Academic literature on the topic 'Livelihood choices'

Livelihoods, or the means to secure the necessities of life, shape how we live as individuals, families and communities, and our sense of well-being. While discussions of livelihoods have influenced academic discussions and government actions in international development over the past 25 years, few have discussed the implications of a livelihoods approach for people with disabilities in the context of global Northern societies. This paper argues that by using a livelihoods approach, we can recognize the multiple and, at times, conflicting ways that people with disabilities sustain themselves and secure the necessities of life. A livelihoods approach recognizes the agency of individuals, including those with disabilities, in the context of their relationships in households, families and communities, while also identifying the systemic barriers, inequalities and opportunities that shape livelihood choices. Using this approach, we argue, will enable a better understanding of how people with disabilities both survive and thrive, the diverse livelihood choices they make and the implications these choices have for policy decisions.

This study studies empirically whether REDD is a better alternative to community forest of Nepal. The data set of the study is primary nature in which the primary data sets were collected from the household survey in the Kafle community forest of Lamatar-6, Lalitpur District, Nepal. The study has employed descriptive statistics and probit models to analyze the data sets. The study found 45 percent households depend on the community forest for livelihood materials (firewood, leaf litter, grass, water), along with Service and Agriculture income sources. As a result of binary choice, the study in mixed familiarity with REDD finds only 44 percent of households expect that REDD will be a better livelihood alternative to the poor. Further, 63 percent of households expect livelihood from REDD. Large household respondents don’t believe that REDD will be a better alternative livelihood for the poor. Almost all households expect REDD for livelihood objectives. From estimation, household stakeholders who have good asset holdings (land and livestock) think that REDD will be not a better livelihood alternative to the poor. However, the household stakeholders who have literacy, different food sufficiency level, landholding (1>), different earnings per day, Rsex, per day earning, and age thinks that REDD will be a better alternative. Thus, the poor households expect a livelihood role from REDD in Nepal. Therefore, REDD should be more beneficial to the poor household stakeholders and their livelihoods.

Rural livelihood diversification has become a central policy in rural development and poverty alleviation. Farmworkers in irrigation schemes are a typical poor sub-group that has received little attention in research regarding their livelihood status and the contribution of diversification. This paper provides evidence derived from a study that was carried out to examine whether farmworkers in the study area diversify their livelihoods and identify their choices of livelihood-diversification strategies and the determinants thereof. Data were collected from 191 randomly selected farmworkers and analyzed using the binary probit model and the multinomial logistic model. Variables considered in the binary probit model—gender, number of dependents, employment type, farming experience, land leasing, and market access—influenced livelihood diversification among irrigation farmworkers in a statistically significant way. The multinomial logistic model analysis considered age, marital status, household dependents, leasing land from employer, farming experience, agricultural training, and access to markets as the statistically significant factors that influence the choice of livelihood-diversification strategies in the study area. The study concluded that rural development policies should consider leasing land to irrigation farmworkers that is adequate to reduce poverty, achieve food security, and sustain the livelihoods of farmworkers in the study area, as it boosts the generation of income.

Rural tourism is one of the important ways to achieve rural revitalization and one of the choices for farmers to improve their viability. Therefore, the socio-ecological systems (SES) analysis framework and obstacle factor analysis can provide a new perspective for the evaluation of farmers’ behavior adaptation processes. In order to test the adaptation mechanisms of farmers’ lives in rural tourism destinations, we applied this analysis framework to Ying-Tao-Gou Village in China. The study found that the livelihood adaptation strategies of local farmers can be divided into the categories of “tourism livelihood”, “part-time livelihood”, “worker livelihood”, and “farming livelihood”. The livelihood adaptation of local farmers presented a relatively balanced picture. There were significant differences in the livelihood adaptability of different types of farmers, but tourism farmers had the strongest livelihood adaptability. There were various barriers to the livelihood adaptation of different types of farmers, such as household savings and education level. Finally, to improve the adaptability of farmers’ livelihoods, amendments can be made in policy formulation, tourism development, and by the farmers themselves. This study is of great significance for the government in formulating policies to improve people’s livelihoods, to stimulate the vitality of rural development, and to accelerate the development of rural revitalization.

Vietnam is a country that found itself at the center of the Indochina wars and was subjected to the most intense aerial bombing in history. However, little research has been done on the effect of unexploded ordnance (UXO) contamination on household livelihoods in rural Vietnam. In this paper, we investigate the contaminating effect of unexploded ordnance on households. Livelihood choices are classified by cluster analysis techniques, and unexploded ordnance contamination is measured at the district level by the proportion of land at risk from unexploded bombs and mines. We examine the effect of UXO contamination on livelihood choices using a multinomial logit model, controlling for various important household and regional level characteristics. It was found that households in districts with greater contamination were less likely to adopt a formal wage-earning livelihood, characterized by higher income and less poverty, than they were to engage in an agricultural livelihood. This suggests that the Indochina wars have had a long-running effect, reducing the likelihood of non-farm diversification, which in turn diminishes economic well-being among rural households in Vietnam.

Climate variability related events such as drought and associated food shortages are not new along the coast of Zanzibar, but are projected to increase with the impacts of global climate change. This paper examines the ‘internal’ characteristics that make Zanzibar’s coastal communities vulnerable to these and other changes, focusing on the factors that affect adaptive capacity (i.e. household and community assets) and sensitivity (i.e. livelihood activities and diversification). The sustainable livelihood approach and framework, especially the five capitals or assets, provided a lens to examine households’ capital stocks and the factors influencing access to these, as well as the outcomes for livelihood activities. Access to different capitals and assets were found to affect the range and choices of livelihood activities available to households as well as their ability to cope and adapt to existing and new risk. Our analysis shows how households on the drier and harsher east coast of the Zanzibar islands are particularly sensitive to climate variability and change in concert with other livelihoods challenges. This is primarily due to their high dependence on natural-resource based livelihood activities, which are already facing pressures. Moreover, low levels of most livelihood capitals limit the choices households have and undermine their adaptive capacity and ability to bounce back from climate and other shocks and stressors.

While forests’ contribution to rural livelihoods has been unearthed scientifically, the patterns, determinants and forest conservation policy implications of livelihood diversification still beg for more scientific and policy edification. This paper makes a contribution in this regard, using household data (N = 200) from eight villages around the Kilum-Ijim Forest Landscape of Cameroon. The ordinary least square and the logit model are used to explore the determinants of livelihood diversification and the likelihood of forest dependence, respectively. The diversification patterns were analysed using a simple t-test, and the multinomial logit for conservation choices. We find that forest-related activities are a source of livelihood diversification for 63% of households, with non-timber forest products (NTFP) domestication (31%) and medicinal plant extraction (30%) being the most preferred. For non-forest activities, migration is the most preferred diversification strategy. Generally, households with favourable socio-economic status prefer non-forest to forest activities for livelihood diversification. The regression estimates indicate that older respondents are more likely to depend on the forest than the young, whereas males and individuals with at least some secondary education are less likely than their respective counterparts to rely on the forest. The results also suggest those who participated in training, educated household heads and older individuals are significantly more likely to choose high-valued diversification strategies. Concerning conservation activities, households with favourable socio-economic status are on average less likely to adopt NTFP domestication and more likely to adopt bee-keeping as a conservation choice. The results suggest the need for policy considerations to: (i) effectively integrate women in forest management processes, (ii) intensify trainings for conservation-friendly diversification approaches, (iii) regulate unclean energy use and (iv) encourage value chain improvement for conservation-friendly products.

This paper seeks to critically review the existing literature on the links or interfaces between poverty, livelihoods, institutions, and community development. This discussion gives a clear understanding of how poverty is created and gives a clue of how sustainable policy intervention could be developed. The study adopted the Sustainable Livelihood Approach as an overall theoretical framework that guides this discussion. The reviewed literature shows that there are strong and complex interfaces between poverty, livelihoods, institutions and community development and they influence each other in several ways. The interfaces between these concepts influence the choices and nature of livelihood strategies that people employ to pursue their livelihood outcomes. The livelihood outcomes may be positive or negative and it is determined by how these concepts are linked together. For instance, the existing empirical evidences shows that having access to livelihood assets, investment in infrastructure, presence of enabling policy and institution result in positive livelihood outcomes whereas lack of access to assets, increased vulnerabilities, low investment in infrastructures, lack of popular participation, poverty and weak policy and institution together result in adopting of failed livelihood strategies which in turn resulted in negative livelihood outcomes. Thus, to formulate policies, strategies and programs that can effectively address poverty and result in sustainable development, policy makers should consider and understand the connection between these concepts before the formulation of policy, strategies or programs. Without understand this it is difficult to formulate policies, programs, and strategies that can positively contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development.

The purpose of this study is to determine the causes and effects of changes livelihood choices for generation Z children and the impact of social changes in farmer families in Desa Karangmalang. This research used qualitative with the form of case studies. The data is collected through observation, interviews, and documents. The collected data will be analyzed using qualitative analysis, namely by describing the results of research in the form of words or sentences so that the researchers describe in depth the results of the research in accordance with the actual conditions that occurred in the field. The research targets were generation Z children and farmer families. The results showed that the factors of changes in livelihood choices was motivated by the knowledge of generation Z children about farmers, the economic value of the farming family, and the social status of the farmer families for generation Z children. These factors have influenced the social changes of generation Z children to choose livelihoods other than farmers.

This study was initiated to assess the biological, ecological and sociological aspects of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, fishery associated with the Pascagoula River Estuary in southern Mississippi. Household surveys were conducted in the cities of Moss Point and Pascagoula, Mississippi, September 2010 to September 2011, to identify, describe and classify subsistence fishing activities associated with the estuary. A stock assessment of blue crab was conducted to determine how biological and environmental variability affect the people engaged in this subsistence fishery.

The study revealed two types of subsistence fishing occurring in the Moss Point/Pascagoula area. The first type involves fishing as a livelihood strategy based on economic dependence, and the second type involves fishing as a lifestyle choice based on economic independence. Both are based on customary and traditional patterns of local resource use and consumption and maintained by reciprocal kinship-based social networks.

The blue crab fishery in the Pascagoula River Estuary was highly variable and exhibited strong seasonal and spatial patterns in distribution and abundance. Subsistence fishers in the region have developed strategies to cope with this biological and environmental variability. These region-specific strategies include but are not limited to: fishing using multiple gears simultaneously (rod and reel and crab nets), freezing fish, relying on other natural resources including agriculture and wildlife, and generalized reciprocity.

This thesis explores human-wildlife interactions under community managed game parks. The thesis consists of an introductory chapter, study location chapter and four self-contained studies based on different samples from created clusters surrounding Nyatana Game Park, which make up the rest of the thesis chapters. Chapter one presents an introductory overview of wildlife management in Zimbabwe, specifically looking at human-wildlife interactions under CAMPFIRE projects, welfare dynamics and conservation implications for the surrounding communities who share boundaries with community-managed game parks. The chapter concludes by highlighting the challenges facing community-based wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe as well as the key concepts that will be the subject of the rest of the thesis. Chapter two presents the study location; it highlights the road map to the study area, starting with the provincial location, and indicates the specific districts from which respondents were selected. A brief agro-ecological summary of the study area is also presented; it looks specifically at climate, vegetation and a demographic data of the study area. Chapter three: Can game parks be trusted as livelihood sources? To answer this topical question, Chapter three explores livelihood adaptation strategies for households who share boundaries with Nyatana Game Park. Most of the community managed game parks, under CAMPFIRE principles in Zimbabwe, were established with the primary objective of generating revenue for the surrounding communities; this was done in the hope of using positive returns from game farming to promote the conservation of wildlife. Has this materialised in practice? Descriptive results from this study seem to suggest otherwise, where mixed farming and gold panning were the major livelihood adaptation choices reported by most households. The revenue from game farming was reported to be too low and inconsistent, to such an extent that the majority of the community regarded it as risky and unreliable. A multinomial logistic regression model for correlates of adaptation choices indicated that access to credit, markets, and extension may be some of the current institutional constraints inhibiting households from accessing off-farm sources for their livelihoods. In addition, household size, gender and age may enhance the adaptive capacity of households to move out of risky crop faming into other off-farm portfolio diversifications. The study, therefore, suggests that game parks, according to the evidence uncovered by the study, may not be trusted as a reliable and sustainable livelihood source. If local communities who share boundaries with game parks do not view them as reliable and sustainable livelihood sources, as concluded in Chapter three, how can they (local communities) be trusted to conserve them? To assess their perceptions of game parks, Chapter four presents a multinomial logistic regression model for perceptions of society on game parks using the African elephant as a typical example. The results suggest that Problem Animal Control (PAC) perceptions, livestock predation and issues of low and poor revenue distribution may be some of the critical perceptions capable of influencing surrounding communities to negatively participate in the conservation of wildlife. The results further suggest that using wildlife proceeds to finance observable local common pool infrastructure may positively influence the surrounding communities to conserve wildlife. The chief conclusion regarding game parks, therefore, was that the surrounding communities were in favour of the obliteration pathway, although minimal conservation perceptions were also available. Given the negative conclusions regarding game parks, as suggested in Chapters three and four, citizens would then wonder if any meaningful hope for community managed game parks exists. Chapter five probes the buffer zone livelihood link under community managed game parks, using evidence from the Nyatana Game Park. The binary logistic regression model results, for buffer zone participation and resource extraction combinations by surrounding communities, suggest that resource extraction may be market driven rather than focussing on domestic consumption. The study therefore concludes that the buffer zone livelihood link as currently practiced, though potential, may fail to address the livelihood expectations of the sub-district producer communities. The study therefore calls for extreme caution whenever the buffer zone livelihood link is considered, because several institutional and design conflicts exist within this dynamic. In Chapter six, the study further probed the buffer zone income dynamics for the sub-district producer community. The results of descriptive statistics suggest that the contribution of buffer zone activities to household income may be significant with a positive correlation to household agricultural income for communities who reside inside or close to the park (primary sub-district producer community). Using the Gini decomposition approach and Lorenz curves, the study concluded that a buffer zone income may be capable of contributing to more equally distributed incomes for rural communities who share boundaries with game parks. With respect to the correlates of household income, the results suggest that household size and age may negatively influence income from buffer zone activities, while gender may have a positive effect. This was also true for education and Livestock Units (LUs) with respect to income from self employment; the former positively and the latter negatively related. The results further suggest that land size may also be positively significant in order to explain income from agriculture as well as total income. With regard to the distance from the buffer zone, the results suggest a negative influence with respect to the buffer zone, agriculture and total income. The implied message therefore suggests that buffer zones may provide active livelihood sources which are capable of financing rural household agriculture. The income equalizing effect which is portrayed may also further imply that, if correctly targeted and promoted, a buffer zone income could possibly address the current income inequality which is generic in rural areas. However, this potential may not be realized due to the current buffer zone design status (created for local secondary use as opposed to commercial primary use), restrictive policies and poor institutional support. With this dilemma facing community managed game parks (threats as summarised in Chapters three and four amid the potential hope summarized in Chapters five and six), Chapter 7 concludes the study by suggesting that the human-wildlife interaction model, though currently theoretical, may have significant practical potential in addressing the livelihoods of the surrounding communities as well as promoting the conservation of wildlife. This could be possible if available challenges that range from low revenue, insecure property rights, high human-elephant conflict and institutional design conflict for buffer zone utilization are corrected by means of the free market system. This would allow market forces to deliver on the expectations of the ―human-wildlife interactions model‖ – sustainable livelihoods for the former and intergenerational conservation for the latter.

Since the end of Apartheid, the South African government has invested substantially in smallholder irrigation schemes, particularly in the former homeland areas. One of the primary goals for establishment of these schemes was to solve food security problems. Sadly, these efforts have not produced the desired results, and poverty has deepened. The question that can be asked is: What is it that makes South African smallholder agricultural sector seemingly impervious to the interventions that government has made in targeting smallholder farmers since the dawn of democracy in 1994? In order to address such a question, a set of structured questionnaires was used to interview 100 smallholder irrigators and 100 non-irrigators using multistage stratified random sampling technique in the Amatole, Chris Hani and OR Tambo District municipalities. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of smallholder irrigators and non-irrigators around Qamata, Pendu, Tyhefu, Merelles and Ntshongweni irrigation schemes were measured using descriptive statistics. Profitability between the two groups was measured using gross margin analysis (GM). The Probit model was used to determine the factors that affect smallholder farmer‘s choice of participation in irrigation schemes. The impact of irrigation participation on yields, crop sales and food security was estimated using the propensity score matching (PSM) technique. The impact of irrigation participation of smallholder farmer‘s choice of livelihood strategy was estimated using the multinomial regression model. The results showed that male respondents were dominant with a representation of 63 percent and average mean household size of 4 persons with the household head having spent at least 7 years at school. Farming was found to be the major (64 percent) occupation in the study area with an average income of R2 944.52 per cropping season. Both irrigating and non-irrigating smallholder farmers in the study area used improved, fertilizer and tractor for production. Overall, smallholder farmers spent 30.9 percent of their household income on food with irrigators‘food spending lower than those of non-irrigators. The gross margin analysis suggests that the irrigated farmers were in a better position to afford enough food in order to satisfy their household requirement. Findings from the Probit regression and Propensity Score Matching are consistent across the methods, indicating that irrigation participation has a positive influence on crop yields, income and consumption expenditure. Probit regression further showed that age, quality of land, access to credit, access to market, distance to the scheme and membership of another society/association have a positive impact on access and use of irrigation and are significant at p < 0.05 percent level. The Propensity Score Matching using Nearest Neighbour and Kernel Matching Methods of the outcome variables, total farm income and food consumption patterns, shows a positive and statistically significant result at p < 0.05 percent level. The nearest neighbour matching method shows that irrigators received higher farm income R2044.01 than non-irrigating farmers R622.12. The Average Treatment Effect on total food expenditure was negative both in the case of NNM and KM algorithms, indicating that participation in irrigation can decrease the expenditure levels on food from R933.30 to R926.70. This could be due to the fact that irrigating farmers produced enough for home consumption than non-irrigators. The multinomial regression model shows that irrigation participation influences smallholder farmers choice of livelihood strategy and these variables were statistically significant at p < 0.05 percent level. These results provide insights to address the question as to the appropriate development path for transition from homestead to irrigation. Continued support to smallholder farmers in the forms of funding, extension services and improved technologies is certainly needed to enhance food security.

This study explores the basis on which Papua New Guinean landowners make land- and resource-use choices, and considers the implications of these for the adoption of commercial tree growing. Theoretical insights from the Hierarchical Needs Theory, Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, and Farmer Adoption-Decision Framework enabled development of a conceptual model, the 'PNG Landowner Decision Environment'. This model was used to assess landowners' attitudes and behaviour relevant to the use of household assets, engagement in subsistence and cash-income generating activities, patterns of exchanges and consumption, and allocation of labour, land and financial resources, to understand their choices in land- and resource-use decisions. The primary research question was: On what basis do Papua New Guinea landowners make land-and-resource-use choices? This was investigated through two subsidiary questions: - What are landowner households' livelihood strategies? - How do these strategies influence landowner households' land- and resource- use choices? Field research was carried out over an 18-month period from late 2007 to early 2009, at four case study sites; in the Upper Ramu region of Madang Province; in the Upper Markham Valley region of Morobe Province; in the Middle Fly region of Western Province; and in the Gogol, Naru and North Coast region of Madang Province. Participant observation and individual and group interviews were the main research methods employed. In total, 268 participants, comprising 175 men and 93 women, representing 175 households were interviewed, A strong interrelationship was evident between the motivational factors of landowners and their land- and resources-use choices. Key factors were their needs and aspirations, the livelihood strategies and outcomes, their knowledge and skill base, the institutional systems and processes within which the landowners operated, and their capital assets. PNG landowners' attitudes and behaviour in relation to adoption choices are largely consistent with those of smallholder farmers elsewhere, with the level of participation and involvement in particular activities influenced by personal preferences and values, and by the imperative of satisfying their basic needs. Landowners' decisions focused on three time horizons: the immediate future, principally in terms of food production; annual or similar cycles, principally in relation to recurring cash requirements; and the much longer-term, which was associated with intermittent cash requirements and had significant legacy dimensions. Decisions about commercial tree growing options need to be linked to these considerations, and to the different planning horizons that PNG landowners pursue for various livelihood outcomes.

碩士
臺灣大學
社會工作學研究所
98
Compared with the western society, Taiwan is a modern society which is based on the collectivism (or familism) in its traditional culture. In Taiwan, adolescents facing family economic difficulties have to assist in earning a livelihood. They sacrifice their free time and wellbeing for the benefit of their families. In this study, the researcher had interviews with ten adolescents, aged from sixteen to twenty years, who dedicated themselves to earn a livelihood. It attempted to portray their life experiences and how such experiences had impact on them. Family poverty, the collectivism (or familism), the filial piety, and the shortage of social resources forced these adolescents to share family economic responsibilities. Assisting in earning a livelihood is a duty of these adolescents, rather than a choice. To assisting their families, they cannot receive good education; they tend to suffer from negative physiological and psychological outcomes. And their likelihood of continuing poverty in adulthood is very high. These adolescents are oppressed by the authorities in the family, schools; and the labor market. Because of their poor human capital, they are heavily exploited by the secondary labor market. Nevertheless; sharing the responsibilities of family expenses matures them and makes them tough to face life challenges. The government should help these adolescents by providing them job choices, changing the exploitation of the labor market, and settling programs for these adolescents in order to protect them for better development.

The informal sector has long been viewed as a locus of the disadvantaged, unskilled, and inexperienced workers in under-developed and developing economies. Workers in the informal sector, however, can learn skills and gain experience that could help them switch to better-paying jobs in the formal sector. But evidence of this is limited. China constitutes an important case study because it is the most populous country and has the largest labour force, consisting of over 290 million rural-to-urban migrants whose employment is mostly informal. Using three waves of nationally representative household surveys from 2014 to 2018, we study how the livelihoods of Chinese workers change when transitioning to different work statuses within or between formal and informal sectors. Our results show that transitioning jobs from the informal to the formal sector and from the self-employed to the wage-employed increases earnings, which improves the livelihoods of Chinese workers.

In Chicago, the resourceful Jackson established a livelihood on the South Side, initiated a lifelong involvement in political causes, and generated local buzz as a church singer. In the 1930s and 1940s, she also furthered her career through the pioneering Chicago organizers who founded the National Convention of Gospel Choirs and Choruses (NCGCC) and through the National Baptist Convention (NBC), the largest aggregation of black Christians in the United States. Founded by gospel songwriter Thomas A. Dorsey along with Magnolia Lewis Butts and Theodore Frye, the NCGCC set up the infrastructure for the modern gospel movement while growing Dorsey’s fame. Even more significant was Jackson’s exposure to black Baptists nationwide through the musical activities of the NBC, overseen by Lucie Campbell. Though she gained visibility through these two institutions, over time Jackson built a reputation increasingly independent of both.

As a result of widespread mistreatment and overt discrimination in all dimensions of their lives, women lack significant autonomy. The central preoccupation of this book is to explore key sources of female empowerment and discuss the current challenges and opportunities for the future. Schematically, three main domains are distinguished. The first is marriage and women’s relative bargaining position within the household. Since in developing countries marriage is essentially universal and generally arranged by the parents, women have little say in the choice of their partner and largely depend on their husband for their livelihoods and well-being. How marriage, divorce, and remarriage practices have evolved and with what effects for women, is therefore of crucial concern. The second domain is the set of options available to women outside of marriage and in the context of their community. Given the importance of household dynamics in determining female well-being, a crucial step towards women’s empowerment consists of improving such options, economic and collective action opportunities in particular. The third domain belongs to the realm of over-arching discriminatory laws and cultural norms. Can the government acting as lawmaker contribute to modifying norms and practices that disadvantage women? Or, to be effective, do legal moves need to be complemented by other initiatives such as the expansion of economic opportunities for women? Do discriminatory social norms necessarily dissolve with improved legal status for women? These questions, and other related issues, are tackled from different perspectives, by top scholars with well-established experience in gender-focused economic and social research.

Economy and mankind are inextricably interlinked. Just as the economy or the production of material wealth is unimaginable without a man, so human existence and development are impossible without the wealth created in the economy. Shortly, both the goal and the means of achieving and realization of the economy are still the human resources. People have long ago noticed that it was the economy that created livelihoods, and the delays in their production led to the catastrophic events such as hunger, poverty, civil wars, social upheavals, revolutions, moral degeneration, and more. Therefore, the special interest of people in understanding the regulatory framework of the functioning of the economy has existed and exists in all historical epochs [A. Sisvadze. Economic theory. Part One. 2006y. p. 22]. The system of economic disciplines studies economy or economic activities of a society. All of them are based on science, which is currently called economic theory in the post-socialist space (the science of economics, the principles of economics or modern economics), and in most countries of the world - predominantly in the Greek-Latin manner - economics. The title of the present book is also Modern Economics. Economics (economic theory) is the science that studies the efficient use of limited resources to produce and distribute goods and services in order to satisfy as much as possible the unlimited needs and demands of the society. More simply, economics is the science of choice and how society manages its limited resources. Moreover, it should be emphasized that economics (economic theory) studies only the distribution, exchange and consumption of the economic wealth (food, beverages, clothing, housing, machine tools, computers, services, etc.), the production of which is possible and limited. And the wealth that exists indefinitely: no economic relations are formed in the production and distribution of solar energy, air, and the like. This current book is the second complete updated edition of the challenges of the modern global economy in the context of the coronary crisis, taking into account some of the priority directions of the country's development. Its purpose is to help students and interested readers gain a thorough knowledge of economics and show them how this knowledge can be applied pragmatically (professionally) in professional activities or in everyday life. To achieve this goal, this textbook, which consists of two parts and tests, discusses in simple and clear language issues such as: the essence of economics as a science, reasons for origin, purpose, tasks, usefulness and functions; Basic principles, problems and peculiarities of economics in different economic systems; Needs and demand, the essence of economic resources, types and limitations; Interaction, mobility, interchangeability and efficient use of economic resources. The essence and types of wealth; The essence, types and models of the economic system; The interaction of households and firms in the market of resources and products; Market mechanism and its elements - demand, supply and price; Demand and supply elasticity; Production costs and the ways to reduce them; Forms of the market - perfect and incomplete competition markets and their peculiarities; Markets for Production Factors and factor incomes; The essence of macroeconomics, causes and importance of origin; The essence and calculation of key macroeconomic indicators (gross national product, gross domestic product, net national product, national income, etc.); Macroeconomic stability and instability, unemployment, inflation and anti-inflationary policies; State regulation of the economy and economic policy; Monetary and fiscal policy; Income and standard of living; Economic Growth; The Corona Pandemic as a Defect and Effect of Globalization; National Economic Problems and New Opportunities for Development in the conditions of the Coronary Crisis; The Socio-economic problems of moral obsolescence in digital technologies; Education and creativity are the main solution way to overcome the economic crisis caused by the coronavirus; Positive and negative effects of tourism in Georgia; Formation of the middle class as a contributing factor to the development of tourism in Georgia; Corporate culture in Georgian travel companies, etc. The axiomatic truth is that economics is the union of people in constant interaction. Given that the behavior of the economy reflects the behavior of the people who make up the economy, after clarifying the essence of the economy, we move on to the analysis of the four principles of individual decision-making. Furtermore, the book describes how people make independent decisions. The key to making an individual decision is that people have to choose from alternative options, that the value of any action is measured by the value of what must be given or what must be given up to get something, that the rational, smart people make decisions based on the comparison of the marginal costs and marginal returns (benefits), and that people behave accordingly to stimuli. Afterwards, the need for human interaction is then analyzed and substantiated. If a person is isolated, he will have to take care of his own food, clothes, shoes, his own house and so on. In the case of such a closed economy and universalization of labor, firstly, its productivity will be low and, secondly, it will be able to consume only what it produces. It is clear that human productivity will be higher and more profitable as a result of labor specialization and the opportunity to trade with others. Indeed, trade allows each person to specialize, to engage in the activities that are most successful, be it agriculture, sewing or construction, and to buy more diverse goods and services from others at a relatively lower price. The key to such human interactions is that trade is mutually beneficial; That markets are usually the good means of coordination between people and that the government can improve the results of market functioning if the market reveals weakness or the results of market functioning are not fair. Moroever, it also shows how the economy works as a whole. In particular, it is argued that productivity is a key determinant of living standards, that an increase in the money supply is a major source of inflation, and that one of the main impediments to avoiding inflation is the existence of an alternative between inflation and unemployment in the short term, that the inflation decrease causes the temporary decline in unemployement and vice versa. The Understanding creatively of all above mentioned issues, we think, will help the reader to develop market economy-appropriate thinking and rational economic-commercial-financial behaviors, to be more competitive in the domestic and international labor markets, and thus to ensure both their own prosperity and the functioning of the country's economy. How he/she copes with the tasks, it is up to the individual reader to decide. At the same time, we will receive all the smart useful advices with a sense of gratitude and will take it into account in the further work. We also would like to thank the editor and reviewers of the books. Finally, there are many things changing, so it is very important to realize that the XXI century has come: 1. The century of the new economy; 2. Age of Knowledge; 3. Age of Information and economic activities are changing in term of innovations. 1. Why is the 21st century the century of the new economy? Because for this period the economic resources, especially non-productive, non-recoverable ones (oil, natural gas, coal, etc.) are becoming increasingly limited. According to the World Energy Council, there are currently 43 years of gas and oil reserves left in the world (see “New Commersant 2007 # 2, p. 16). Under such conditions, sustainable growth of real gross domestic product (GDP) and maximum satisfaction of uncertain needs should be achieved not through the use of more land, labor and capital (extensification), but through more efficient use of available resources (intensification) or innovative economy. And economics, as it was said, is the science of finding the ways about the more effective usage of the limited resources. At the same time, with the sustainable growth and development of the economy, the present needs must be met in a way that does not deprive future generations of the opportunity to meet their needs; 2. Why is the 21st century the age of knowledge? Because in a modern economy, it is not land (natural resources), labor and capital that is crucial, but knowledge. Modern production, its factors and products are not time-consuming and capital-intensive, but science-intensive, knowledge-intensive. The good example of this is a Japanese enterprise (firm) where the production process is going on but people are almost invisible, also, the result of such production (Japanese product) is a miniature or a sample of how to get the maximum result at the lowest cost; 3. Why is the 21st century the age of information? Because the efficient functioning of the modern economy, the effective organization of the material and personal factors of production largely depend on the right governance decision. The right governance decision requires prompt and accurate information. Gone are the days when the main means of transport was a sailing ship, the main form of data processing was pencil and paper, and the main means of transmitting information was sending letters through a postman on horseback. By the modern transport infrastructure (highways, railways, ships, regular domestic and international flights, oil and gas pipelines, etc.), the movement of goods, services and labor resoucres has been significantly accelerated, while through the modern means of communication (mobile phone, internet, other) the information is spreading rapidly globally, which seems to have "shrunk" the world and made it a single large country. The Authors of the book: Ushangi Samadashvili, Doctor of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University - Introduction, Chapters - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,12, 15,16, 17.1,18 , Tests, Revaz Shengelia, Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University, Chapters_7, 8, 13. 14, 17.2, 17.4; Zhuzhuna Tsiklauri - Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University - Chapters 13.6, 13.7,17.2, 17.3, 18. We also thank the editor and reviewers of the book.

AbstractThis chapter explores conflict and cooperation around water infrastructure in relation to contestations over water and land in peri-urban Khulna, Bangladesh. It analyses how these contestations, together with the effects of climate change and urbanization, contribute to water insecurity. These dynamics are explored by viewing the peri-urban space as a hydro-social system where physical infrastructure (a sluice gate), hydrological processes and various actors interact. Through participatory appraisal, stakeholder analysis and social power mapping, we analyse the emergence, manifestations and implications of conflicts, and how power relations influence the conflict dynamics. The chapter further presents the process and outcome of participatory actions for capacity-building of communities to facilitate their empowerment by elevating their knowledge level and negotiating capabilities toward securing water and resolving conflicts. We argue that conflicts and water insecurities of peri-urban communities largely emerge from the absence of their participation in the planning and management of water infrastructure, and their limited capacity to resist changes in the control of water and agricultural land. The chapter concludes that peri-urban communities lack the power and agency to mitigate the impacts of urbanization and climate change, while neither urban nor rural planning processes formally recognize the peri-urban and its specific water security problems and needs. This policy gap leads to increasingly complex conflicts and water insecurities. Success and sustainability of alternative livelihood choices and collective action by marginalized communities depend much on continued advocacy, cooperation among and between communities and government agencies, commitment of a trusted neutral actor, and mutual understanding and respect for each other’s positions.

AbstractIn this chapter, we stress the fact that households’ incomes were complex and came together by a mix of activities. To fully understand how households managed their livelihoods, activities other than fishing, hunting, and reindeer herding also need to be considered. Diversification was an active and systematic choice for these households, not something they did occasionally. Some of these activities were for subsistence, some for exchange. What households could produce was to a large extent determined by their main mode of production, which in turn was linked to rights or access to resources. The more engaged users were in reindeer pastoralism, the less time they had to spend on other activities, and the more they traded.

AbstractFarmers across India are protesting the apathy of the state towards the agricultural sector, which is facing a triple crisis – economic, ecological and existential. This chapter attempts to locate the changing dynamics of agriculture at a frontier where a geographically specific articulation of this crisis comes to the fore: in Budhera, a peri-urban village bordering Gurugram city in the Indian state of Haryana. The village is still largely agrarian but undergoing rapid changes under the influence of (peri-)urbanization. Our ethnographic research investigates the juxtaposition of these urbanization processes with the more general impacts of climate variability on peri-urban agriculture. Although climate variability plays out at a larger scale than the urbanization processes, the conditions for peri-urban agriculture derive from an intersection of both. The results show how dimensions of agrarian livelihoods such as cropping choices, irrigation cycles, sharecropping arrangements, declining common property resources and land use changes to non-agricultural uses are influenced by (peri-)urbanization processes. We conclude that changes in land and water use in Budhera reshape agricultural practices and can cascade upon climate variability impacts in making agriculture more precarious for peri-urban farmers.

The chapter discusses how the security of communal lands tenureship and the livelihood choices that such land entitlements confer on peasants in northern Ghana are being undermined by new forms of land deals. This is done against a background unlike the past. Northern Ghana is witnessing an influx of transnational organizations that are interested in establishing jatropha plantations as biofuel feedstock. The implications of direct land deals between traditional leaders and transnational corporations, which invariably involve large tracts of land and the livelihoods of the peasantry, is a matter of interest in this work. The vulnerability of traditional leaders caused by their weak institutional capacity and poverty push them to enter into agreements that they do not understand. The chapter examines both sides of the debate pertaining to the outcomes of the land transactions on livelihoods in light of the poverty in northern Ghana.

Chapter 9 discusses how education, career aspirations, and life outside the village detach youths from their rural homesteads. It begins by analyzing the sending of children to distant institutions as a form of fosterage intended to enhance their livelihood opportunities, then explores how educational migration is driving a unique trajectory of population change that diverges in key ways from the forecasts of demographic transition theory. The focus then shifts to endogamy to illustrate how marital choices are expanding in conjunction with newfound ideologies and autonomy, but not without bounds, due to the enduring influence of parents. The chapter concludes by critiquing the notion that arranged marriage is an artifact of a traditional society that withers under the forces of secular education and modernization.

Trade plays a vitally important role in the provision of livelihoods for farmers and people employed in the spheres connected with the food supply chain. It also contributes to the insurance of food security across the globe and provides greater choice in goods for consumers. The data under analysis are the food, drinks and tobacco (SITC 0+1) exports amounts of Ukraine to the EU and of the EU to China. The timeframe under research is nine years – from 2011 till 2019 included. The purpose of the research is to analyse whether the agricultural products exports of Ukraine to the EU are correlated with the said exports of the EU to China and if they are, how strong the correlation is. The research is conducted using such statistic tools as the univariate analysis, the normality distribution analysis, the comparative analysis, the Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation coefficients, judging by the data scales and distributions. According to the research results, the agricultural products exports of the EU to China are approximately three times bigger than those of Ukraine to the EU. Judging by the calculated Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients of the agricultural products exports from Ukraine to the EU and from the EU to China and their p-values, the H0 hypothesis of zero correlation between the said exports can be rejected.

Sunflower commercialisation in Singida Region, Tanzania has been successful. The successes include increased oilseed production, expanding processing capacity and declining rural poverty. Policies and efforts by development agents to promote sunflower commercialisation have increased the number of actors and service providers. Accumulation from sunflower and other enterprises, including livestock, have not only improved livelihoods, but also contributed to household economic diversity. This paper examines the interactions between activities involved in sunflower production and other livelihood strategies. For example, the paper examines local dynamics in policy and business contexts that have shaped livelihood options available and people’s choices of which option they undertake, and the corresponding outcomes, and reasons for such commercialisation trajectories. The study aims to inform local, regional, and national strategies, to pursue more inclusive and sustainable agriculture development, and widen options and pathways for men and women in Mkalama and Iramba districts of Singida Region.

More frequent or intense floods, heatwaves, wildfires, droughts and typhoons devastate people’s homes, livelihoods and the natural world. A clean energy transition is urgently needed to reduce carbon emissions and prevent the impacts worsening. Wealthy countries have the prime historic responsibility for the climate crisis and therefore for its mitigation. But as the clean energy transition gathers speed, it inevitably also impacts lower-income, lower-emitting countries and communities. This research report, written by 20 co-authors from Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, the US and Europe, investigates the implications of the energy transition for them, and asks how the world can achieve a truly just, as well as fast, transition. The findings highlight the stark choice facing humanity. If the transition is undertaken with justice and respect for communities’ rights at its heart, it offers an unprecedented opportunity to simultaneously mitigate the climate crisis and reduce poverty and inequality. Conversely, an unjust transition, which entrenches or exacerbates inequalities, risks generating public resistance and slowing the transition with devastating human consequences.