the overall load factor as the product of two components: a basic factor accounting for uncertainty in the environmental process and a separate factor accounting for model uncertainty. The overall load factor is to be applied to the specified load, which is defined as the load corresponding to the environmental process value associated with a specified return period. This load can be calculated from the environmental process without considering model uncertainty. The model uncertainty factor was defined as a linear function of the mean and the standard deviation of the model uncertainty parameter. It can be estimated based on a specific model and reliability analysis. This two-factor approach has two advantages: (a) it allows for reductions in the load factor if conservative or more accurate models are used; and (b) it eliminates the need for the designer to consider model uncertainty in estimating the specified load. The approach was used to develop a set of load factors for environmental loads on offshore structures. These factors were calibrated to produce reliability levels consistent with those implied by the load factors in CSA-S471.
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6

Scott, B., B. J. Kim, and R. Salgado. "Assessment of Current Load Factors for Use in Geotechnical Load and Resistance Factor Design." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 129, no. 4 (April 2003): 287–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2003)129:4(287).

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7

Kuo, Ching L., Michael C. McVay, and Bjorn Birgisson. "Calibration of Load and Resistance Factor Design: Resistance Factors for Drilled Shaft Design." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1808, no. 1 (January 2002): 108–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1808-12.

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8

Perelmuter, Anatoly V. "CRANE LOAD STATISTICAL MODELLING AND DESIGN COMBINATIONS OF THE INTERNAL FORCES." International Journal for Computational Civil and Structural Engineering 13, no. 2 (June 30, 2017): 136–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.22337/2587-9618-2017-13-2-136-144.

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Attention has been paid to the fact that design load case combinations and design combinations of the internal forces caused by these loads have got a different probability of implementation. This fact has been is illustrated by the example of the crane loads, where the traditional calculation does not take into account such random factors as position of the crane bridge and position of the trolley on the crane bridge. Analysis has been performed using statistical modelling. Results of the modelling has been also presented. It has been suggested that there is a specific way to include load combination factors into the calculation formulas by which inclusion of temporary load in a design load case combination should be performed with combinational value of the loadcombination factor decreased when including each new temporary load.
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9

SAKAMOTO, JUN, YOSHIRO KOHAMA, and YASUHIRO MORI. "EARTHQUAKE LOAD MODELS FOR USE IN LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN." Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering (Transactions of AIJ) 353 (1985): 37–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aijsx.353.0_37.

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10

Fenton, Gordon A., D. V. Griffiths, and Olaide O. Ojomo. "Consequence factors in the ultimate limit state design of shallow foundations." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 48, no. 2 (February 2011): 265–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/t10-053.

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The reliability-based design of shallow foundations is generally implemented via a load and resistance factor design methodology embedded in a limit state design framework. For any particular limit state, the design proceeds by ensuring that the factored resistance equals or exceeds the factored load effects. Load and resistance factors are determined to ensure that the resulting design is sufficiently safe. Load factors are typically prescribed in structural codes and take into account load uncertainty. Factors applied to resistance depend on both uncertainty in the resistance (accounted for by a resistance factor) and desired target reliability (accounted for by a newly introduced consequence factor). This paper concentrates on how the consequence factor can be defined and specified to adjust the target reliability of a shallow foundation designed to resist bearing capacity failure.
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11

Tobias, Daniel H. "Perspectives on AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design." Journal of Bridge Engineering 16, no. 6 (November 2011): 684–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)be.1943-5592.0000286.

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12

Anand, S. C. "Load and resistance factor design of steel structures." Engineering Structures 19, no. 4 (April 1997): 332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0141-0296(97)83357-3.

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13

Goble, George G. "Load and Resistance Factor Design of Driven Piles." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1546, no. 1 (January 1996): 88–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198196154600110.

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A load and resistance factor design (LRFD) bridge specification has been accepted by the AASHTO Bridge Committee. This design approach is now being implemented for highway bridges in the United States, including the design of driven pile foundations. To test the new specification's practicality and usefulness, an example problem has been solved using it. In the example, a pipe pile was designed to be driven into a granular soil to support a bridge column subjected to a factored axial compression load of 10 MN. The nominal strength selected for the pile was 1.58 MN with an estimated length of 25 m. Since the resistance factors are defined by the specified quality control procedures, the number of piles required in the foundation also depends on the quality control. In this example, the number of piles required varied from 15 to 8 with improved quality control, for a savings of almost half of the piles. This example indicated that the new AASHTO LRFD specification for driven pile design can be used effectively to produce a more rationally designed foundation. Some modifications should be made to include additional serviceability limit states, and additional research may indicate that changes should be made in some of the resistance factors.
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14

Lundberg, Jane E., and Theodore V. Galambos. "Load and resistance factor design of composite columns." Structural Safety 18, no. 2-3 (January 1996): 169–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-4730(96)00009-4.

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15

Qin, Jian Rong, and Jia Cun Wang. "Electrical Load Management Tool Design." Applied Mechanics and Materials 380-384 (August 2013): 3332–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.380-384.3332.

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The purpose of electrical load management in a manufacturing plant is to change the load profile in order to gain from reduced total system peak load and increased power factor. One of the widely taken approaches is to optimize the schedule of electrical equipment operation hours to take advantage of incentives and favorable pricing offered by utilities. In this paper, we present our work in designing and developing a web based tool for manufacturing plants to find out an optimal operation schedule of equipment so as to reduce energy cost. The tool allows users to configure their load by specifying electrical devices and their various parameters. Then the online system will assess power consumption over a certain time period, as well as peak power demand and power factor of the defined load.
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16

Ananda, Dhea Nuni, Rizal Hanifi, and Aa Santosa. "Perancangan dan Analisis Tegangan pada Desain Footrest Sepeda Motor Menggunakan Autodesk Inventor." Jurnal Teknik Mesin 14, no. 1 (March 3, 2021): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.30630/jtm.14.1.479.

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Motorbikes are widely chosen by the public as a mode of transportation in modern times, one of which is the automatic scooter type motorcycle. Visually, the matic scooter type motorcycle components have a nice and attractive shape, but this shape does not necessarily guarantee its safety. Not a few of these components have failed (broken) as happened to the footrest. Footrest is a component of a motorcycle vehicle that functions as a footrest for motorcycle passengers. Every different type of motorbike, the footrest shape is also different. The purpose of this study is to design a footrest design and analyze it with the help of software to obtain a footrest design that has a high safety factor value. The design of the motorcycle footrest design produces 3 different designs. The three designs were analyzed using the Autodesk Inventor 2017 software stress by providing a static load of 20 Kg and 90 Kg. From the analysis, the minimum safety factor value obtained from each footrest design against a load of 20 kg in design 1 is 13.42, design 2 is 5.7, and design 3 is 7.93. While the minimum safety factor value generated from each footrest design against a load of 90 kg in design 1 is 2.98, design 2 is 1.27, and design 3 is 1.76. Based on the results of the safety factor analysis carried out, the three designs are safe enough to withstand loads of 20 Kg and 90 Kg. But design 1 is safer because the resulting value of the safety factor is higher than the three designs, which is 2.98 to withstand a load of 90 Kg.
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17

Sadeghi, J. M. "Experimental evaluation of accuracy of current practices in analysis and design of railway track sleepers." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 35, no. 9 (September 2008): 881–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l08-026.

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This research investigates the accuracy of the assumptions made in the current method of analysis and design of railway track sleepers. This study consists of a comprehensive field investigation into the response of sleepers in a railway track system to static and dynamic loads. In the experiments, several load cells (load gauges) are installed under a rail seat and beneath a B70 concrete sleeper for the purpose of monitoring the response of the sleeper to vertical loads. The dynamic coefficients factor, the ratio of the rail seat load to the wheel load and the pressures between the sleeper and the ballast are measured. The results are used to evaluate the current approaches for the analysis and design of concrete sleepers, in particular those proposed by the Americans (AREMA) and Europeans (UIC). New models are proposed for the calculation of dynamic load factors, correlations between wheel loads and rail seat loads, and load distribution patterns beneath sleepers.
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18

Sivakumar, Bala, Michel Ghosn, and Fred Moses. "Adjustment of Load and Resistance Factor Design Live Load Factors Using Recent Weigh-in-Motion Data." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2200, no. 1 (January 2010): 90–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2200-11.

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19

Cheng, Kaikai, Jitao Yao, Gao Lv, Naifei Liu, and Yuwei Zhang. "Research on Reliability of Structural Members Subjected to Snow or Wind Load for Design Working Life of 100 Years in China." Sustainability 14, no. 3 (February 8, 2022): 1921. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14031921.

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Various national and international standards for building structures and other common structures specify a design working life of 50 years. Therefore, the statistical parameters of loads and the design expressions in current design codes are also based on a design reference period of 50 years. When the design working life is not 50 years, the variable load adjustment factor for the design working life needs to be considered. The corresponding load adjustment factors of office building live load, residential live load, snow load, and wind load are given in (GB50153-2008), (GB50009-2012), and (GB50068-2018) with different design working life (5, 10, 20, 30, 75 and 100 years), respectively. However, the recommended values presented in these documents are inconsistent and no provisions are found in those specifications for the selection of load design parameters in the design expression, which will result in designers having doubts in choosing design parameters, especially for building structures designed for a working life of 100 years. Using different design parameters in the design expression, the implied reliability level of the members with a design working life of 100 years was clarified in the paper. Furthermore, guidance for the specification in actual design is provided. For structural members designed for working life of 100 years, 14 representative structural members were selected to calculate their partial factors of resistance. Considering two simple combinations (dead load and wind load, dead load and snow load) and common load effect ratios, the reliability analysis of each member are carried out according to the load partial factors in China’s old and new codes. The study indicated that the structural importance coefficient of 1.1 needs to be taken in the design expression to increase all the load effects on the structural members designed for 100 years. The basic wind pressure and snow pressure should be taken with a return period of 100 years and the variable load adjustment factor for the design working life should not be considered.
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20

Umar, Ahmad Khoirudin, and Marie Beth Tri. "Design of a power factor repair tool for UKM." E3S Web of Conferences 517 (2024): 09002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202451709002.

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The home industry has an important role in improving the community's economy. Energy needs also increase, with this the existing load on the home industry becomes more varied, especially inductive loads that cause a decrease in power factor, this needs to be overcome by improving the power factor by adding a compensator to the network. Because production on a home industry scale is not as continuous in large industries, a power factor improvement tool is needed that works automatically. This study aims to design a power factor improvement tool that works automatically to improve the power factor in the home industry, where the tool works according to network requirements. The Arduino micro controller is used as an automatic controller in the design of this power factor improvement tool, with input using a voltage sensor and a current sensor SCT-013, which is then processed by Arduino to get the power factor value and control the relay to adjust the capacitor requirements to compensate for the inductive load on the network. The results of this study are that the power factor in the household industry can be improved to more than 0.9, the power used in the network is more effective and is absorbed by the load more effectively and the reactive power in the network becomes small or even non- existent.
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21

Sun, De Fa. "Estimation of Dynamic Wind Pressure for Multi-Span Greenhouse Structural Design." Advanced Materials Research 446-449 (January 2012): 878–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.446-449.878.

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Based on the contrast analysis of loads provided in foreign and China standards, analysis and discussion are mentioned about the definition and estimation of dynamic wind pressures for multi-span greenhouse structural design in details. Meanwhile, taking advantage of past experience in greenhouse structural design a practical method which can be used in greenhouse design was given for wind loads. Under the present conditions, it is relative safety in calculation wind loads according to Load code for the design of building structures (GB 50009-2001), yet it is unnecessary to make modification of statistical reappearing factor in calculation wind load-dynamic pressure when considering the coefficients of wind pressure depending on height and the gust factor according to Greenhouse structure design load (GB/T 18622-2002).
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22

Cornwell, R. E. "Computation of load factors in bolted connections." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 223, no. 4 (December 11, 2008): 795–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/09544062jmes1108.

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An accurate computation of the joint load factors is critical for the safe design of bolted connections. This study provides a four-step procedure for the direct computation of the joint load factors for a variety of bolt diameters, joint thicknesses, individual plate thicknesses, and plate material combinations. The finite element method was used to calculate the bolt and plate deformations necessary to directly compute the load factor for 4424 unique combinations of the four joint design parameters. The procedure developed in this study provides accurate estimates of the joint load factor over the entire range of the four joint design parameters. All 4424 joint designs originally analysed with the finite element method were recomputed using the proposed procedure. The root mean square error was found to be 0.58 per cent with a correlation coefficient between the load factors computed by using the original finite element analyses and the proposed procedure to be 0.9998.
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23

Hazrina, Fadhillah, Inu Yuni Erawati, Galih Mustiko Aji, and Devi Taufiq Nurrohman. "Design of Power Factor Monitoring System Based on Android Application." Andalas Journal of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology 3, no. 2 (November 26, 2023): 64–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.25077/ajeeet.v3i2.62.

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Electrical energy is an essential resource for human needs. The prolific utilization of electrical devices accounts for high energy consumption patterns. Resistive and inductive loads characterize conventional electrical equipment. In practice, the properties of electrical loads impact energy demand and system efficiency. Thus, power factor correction presents a viable strategy to improve electrical energy efficiency. This research aims to develop an Internet of Things-integrated power factor monitoring system. When connected to Wi-Fi, the system employs a PZEM-004T sensor to monitor current, voltage, power, and power factor measurements from the load in the absence of active monitoring. The ESP32 microcontroller processes the sensor data. Then, control programs running on the microcontroller instruct a relay to engage capacitive banks accordingly. The system displays output metrics on a Liquid Crystal Display and Android application. Experimental results indicate that a single-phase electric motor operates at a baseline power factor of 0.31. However, integration of the factor correction tool detailed herein improves the power factor to 0.98 for the given load.
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24

Sivakumar Babu, G. L., and Vikas Pratap Singh. "Reliability-based load and resistance factors for soil-nail walls." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 48, no. 6 (June 2011): 915–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/t11-005.

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Existing soil nailing design methodologies are essentially based on limit equilibrium principles that together with a lumped factor of safety or a set of partial factors on the material parameters and loads account for uncertainties in design input parameter values. Recent trends in the development of design procedures for earth retaining structures are towards load and resistance factor design (LRFD). In the present study, a methodology for the use of LRFD in the context of soil-nail walls is proposed and a procedure to determine reliability-based load and resistance factors is illustrated for important strength limit states with reference to a 10 m high soil-nail wall. The need for separate partial factors for each limit state is highlighted, and the proposed factors are compared with those existing in the literature.
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25

Simon, Christof Geraldi, Formanto Paliling, Risa Lasarus, Lery Alfriany Salo, Frans Robert Bethony, and Simon Ka’ka. "Design of Experiments (Doe) on Suspension Test Equipment of One Part Of A Vehicle Wheel Using The Taguchi Method." INTEK: Jurnal Penelitian 10, no. 2 (October 1, 2023): 106. http://dx.doi.org/10.31963/intek.v10i2.4581.

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Suspension is the most important thing that must be taken into account because it greatly affects driving comfort on the road. The working mechanism of the suspension consisting of spiral springs and shock absorbers is loaded vertically from the weight of the body, driver, and passengers. The uneven shape of the road surface in the form of potholes or bumps will greatly affect the comfort of the driver. This study aims to determine the effect of suspension work and the optimal value of vibration that occurs on one of the wheels of the vehicle against vertical dynamic loads. The method used in this study uses the Taguchi method which is used to determine the optimum dynamic load conditions against vibration in the suspension system.  The characteristics used in this method are "Smaller is better". Several variables such as bump height, tire pressure on the wheels, as well as vehicle body weight and passenger weight are necessary factors to calculate optimal dynamic load conditions against vibration in the suspension. Based on the results of the optimum value conditions obtained, namely the height of the mound of 5 cm, tire pressure of 32 Psi, load of 84 kg, and dynamic load of 71 kg. From the results of the contribution rate to the ANOVA obtained, factor A (bump height) and factor D (dynamic load) are significant factors while factor B (tire pressure) and factor C (load load) are insignificant factors. Under optimal conditions, there was a decrease in suspension vibration value by 49.65%.
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Fenton, Gordon A., D. V. Griffiths, and Xianyue Zhang. "Load and resistance factor design of shallow foundations against bearing failure." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 45, no. 11 (November 2008): 1556–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/t08-061.

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Shallow foundation designs are typically governed either by settlement, a serviceability limit state, or by bearing capacity, an ultimate limit state. While geotechnical engineers have been designing against these limit states for over half a century, it is only recently that they have begun to migrate towards reliability-based designs. At the moment, reliability-based design codes are generally derived through calibration with traditional working stress designs. To take advantage of the full potential of reliability-based design the profession must go beyond calibration and take geotechnical uncertainties into account in a rational fashion. This paper proposes a load and resistance factor design (LRFD) approach for the bearing capacity design of a strip footing, using load factors as specified by structural codes. The resistance factors required to achieve an acceptable failure probability are estimated as a function of the spatial variability of the soil and by the level of “understanding” of the soil properties in the vicinity of the foundation. The analytical results, validated by simulation, are primarily intended to aid in the development of the next generation of reliability-based geotechnical design codes, but can also be used to assess the reliability of current designs.
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27

Yoon, Sungmin, Ching Tsai, and James Matt Melton. "Pile Load Test and Implementation of Specifications of Load and Resistance Factor Design." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2212, no. 1 (January 2011): 23–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2212-03.

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28

Haldar, Sumanta, and G. L. Sivakumar Babu. "Load Resistance Factor Design of Axially Loaded Pile Based on Load Test Results." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 134, no. 8 (August 2008): 1106–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2008)134:8(1106).

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29

Tobias, Daniel H., Ralph E. Anderson, Salah Y. Khayyat, Zeyn B. Uzman, and Kevin L. Riechers. "Simplified AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design Girder Live Load Distribution in Illinois." Journal of Bridge Engineering 9, no. 6 (November 2004): 606–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1084-0702(2004)9:6(606).

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30

Nowak, Andrzej S., and Hid N. Grouni. "Calibration of the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code 1991 edition." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 21, no. 1 (February 1, 1994): 25–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l94-003.

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The paper describes the calculation of load and resistance factors for the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC) 1991 edition. The work involved the development of load and resistance models, the selection of the reliability analysis method, and the calculation of the reliability indices. The statistical models for load and resistance are reviewed. The considered load components include dead load, live load, and dynamic load. Resistance models are developed for girder bridges (steel, reinforced concrete, and prestressed concrete). A reliability analysis is performed for selected representative structures. Reliability indices are calculated using an iterative procedure. The calculations are performed for bridge girders designed using OHBDC 1983 edition. The resulting reliability indices are between 3 and 4 for steel girders and reinforced concrete T-beams, and between 3.5 and 5 for prestressed concrete girders. Lower values are observed for shorter spans (up to 30–40 m). The acceptance criterion in the selection of load and resistance factors is closeness to the target reliability level. The analysis confirmed the need to increase the design live load for shorter spans. Partial resistance factors are considered for steel and concrete. The criteria for the evaluation of existing bridges are based on the reliability analysis and economic considerations. Key words: bridge code, calibration, load factor, resistance factor, reliability index.
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31

MACHIDA, Hideo, Junichi HAKII, and Yoshiaki TAKAHASHI. "341 Study on Partial Safety Factor Using Load and Resistance Factor Design." Proceedings of the Materials and Mechanics Conference 2007 (2007): 232–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemm.2007.232.

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32

Zayati, Foued, Ahmed M. M. Ibrahim, and Susan Hida. "Load and Resistance Factor Design of Integral Bent Caps." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2028, no. 1 (January 2007): 96–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2028-11.

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33

Puckett, J., X. Huo, M. Patrick, M. Jablin, D. Mertz, and M. Peavy. "Simplified Live Load Distribution Factor Equations for Bridge Design." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 11s (January 2005): 67–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/trr.11s.j7314lw31465u814.

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Myint Lwin, M. "Why the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifications?" Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1688, no. 1 (January 1999): 173–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1688-20.

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35

Adeli, H., and H. R. Chu. "Interactive Load and Resistance Factor Design of steel frames." Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering 2, no. 1 (January 1988): 38–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0887-3801(1988)2:1(38).

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36

Eamon, Christopher D., Valid Kamjoo, and Kazuhiko Shinki. "Design Live-Load Factor Calibration for Michigan Highway Bridges." Journal of Bridge Engineering 21, no. 6 (June 2016): 04016014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)be.1943-5592.0000897.

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37

Gong, Wenping, C. Hsein Juang, Sara Khoshnevisan, and Kok-Kwang Phoon. "R-LRFD: Load and resistance factor design considering robustness." Computers and Geotechnics 74 (April 2016): 74–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.12.017.

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38

Kim, Hyung Bae, Ronald S. Harichandran, and Neeraj Buch. "Development of load and resistance factor design format for flexible pavements." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 25, no. 5 (October 1, 1998): 880–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l98-024.

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The objective of pavement design, just as with the design of other structures, is to provide economical designs at specified levels of reliability. Methods that yield designs with different levels of reliability are undesirable, and over the course of time design approaches in the United States have converged toward the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) format in order to assure uniform reliability. At present the LRFD format has been implemented in concrete, steel, wood, and bridge design specifications. In this paper, reliability concepts are used to illustrate the development of an LRFD format for fatigue design of flexible pavements. It is shown that 10 candidate pavement sections designed against premature fatigue failure according to standard practice using the DNPS86 software do not have uniform reliability. It is demonstrated that uniform reliability can be achieved by using the LRFD format. The work reported is based on assumed variations of pavement layer properties and on analytical formulation; field verification was not attempted.Key words: LRFD, reliability index, fatigue, partial safety factors, flexible pavement design.
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39

Li, Yun Sheng, Li Li Shi, and Shuai Li. "Research on Impact Factor of Simple Composite Box Beam under Vehicle Loads." Advanced Materials Research 382 (November 2011): 471–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.382.471.

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Commonly the vibration due to vehicle loads has no apparently impact on highway bridges, but it is unneglectable when the heavy vehicles load on highway bridges. The impact factor is usually used to define the dynamic effect under vehicle loads in most design code. In this paper, the models of simple composite box beams with different span and the models of two simplified heavy vehicles are established respectively. The impact factors are calculated when the heavy loads pass though bridges at different speed under different load conditions. In addition, the change laws of the impact factors and the influence of different vehicle models on the impact factors are analyzed. Analysis results show that, not only the impact factor are increased with vehicle speed, but also the amplitude and period are all increased. In normal speed range, the influence of speed on the impact factors appears rising trend overall. For the bridge with same span, the impact factors under the double wheel load are smaller than that under single wheel load.
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40

Sentanu, Divlan Audie, and Muhammad Akhsin Muflikhun. "DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF CARABINER USING FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS." Jurnal Rekayasa Mesin 13, no. 3 (December 31, 2022): 667–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.21776/jrm.v13i3.989.

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A carabiner is a fall protection safety tool that is used in various outdoor and indoor activities, most known usage is at climbing and high-risk work related to elevation. A standard carabiner is capable to withstand at least 7 kN of static load. In this study, we only observe how carabiners respond in certain static loads by using simulation software and comparing the result with the standard of carabiners. We use F1956-13 as a standard of the test procedure, and aluminum alloy 6061 as the material. After the study from simulation result, it shows that stress and deformation change linearly with loads. But the safety factor has different behavior, after the load applied increases over 1 kN the slope decreases significantly, and the safety factor is around 0,17 at 7 kN applied load. Besides that, we understand that design analysis by simulation is a good method to obtain the optimal geometry, or shape of the model, but computational simulation cannot replace physical mechanical tests.
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41

Cheng, Zhengjie, and Jitao Yao. "Study on Partial Factor of Load for Reinforced Concrete Columns." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2021 (January 12, 2021): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6663778.

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At present, the design method of components is still a partial factor design method, and the partial factor value is related to the load value. Because the partial factor has a great influence on the safety of engineering structure, it has been adjusted many times in the process of organization of the code. In order to be basically equivalent to European and American reliability standards and to conform to China’s national conditions and national policies, the Unified standard for reliability design of building structures is revised (i.e., the partial factor of permanent action and variable action was adjusted). Although the concept of factor of safety is commonly used in structure design practice to cover all the unexpected risks, there are some disadvantages to its direct use in structural reliability analysis. For example, the eccentricity of compression members is random, which will lead to the change in resistance parameters of compression members, rather than the fixed value specified in the code. However, the random variation in eccentricity is not considered in the code. So, in this paper, the partial factors of eccentrically loaded members are studied by considering the statistical parameter information of members with random eccentricity. This paper studies the partial factors of different types of components in different ratios of live load effect to dead load effect, and some recommendations are proposed to obtain safer designs. Finally, Monte Carlo simulation method is used to analyze the reliability of the eccentric member. The research results show that the value of partial factors of structure proposed in this paper is reasonable.
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42

Song, Youngjoo, and Hakjoong Kim. "Occupant Load Factor Calculation in Neighborhood Living Facilities while Performance-Based Design." Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 23, no. 6 (December 31, 2023): 187–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2023.23.6.187.

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The criteria for calculating the occupant load factor are crucial for predicting the evacuation behavior of occupants during a fire, determining the size of the evacuation capacity, and significantly influencing the calculation of the Required Safe Egress Time (RSET) during fire safety assessments. There are currently 11 categories for classifying safe evacuation area installation targets for neighborhood living facilities; eight of these categories allow for various numerical values to be applied. However, applying numerical values from a conservative perspective results in excessive designs with larger occupant loads. Therefore, to address this issue, this study conducted a theoretical review of occupant loads and investigated and analyzed relevant domestic and international regulations. Subsequently, one of the buildings subject to a performance-based design in City 00 was selected, and occupancy criteria were applied based on the purpose of the space. A safety assessment of the evacuation was performed. The results show that, evacuation safety was not ensured at the two exits when the occupant load factor was below 4.6 m<sup>2</sup>/person. However, when the occupant load factor was greater than 9.3 m<sup>2</sup>/person, evacuation safety is guaranteed at all exits. Through this analysis, this study aims to raise awareness of issues related to the criteria for calculating the maximum occupancy in neighborhood living facilities and the need for revisions.
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43

Duan, Lian, and Wai‐Fah Chen. "Design Rules of Built‐Up Members in Load and Resistance Factor Design." Journal of Structural Engineering 114, no. 11 (November 1988): 2544–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9445(1988)114:11(2544).

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44

Grubb, Michael A. "Autostress Design Using Compact Welded Beams." Engineering Journal 26, no. 4 (December 31, 1989): 121–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.62913/engj.v26i4.530.

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After several years of AISI-sponsored research, autostressdesign procedures for continuous steel bridges have been incorporated in a 1986 AASHTO Guide Specification for Alternate Load-Factor Design Procedures for Steel Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections. Autostress is a procedure that extends existing Load Factor Design (LFD) rules by introducing improved limit-state criteria. LFD is a limit-states design method presently contained in the 13th Edition of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. The improved limit-state criteria permit inelastic load redistribution in continuous-beam bridges under heavy loads while satisfying the same structural performance requirements as LFD. The autostress procedures in the guide specification are presently limited to rolled-beam bridges (composite and noncomposite), and compact welded-beam bridges that are adequately braced (braced compact sections). AISI is presently sponsoring additional research to extend the autostress procedures to more slender welded plate-girder sections. Autostress-design procedures recognize the ability of continuous steel members to adjust automatically for the effects of local yielding, such as those caused by overloads. Also, the autostress procedures allow a designer to determine the strength of braced continuous compact beams at maximum loads by computing the mechanism resistance using plastic-design theory with some modifications. In both instances, elastic negative bending moments are automatically redistributed by the structure to positivebending regions. The term autostress has been used for the suggested procedures to emphasize that the load redistribution occurs automatically.
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45

Duncan, Cynthia J., Steven J. Fenves, and Nestor Iwankiw. "Technical Note: Determination of Allowable Strength Design Safety Factors in the 2005 AISC Specification." Engineering Journal 43, no. 4 (December 31, 2006): 267–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.62913/engj.v43i4.888.

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The 2005 AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings includes both allowable stress design (ASD) and load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methods. The determination of safety factors for use in ASD are directly proportional to the resistance factors used for LRFD. The relationship between the resistance and phi factors is derived based on a live load-to-dead load ratio of 3 and the development of an equivalent load factor for LRFD. Both the resistance and phi factors are tabulated in this paper for the various limit states and structural elements that appear throughout the 2005 AISC Specification.
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46

Chen, W. F., and S. P. Zhou. "Design of beam-columns using allowable stress design and load and resistance factor design." Engineering Structures 9, no. 3 (July 1987): 201–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0141-0296(87)90016-2.

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47

Zhou, Jin, Jianjiang Zeng, Jichang Chen, and Mingbo Tong. "Analysis of Global Sensitivity of Landing Variables on Landing Loads and Extreme Values of the Loads in Carrier-Based Aircrafts." International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2018 (2018): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/2105682.

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When a carrier-based aircraft is in arrested landing on deck, the impact loads on landing gears and airframe are closely related to landing states. The distribution and extreme values of the landing loads obtained during life-cycle analysis provide an important basis for buffering parameter design and fatigue design. In this paper, the effect of the multivariate distribution was studied based on military standards and guides. By establishment of a virtual prototype, the extended Fourier amplitude sensitivity test (EFAST) method is applied on sensitivity analysis of landing variables. The results show that sinking speed and rolling angle are the main influencing factors on the landing gear’s course load and vertical load; sinking speed, rolling angle, and yawing angle are the main influencing factors on the landing gear’s lateral load; and sinking speed is the main influencing factor on the barycenter overload. The extreme values of loads show that the typical condition design in the structural strength analysis is safe. The maximum difference value of the vertical load of the main landing gear is 12.0%. This research may provide some reference for structure design of landing gears and compilation of load spectrum for carrier-based aircrafts.
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48

Cheung, M. S., N. J. Gardner, and S. F. Ng. "Ultimate load distribution characteristics of a model slab-on-girder bridge." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 14, no. 6 (December 1, 1987): 739–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l87-112.

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The introduction of limit states design philosophy and the ever growing demand for higher permissible loads for overload vehicles or special permit vehicles necessitates a thorough investigation of the behaviour and live load distribution characteristics of bridges beyond the working stress range. Evaluation of the live load moment capacity at ultimate utilizing elastic load distribution factors is neither realistic nor logical, as the distribution factors should reflect the ultimate structural/load responses including nonlinear behaviour, load redistribution due to yielding, etc.The purpose of this paper is to study load distribution characteristics of a slab-on-girder bridge model at ultimate loads and to develop load distribution factors for the ultimate limit state which include load redistribution, nonlinear behaviour, and other effects. Key words: load distribution factor, ultimate limit state, load redistribution, nonlinear behaviour, slab-on-girder bridge, OHBD truck.
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49

Liu, Pengcheng, Qishi Zhou, Feiyang Fu, and Wei Li. "Bending Strength Design Method of Phyllostachys edulis Bamboo Based on Classification." Polymers 14, no. 7 (March 30, 2022): 1418. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym14071418.

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Phyllostachys edulis (P. edulis) bamboo is the most widely distributed and used bamboo species, and it is an ideal building material. With the in-depth implementation of the sustainable development strategy, modern bamboo structures have broad application prospects in green buildings. In order to promote the efficient utilization of bamboo resources and facilitate the design and application of bamboo structures, the bending strength test and classification of P. edulis bamboo were carried out, the factors affecting the reliability were analyzed, and the design values of the bending strength of P. edulis bamboo were proposed based on the reliability analysis. The research results show that dividing P. edulis bamboo into three levels (grade I, grade II, and grade III) can achieve efficient use of P. edulis bamboo resources; 75% fitting data points and normal distribution were used to analyze the reliability of the bending strength of P. edulis bamboo. The analysis of factors affecting reliability makes the calculation of strength design values more reliable. The reliability increases with the increase of the load ratio and the partial factor for resistance. Under the same load ratio and reliability, the partial factor for resistance of the combination of constant load and snow load is the largest, and the partial factor for resistance of the combination of constant load and office building load is the smallest. Under the same load combination and reliability, the partial factor for resistance decreases as the load ratio increases. Under the same load ratio and load combination, the partial factor for resistance of grade III is the largest, and grade I is the smallest. The bending strength design values of grade I, grade II, and grade III are 29.54 MPa, 29.62 MPa, and 30.63 MPa, respectively. This paper innovatively proposed the design values of bending strength of P. edulis bamboo based on classification. The P. edulis bamboo grading method established in this paper and the bending strength design values of P. edulis bamboo proposed can provide references for the design and engineering application of bamboo structures.
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50

Hu, Yongqiang, and Peiyuan Lin. "Probabilistic Prediction of Maximum Tensile Loads in Soil Nails." Advances in Civil Engineering 2018 (November 22, 2018): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/3410146.

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This paper presents the development of a simplified model for estimation of maximum nail loads during or at completion of construction of soil nail walls. The developed simplified nail load model consists of two multiplicative components: the theoretical nail load and the correction factor. The theoretical nail load is computed as the product of lateral active Earth pressure at nail depth and the nail tributary area. The correction factor is introduced to account for the difference between the theoretical and the measured nail loads. A total of 85 measured nail load data were collected from the literature; out of which, 74 were used to develop a simple formulation for the correction factor, whereas the remaining 11 were used for validation. After the validation, the model was updated using all 85 data. The updated simplified nail load model was demonstrated to be accurate on average (mean of model factor equal to 1), and the spread in prediction quantified as the coefficient of variation of the model factor was about 40%. Here, model factor is the ratio of measured to estimated nail load. The randomness of the model factor was also verified. Finally, the model factor was demonstrated to be a lognormal random variable. The proposed simplified nail load model is beneficial due to its simplicity and quantified model uncertainty; thus it is practically valuable to both direct reliability-based design and load and resistance factor design of soil nail wall internal limit states.
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