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Journal articles on the topic 'Liquid metal batteries'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 1 February 2025

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1

Horstmann, G. M., N. Weber, and T. Weier. "Coupling and stability of interfacial waves in liquid metal batteries." Journal of Fluid Mechanics 845 (April 20, 2018): 1–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2018.223.

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We investigate the coupling dynamics of interfacial waves in liquid metal batteries and its effects on the battery’s operation safety. Similar to aluminium reduction cells, liquid metal batteries can be highly susceptible to magnetohydrodynamically exited interfacial instabilities. The resulting waves are capable of provoking short-circuits. Owing to the presence of two metal-electrolyte interfaces that may step into resonance, the wave dynamics in liquid metal batteries is particularly complex. In the first part of this paper, we present a potential flow analysis of coupled gravity–capillary interfacial waves. While we are focusing here on liquid metal batteries with circular cross-section, the theory is applicable to arbitrary stably stratified three-layer systems. Analytical expressions for the amplitude ratio and the wave frequencies are derived. It is shown that the wave coupling can be completely described by two independent dimensionless parameters. We further provide a decoupling criterion that suggests that wave coupling will be present in most future liquid metal batteries. In the second part, the theory is validated by comparing it with multiphase direct numerical simulations. An accompanying parameter study is conducted to analyse the system stability for interfaces coupled to varying degrees. Three different coupling regimes are identified involving characteristic coupling dynamics. For strongly coupled interfaces we observe novel instabilities that may have beneficial effects on the operational safety.

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Herreman, W., C. Nore, L. Cappanera, and J. L. Guermond. "Tayler instability in liquid metal columns and liquid metal batteries." Journal of Fluid Mechanics 771 (April 15, 2015): 79–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2015.159.

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In this paper we investigate the Tayler instability in an incompressible, viscous and resistive liquid metal column and in a model of a liquid metal battery (LMB). Detailed comparisons between theory and numerics, both in linear and nonlinear regimes, are performed. We identify the timescale that is well adapted to the quasi-static (QS) regime and find the range of Hartmann numbers where this approximation applies. The scaling law $\mathit{Re}\sim \mathit{Ha}^{2}$ for the amplitude of the Tayler destabilized flow is explained using a weakly nonlinear argument. We calculate a critical electrolyte height above which the Tayler instability is too weak to disrupt the electrolyte layer in a LMB. Applied to present day Mg-based batteries, this criterion shows that short circuits can occur only in very large batteries. Finally, preliminary results demonstrate the feasibility of direct numerical multiphase simulations of the Tayler instability in a model battery.

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Bojarevics, V., and A. Tucs. "Large scale liquid metal batteries." Magnetohydrodynamics 53, no. 4 (2017): 677–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.22364/mhd.53.4.9.

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4

Ota, Hiroki. "(Invited) Application of Liquid Metals in Battery Technology." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2024-02, no. 35 (November 22, 2024): 2502. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2024-02352502mtgabs.

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Stretchable devices have many potential applications, including wearable electronics, robotics, and health monitoring. These mechanically adaptable devices and sensors can seamlessly integrate with electronics on curved or soft surfaces. Given that liquids are more deformable than solids, sensors and actuators utilizing liquids encased in soft templates as sensing elements are particularly suited for these applications. Such devices, leveraging ultra-flexible conductive materials, are referred to as stretchable electronics. Liquid metals (LMs) have emerged as one of a leading material in this field. In recent years, interest in liquid metals has surged, notably in flexible and soft electronics. When considering liquid metals, mercury often comes to mind due to its fluid state at room temperature. However, its high toxicity precludes its use in wearable technology. Instead, gallium-based liquid metals are preferred due to their safety in such applications. Gallium alone melts at about 30°C, but an alloy of 75% gallium and 25% indium lowers the melting point to 15°C. Adding 10% tin further reduces it to -19°C. These gallium-based liquid metals, which form low-viscosity eutectic alloys, have extremely low melting points and high biocompatibility. In addition, they rapidly form a thin oxide layer on their surface, which complicates patterning on substrates. To address this, metal nanoparticles like nickel can be blended using ultrasonic probing to create a malleable paste. These materials are still under research to explore additional functionalities. Liquid metals are particularly promising for self-healing materials and advanced wiring technologies for sensors and smart devices in stretchable electronics. More recently, their application in battery technologies in addition to sensors and wiring has been proposed. With ongoing advancements in flexible and stretchable electronics, the flexibility of lithium-ion batteries, essential for powering these devices, is also under investigation. This presentation discusses research on flexible battery electrodes using liquid metal and on materials for stretchable battery packages. In our first study, liquid metal served as a battery electrode, integrating the reaction and current collecting layers into a single process, thus simplifying manufacturing. However, this integration results in lower conductivity compared to traditional two-layer electrodes. By employing materials such as Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) or Li2TiS3 (LTS) with liquid metal, we developed a high-conductivity, printable liquid metal electrode ink that combines both functions. In a second application, liquid metal was used as an package for stretchable batteries. Recent studies on batteries have primarily focused on enhancing their stability and lifespan, with less attention to packaging. Conventionally, aluminum laminate film is used to prevent moisture and gas permeation in highly deformable batteries. Our study introduced a novel approach using a layer-by-layer technique to apply a thin liquid metal coating on a gold-coated thermoplastic polyurethane film, resulting in a stretchable packaging film with excellent gas barrier properties. This innovation not only enhances the battery's operational stability but also allows it to function reliably in atmospheric condition. The applications for liquid metals are extensive and hold promise for further exploration in various fields.

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Weber, N., P. Beckstein, V. Galindo, W. Herreman, C. Nore, F. Stefani, and T. Weier. "Metal pad roll instability in liquid metal batteries." Magnetohydrodynamics 53, no. 1 (2017): 129–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.22364/mhd.53.1.14.

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Stefani, F., V. Galindo, C. Kasprzyk, S. Landgraf, M. Seilmayer, M. Starace, N. Weber, and T. Weier. "Magnetohydrodynamic effects in liquid metal batteries." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 143 (July 2016): 012024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/143/1/012024.

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7

Tian, Yuhui, and Shanqing Zhang. "The Renaissance of Liquid Metal Batteries." Matter 3, no. 6 (December 2020): 1824–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2020.10.031.

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8

Bhardwaj, Ravindra Kumar, and David Zitoun. "Recent Progress in Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Metal(Li/Na)–Sulfur Batteries." Batteries 9, no. 2 (February 3, 2023): 110. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries9020110.

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Metal–sulfur batteries, especially lithium/sodium–sulfur (Li/Na-S) batteries, have attracted widespread attention for large-scale energy application due to their superior theoretical energy density, low cost of sulfur compared to conventional lithium-ion battery (LIBs) cathodes and environmental sustainability. Despite these advantages, metal–sulfur batteries face many fundamental challenges which have put them on the back foot. The use of ether-based liquid electrolyte has brought metal–sulfur batteries to a critical stage by causing intermediate polysulfide dissolution which results in poor cycling life and safety concerns. Replacement of the ether-based liquid electrolyte by a solid electrolyte (SEs) has overcome these challenges to a large extent. This review describes the recent development and progress of solid electrolytes for all-solid-state Li/Na-S batteries. This article begins with a basic introduction to metal–sulfur batteries and explains their challenges. We will discuss the drawbacks of the using liquid organic electrolytes and the advantages of replacing liquid electrolytes with solid electrolytes. This article will also explain the fundamental requirements of solid electrolytes in meeting the practical applications of all solid-state metal–sulfur batteries, as well as the electrode–electrolyte interfaces of all solid-state Li/Na-S batteries.

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Arzani, Mehran, Sakshi Singh, and Vikas Berry. "Modified Liquid Electrolyte with Porous Liquid Type-II for Lithium-Metal Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2024-01, no. 1 (August 9, 2024): 96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2024-01196mtgabs.

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Liquid electrolytes modified by adding type-II porous liquid (PL) were designed and prepared to study its effect on the performance of lithium-metal batteries. Porous liquids provide internal, permanent, and empty porosity which are capable of coordinating and transporting Li+. The potential of the porous liquid to capture and transport ions with high mobility leads to enhancement in battery performance. In this study, the physicochemical properties of electrolytes, mechanism of solvation, transport, and electrical conductivity of lithium ions through the new electrolytes will be presented, and the potential of the liquid electrolyte based on the type-II porous liquid to develop the battery performance was investigated. This modification effectively improved the Li ionic conductivity of the electrolyte because of the Li+ ion solvation by type-II PL. The dissociation of Li+-TFSI− ion pairs and the formation of complexes with Li+ ions (Li-PL) were improved by using the type-II PL, resulting in an increase in the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte. Our findings suggest that the use of PL electrolytes can be a good candidate for improvement in physicochemical properties of electrolytes leading to an enhancement in Lithium-Metal Batteries.

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Godinez Brizuela, Omar Emmanuel, Daniel Niblett, and Kristian Etienne Einarsrud. "Pore-Scale Micro-Structural Analysis of Electrode Conductance in Metal Displacement Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 1 (July 7, 2022): 148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-011148mtgabs.

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Metal displacement batteries (MDBs), or liquid metal batteries, are an emerging technology with significant potential in providing high capacity, low-cost energy storage solutions, capable of addressing many of the challenges associated with storing energy from renewable sources. The key characteristic of metal displacement batteries is that at least one of the electrodes is in liquid state and a molten salt is used as an electrolyte. Since its original proposal in the 1960’s liquid metal batteries have re-emerged in recent years and different battery chemistries and designs have been explored, including Ca-Bi, Na-Sb, and many others [2,10]. Recently, Na-Zn liquid metal batteries have been studied as an alternative to other configurations, showing significant potential in achieving good performance for large-scale energy storage, while avoiding the high cost associated with some electrode materials such as Nickel or Lithium [7,8]. In past years, alternatives to all-liquid cells have emerged in the form of designs where the cell materials are a mixture of solids and liquids. Examples of this include the commercially available Zebra battery, where a Na-NiCl electrode pair is used [1,6]. These designs offer some of the advantages of all-liquid cells, while simultaneously mitigating many of the disadvantages of handling and operating a very high temperature system. Na-Zn have also been proposed for solid cathode designs, taking advantage of the lower cost of Zn over Ni [4,3]. The cathode in these designs is composed of a porous structure, within which multiple chemical species can co-exist. Electrolyte components share the space with metal deposits,salt crystals, and other electrochemical reaction products. As a result, the micro-porous structure of this composite system is an important factor in determining the performance of the cell, as the spatial distribution of different materials can have an impact on the effective conductivity of the electrode [5,9]. The porous structure hosts complex multi-component mass transfer phenomena as well, potentially having an impact on the mass-transfer overpotential of the cell. This work aims to study the impact of the microstructural properties of the solid electrode in a liquid displacement battery, and their importance to the effective conductivity of the system. We have developed a computational tool that enables us to create randomized microstructures in 3D, representing the electrode-electrolyte assembly. We are able to preserve the desired physical characteristics by using target pore-size distributions and volume fraction input as seed parameters. We use this tool to generate representative structures and analyze their effective bulk conductivity by solving Laplace’s equation over the resulting domain, accounting for the different local conductivity of each material. This methodology is applied to a novel Na-Zn cell in order to assess the importance of the pore-scale properties of the cathode, as well as its material components, including solid Zn metal, solid NaCl deposits, and molten salt components. It is expected that different material arrangement configurations will induce heterogeneous current distributions in this system. Furthermore, the ionic composition of the electrolyte would be different at different charge levels, leading to additional variation through its charge/discharge cycle. Using this methodology, the range of different electrode phase configurations produced during operation can be studied in the absence of microstructure imaging data. A representative elementary volume for the Zn electrode assembly is analyzed to determine the best approach for up-scaled performance predictions of the Na-Zn cell. With this method, it is possible to acquire data to elucidate desirable or undesirable electrode structure properties of this system, providing insight which can be used for improving manufacture and operation of the cell. [1] Dustmann. “Advances in ZEBRA batteries”. J. Power Sources (2004). [2] Kim et al. “Liquid metal batteries: Past, present, and future”. Chemical Reviews (2013). [3] Lu et al. “An Intermediate-Temperature High-Performance Na-ZnCl2 Bat- tery”. ACS Omega (2018). [4] Lu et al. “Liquid-metal electrode to enable ultra-low temperature sodium- beta alumina batteries for renewable energy storage”. Nature Communications (2014). [5] Qiu et al. “Pore-scale analysis of effects of electrode morphology and electrolyte flow conditions on performance of vanadium redox flow batteries”. J. Power Sources (2012). [6] Sudworth. “The sodium / nickel chloride ( ZEBRA ) battery”. J. Power Sources (2001). [7] Xu et al. “Electrode Behaviors of Na-Zn Liquid Metal Battery”. Journal of The Electrochemical Society (2017). [8] Xu et al. “Na-Zn liquid metal battery”. Journal of Power Sources (2016). [9] Zhang et al. “Progress in 3D electrode microstructure modelling for fuel cells and batteries: transport and electrochemical performance”. Progress in Energy (2019). [10] Zhang et al. “Liquid Metal Batteries for Future Energy Storage”. Energy Environmental Science (2021). Figure 1

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11

Kim, Hojong, Dane A. Boysen, Jocelyn M. Newhouse, Brian L. Spatocco, Brice Chung, Paul J. Burke, David J. Bradwell, et al. "Liquid Metal Batteries: Past, Present, and Future." Chemical Reviews 113, no. 3 (November 27, 2012): 2075–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr300205k.

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12

Yang, Huicong, Juan Li, Zhenhua Sun, Ruopian Fang, Da-Wei Wang, Kuang He, Hui-Ming Cheng, and Feng Li. "Reliable liquid electrolytes for lithium metal batteries." Energy Storage Materials 30 (September 2020): 113–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2020.04.010.

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13

Li, Haomiao, Huayi Yin, Kangli Wang, Shijie Cheng, Kai Jiang, and Donald R. Sadoway. "Liquid Metal Electrodes for Energy Storage Batteries." Advanced Energy Materials 6, no. 14 (May 31, 2016): 1600483. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201600483.

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14

Wu, Si, Xiao Zhang, Ruzhu Wang, and Tingxian Li. "Progress and perspectives of liquid metal batteries." Energy Storage Materials 57 (March 2023): 205–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2023.02.021.

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15

Liu, Xu, and Stefano Passerini. "Locally Concentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium/Sulfurized Polyacrylonitrile Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 2 (December 22, 2023): 365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-022365mtgabs.

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Low-cost sulfurized polyacrylontrile (SPAN), which shows negligible polysulfide dissolution and stable cycling up to hundreds of cycles due to a solid-phase mechanism in carbonate-based electrolytes, is a valuable high-energy cathode material for long-lifespan lithium metal batteries (LMBs).1 -3 However, the conventional carbonate-based electrolytes for commercial lithium-ion batteries are incompatible with lithium metal anodes (LMAs).4 The unstable solid-electrolyte interphases (SEIs) result in lithium dendrite growth and low lithium stripping/plating CEs, which further cause safety concerns and limited lifespan of Li/SPAN cells with low negative to positive areal capacity (N/P) ratio. Therefore, the development of Li/sulfurized polyacrylonitrile (SPAN) batteries requires electrolytes that can form stable electrolyte/electrode interphases (EEIs) simultaneously on lithium metal anodes (LMAs) and SPAN cathodes. With the remarkable compatibility toward LMAs and low flammability,4–7 locally concentrated ionic liquid electrolytes (LCILEs) might be promising candidates for Li/SPAN cells. Herein, a low-flammability locally concentrated ionic liquid electrolyte (LCILE) employing monofluorobenzene (mFBn) as the diluent is proposed for Li/SPAN cells.8 Unlike non-solvating diluents in other LCILEs, mFBn partially solvates Li+, decreasing the coordination between Li+ and bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FSI-). In turn, this triggers a more substantial decomposition of FSI- and consequently results in the formation of a SEI rich in inorganic compounds, which enables a remarkable Coulombic efficiency (99.72%) of LMAs. Meanwhile, a protective cathode/electrolyte interphase (CEI), derived mainly from FSI- and organic cations, is generated on the SPAN cathodes, preventing the dissolution of polysulfides. Benefiting from the robust interphases simultaneously formed on both the electrodes, highly stable cycling of Li/SPAN cells for 250 cycles with a capacity retention of 71% is achieved employing the LCILE and only 80% lithium metal excess. References: (1) Wang, J. et al. A Novel Conductive Polymer-Sulfur Composite Cathode Material for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14 (13–14), 963–965. (2) Shen, Z. et al. Tailored Electrolytes Enabling Practical Lithium-Sulfur Full Batteries via Interfacial Protection. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6 (8), 2673–2681. (3) Wu, Z. et al. Understanding the Roles of the Electrode/Electrolyte Interface for Enabling Stable Li∥Sulfurized Polyacrylonitrile Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13 (27), 31733–31740. (4) Liu, X. et al. Enhanced Li+ Transport in Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolytes Aided by Fluorinated Ethers for Highly Efficient Lithium Metal Batteries with Improved Rate Capability. Small Methods 2021, 5 (7), 2100168. (5) Liu, X. et al. Locally Concentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Metal Batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, e202219318. (6) Liu, X. et al. Effect of Organic Cations in Locally Concentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolytes on the Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Metal Batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 2022, 44, 370–378. (7) Liu, X. et al. Difluorobenzene-Based Locally Concentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolyte Enabling Stable Cycling of Lithium Metal Batteries with Nickel-Rich Cathode. Adv. Energy Mater. 2022, 12 (25), 2200862. (8) Liu, X. et al. Locally Concentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolyte with Partially Solvating Diluent for Lithium/Sulfurized Polyacrylonitrile Batteries. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2207155.

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Lee, Jiwhan, Haeseok Park, Seong Hoon Choi, Mun Seung Do, and Hansu Kim. "Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Metal Batteries with Fluorine Doped SO₂ Based Nonflammable Inorganic Electrolytes." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 4 (August 28, 2023): 829. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-014829mtgabs.

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With the demands for high energy density of lithium ion batteries(LIBs), replacing conventional anode of LIBs with lithium metal provide a great opportunity to overcome the limits of batteries because of their high-energy-density. However, utilizing lithium metal in battery system has problems like uncontrollable lithium dendrite growth during lithium plating/stripping and unstable solid electrolyte interface(SEI) on lithium metal which can cause short circuit of batteries. Fluorine is one of the well-known components to stabilize SEI layer in the battery system using commercial organic electrolytes. In this presentation, we introduce lithium metal batteries(LMBs) based fluorine doped LiAlCl4-xFx-3SO2 nonflammable inorganic liquid electrolyte to achieve stable SEI and uniform deposition of lithium. Compare to non-doped LiAlCl4-3SO2 electrolyte, the fluorine doped SO2 based inorganic electrolyte show much alleviated overpotential during cycling. We will show how fluorine doping in electrolytes impact the electrochemical performance of LMBs with SO2 based inorganic liquid electrolytes. Detailed reaction mechanism of our battery system with fluorine doped LiAlCl4-xFx-3SO2 nonflammable inorganic liquid electrolyte will be discussed in the presentation.

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Keating, Michael, Seungmin Oh, and Elizabeth J. Biddinger. "Physical and Electrochemical Properties of Pyrrolidinium-Based Ionic Liquid and Methyl Propionate Co-Solvent Electrolyte." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 55 (October 9, 2022): 2103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02552103mtgabs.

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Advancements in modern technology has led to increasing demand for high-capacity batteries. Lithium metal batteries have high specific capacity and are a promising candidate for post lithium-ion batteries. Traditional organic electrolytes have poor compatibility with lithium metal batteries. Ionic liquids (IL) with the addition of co-solvents have shown promised in lithium metal battery systems. In this work, 1-butyl-1-methyl-pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([Pyr14][TFSI]) was selected for its large electrochemical window and methyl propionate (MP) for its low viscosity and melting point. The IL/MP mixture with 0.8m LiTFSI maintained a large electrochemical window (>5V), extended liquid range of the IL and noticeably improved conductivity (from 0.56 mS/cm for 0.8m LiTFSI in [Pyr14][TFSI] to 11 mS/cm for 0.8m LiTFSI in a mixture of 1 to 7 mole ratio of [Pyr14][TFSI] to MP at 25°C). Also, we have identified that the addition of cyclic carbonate is important to increase the columbic efficiency for lithium deposition and stripping.

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Luo, Yusheng, Peizhi Mou, Wenlu Yuan, Laiping Li, Yongze Fan, Yong Chen, Xiumin Chen, Jie Shu, and Liyuan Zhang. "Anti-liquid metal permeation separator for stretchable potassium metal batteries." Chemical Engineering Journal 452 (January 2023): 139157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.139157.

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Ahmad, Zeeshan, Zijian Hong, and Venkatasubramanian Viswanathan. "Design rules for liquid crystalline electrolytes for enabling dendrite-free lithium metal batteries." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 43 (October 9, 2020): 26672–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2008841117.

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Dendrite-free electrodeposition of lithium metal is necessary for the adoption of high energy-density rechargeable lithium metal batteries. Here, we demonstrate a mechanism of using a liquid crystalline electrolyte to suppress dendrite growth with a lithium metal anode. A nematic liquid crystalline electrolyte modifies the kinetics of electrodeposition by introducing additional overpotential due to its bulk-distortion and anchoring free energy. By extending the phase-field model, we simulate the morphological evolution of the metal anode and explore the role of bulk-distortion and anchoring strengths on the electrodeposition process. We find that adsorption energy of liquid crystalline molecules on a lithium surface can be a good descriptor for the anchoring energy and obtain it using first-principles density functional theory calculations. Unlike other extrinsic mechanisms, we find that liquid crystals with high anchoring strengths can ensure smooth electrodeposition of lithium metal, thus paving the way for practical applications in rechargeable batteries based on metal anodes.

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Ma, Junfeng, Zhiyan Wang, Jinghua Wu, Zhi Gu, Xing Xin, and Xiayin Yao. "In Situ Solidified Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Stable Solid−State Lithium Batteries at High Temperatures." Batteries 9, no. 1 (December 30, 2022): 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries9010028.

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Lithium metal batteries have attracted much attention due to their high energy density. However, the critical safety issues and chemical instability of conventional liquid electrolytes in lithium metal batteries significantly limit their practical application. Herein, we propose polyethylene (PE)−based gel polymer electrolytes by in situ polymerization, which comprise a PE skeleton, polyethylene glycol and lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide as well as liquid carbonate electrolytes. The obtained PE−based gel polymer electrolyte exhibits good interfacial compatibility with electrodes, high ion conductivity, and wide electrochemical window at high temperatures. Moreover, the assembled LiFePO4//Li solid−state batteries employing PE−based gel polymer electrolyte with 50% liquid carbonate electrolytes deliver good rate performance and excellent cyclic life at both 60 °C and 80 °C. In particular, they achieve high specific capacities of 158.5 mA h g−1 with a retention of 98.87% after 100 cycles under 80 °C at 0.5 C. The in situ solidified method for preparing PE−based gel polymer electrolytes proposes a feasible approach for the practical application of lithium metal batteries.

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Nojabaee, M., J. Popovic, and J. Maier. "Glyme-based liquid–solid electrolytes for lithium metal batteries." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7, no. 21 (2019): 13331–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9ta03261d.

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Weber, Norbert, Carolina Duczek, Gleidys Monrrabal, William Nash, Martins Sarma, and Tom Weier. "Risk assessment for Na-Zn liquid metal batteries." Open Research Europe 4 (October 25, 2024): 236. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.17733.1.

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Background Na-Zn liquid metal batteries, which operate at 600 °C, have recently been proposed as inexpensive stationary energy storage devices. As with any other electrochemical cell, their fabrication and operation involves certain risks, which need to be well understood in order to be minimised. Methods A risk assessment according to ISO 12100 is performed at the cell level for operating Na-Zn cells in the laboratory environment. Hazard identification and risk evaluation are systematically addressed, including a thorough literature review, theoretical calculations and selected experiments. Results Cell overpressure is found to be one of the main risks – and might be caused either by mistakes in battery production (humidity) or operation (over-charge/discharge). In terms of cell housing, the weakest component is clearly the feedthrough. Its failure might lead to the release of hazardous aerosols to the environment. In this context, the candidate electrolyte components LiCl and BaCl2 are especially dangerous, and should therefore be reduced or avoided if possible. Conclusions Overall, Na-Zn cells are expected to reach a very high safety level, similar to state-of-the-art ZEBRA technology, as they are not prone to thermal runaway. However, considering the still low TRL level and open questions concerning the durability of certain parts of their housing, the batteries should preferably be operated under a fume hood.

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Ashour, Rakan F., Douglas H. Kelley, Alejandro Salas, Marco Starace, Norbert Weber, and Tom Weier. "Competing forces in liquid metal electrodes and batteries." Journal of Power Sources 378 (February 2018): 301–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.12.042.

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Tucs, A., V. Bojarevics, and K. Pericleous. "Magnetohydrodynamic stability of large scale liquid metal batteries." Journal of Fluid Mechanics 852 (August 7, 2018): 453–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2018.482.

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The aim of this paper is to develop a stability theory and a numerical model for three density-stratified electrically conductive liquid layers. Using regular perturbation methods to reduce the full three-dimensional problem to the shallow layer model, the coupled wave and electric current equations are derived. The problem set-up allows for weakly nonlinear velocity field action and an arbitrary vertical magnetic field. Further linearisation of the coupled equations is used for the linear stability analysis in the case of a uniform vertical magnetic field. New analytical stability criteria accounting for the viscous damping are derived for particular cases of practical interest and compared to the numerical solutions for a variety of materials used in batteries. These new criteria are equally applicable to the aluminium electrolysis cell magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) stability estimates.

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Xu, Cheng, Shijie Cheng, Kangli Wang, and Kai Jiang. "A Fractional-order Model for Liquid Metal Batteries." Energy Procedia 158 (February 2019): 4690–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.735.

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Yin, Huayi, Brice Chung, Fei Chen, Takanari Ouchi, Ji Zhao, Nobuyuki Tanaka, and Donald R. Sadoway. "Faradaically selective membrane for liquid metal displacement batteries." Nature Energy 3, no. 2 (January 22, 2018): 127–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41560-017-0072-1.

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Weier, T., A. Bund, W. El-Mofid, G. M. Horstmann, C.-C. Lalau, S. Landgraf, M. Nimtz, M. Starace, F. Stefani, and N. Weber. "Liquid metal batteries - materials selection and fluid dynamics." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 228 (July 2017): 012013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/228/1/012013.

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Jie, Yulin, Xiaodi Ren, Ruiguo Cao, Wenbin Cai, and Shuhong Jiao. "Advanced Liquid Electrolytes for Rechargeable Li Metal Batteries." Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 25 (April 6, 2020): 1910777. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201910777.

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Godinez-Brizuela, Omar E., Carolina Duczek, Norbert Weber, William Nash, Martins Sarma, and Kristian E. Einarsrud. "A continuous multiphase model for liquid metal batteries." Journal of Energy Storage 73 (December 2023): 109147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.109147.

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Karatrantos, Argyrios V., Md Sharif Khan, Chuanyu Yan, Reiner Dieden, Koki Urita, Tomonori Ohba, and Qiong Cai. "Ion Transport in Organic Electrolyte Solutions for Lithium-ion Batteries and Beyond." Journal of Energy and Power Technology 03, no. 03 (May 24, 2021): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.21926/jept.2103043.

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The performance of metal-ion batteries at low temperatures and their fast charge/discharge rates are determined mainly by the electrolyte (ion) transport. Accurate transport properties must be evaluated for designing and/or optimization of lithium-ion and other metal-ion batteries. In this review, we report and discuss experimental and atomistic computational studies on ion transport, in particular, ion diffusion/dynamics, transference number, and ionic conductivity. Although a large number of studies focusing on lithium-ion transport in organic liquids have been performed, only a few experimental studies have been conducted in the organic liquid electrolyte phase for other alkali metals that are used in batteries (such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc.). Atomistic computer simulations can play a primary role and predict ion transport in organic liquids. However, to date, atomistic force fields and models have not been explored and developed exhaustively to simulate such organic liquids in quantitative agreement to experimental measurements.

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Fujimoto, Hikaru, Natsuka Usami, Moeka Kanto, Hiroki Ota, Masayoshi Watanabe, and Kazuhide Ueno. "Stretchable Li Ion Battery Electrodes Using Ga-Based Liquid Metal and Ionic Liquids." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2024-02, no. 1 (November 22, 2024): 124. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2024-021124mtgabs.

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Liquid metal has low melting point, high thermal and electronic conductivity, and fluidity. In addition to having above properties, eutectic gallium-indium (Ga-In) are characterized by low volatility and low toxicity compared to a typical liquid metal such as Hg1). Ionic liquids have attracted considerable attention owing to unique properties such as high ionic conductivity, low volatility, and thermal stability. In previous works, we reported ion gels, composed of polymer networks swollen with ionic liquid, as highly ion-conducting, self-standing and flexible gel electrolytes 2). In this study, to prepare a stretchable electrode having high electronic and ionic conductivity as well as high stretchability and flexibility, we combine liquid metal Ga-In and Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) with the ion gel. Ga-In is expected to function as a “deformable current collector” while LTO serves as the active material in a stretchable electrode. This composite stretchable electrode (metal gel electrode3)) has a potential to be used for stretchable Li ion batteries in wearable devices. To meet the requirements of stretchable batteries used in the wearable devices, we studied effects of ionic liquid and polymer structures on the electrochemical properties and stretchable properties of the prepared metal gel electrodes. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by Core Research for Evolutionary Science and Technology (CREST) of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST). References 1) N. Kazem, et al, Adv. Mater., 2017, 29, 1-14. 2) M. A. B. H. Susan, et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2005, 127, 4976. 3) J. Asada, et al, Macromol. Chem. Phys., 2021, 223, 2100319.

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Igberaese, Simon Ejededawe. "A review of electrochemical cells and liquid metal battery (LMB) parameter development." Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering 7, no. 2 (February 4, 2024): 4220. http://dx.doi.org/10.24294/jpse.v7i2.4220.

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Liquid Metal Battery (LMB) technology is a new research area born from a different economic and political climate that has the ability to address the deficiencies of a society where electrical energy storage alternative are lacking. The United States government has begun to fund scholarly research work at its top industrial and national laboratories. This was to develop liquid metal battery cells for energy storage solutions. This research was encouraged during the Cold War battle for scientific superiority. Intensive research then drifted towards high energy rechargeable batteries, which work better for automobiles and other applications. Intensive research has been carried out on the development of electrochemical rechargeable all-liquid energy storage batteries. The recent request for green energy transfer and storage for various applications, ranging from small-scale to large-scale power storage, has increased energy storage advancements and explorations. The criteria of high energy density, low cost, and extensive energy storage provision have been met through lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries, and Liquid Metal Battery development. The objective of this research is to establish that liquid metal battery technology could provide research concepts that give projections of the probable electrode metals that could be harnessed for LMB development. Thus, at the end of this research, it was discovered that the parameter estimation of the Li//Cd-Sb combination is most viable for LMB production when compared with Li//Cd-Bi, Li-Bi, and Li-Cd constituents. This unique constituent of the LMB parameter estimation would yield a better outcome for LMB development.

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Bénard, Sabrina, Norbert Weber, Gerrit Maik Horstmann, Steffen Landgraf, and Tom Weier. "Anode-metal drop formation and detachment mechanisms in liquid metal batteries." Journal of Power Sources 510 (October 2021): 230339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230339.

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Popovic, J. "Review—Recent Advances in Understanding Potassium Metal Anodes." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 169, no. 3 (March 1, 2022): 030510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac580f.

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In the recent years, together with sodium, potassium-based batteries are raising a considerable attention as a possible alternative for replacing lithium batteries. This concise review gives an insight in the particularities of the interphases (solid electrolyte interphase) and interfaces (dendrite growth) in battery cells where potassium metal is in contact with liquid electrolytes, based on available theories and very recent experimental evidence. In addition, the electrochemical background of issues occurring in solid-state batteries with K metal anodes are touched upon.

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Wang, Junzhang, Zhou Xu, Tengteng Qin, Jintian Wang, Rui Tian, Xingzhong Guo, Zongrong Wang, Zhongkuan Luo, and Hui Yang. "Constructing a Quasi-Liquid Interphase to Enable Highly Stable Zn-Metal Anode." Batteries 9, no. 6 (June 16, 2023): 328. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060328.

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Rechargeable aqueous Zn-metal batteries have attracted widespread attention owing to their safety and low cost beyond Li-metal batteries. However, due to the lack of the solid electrolyte interphase, problems such as dendrites, side reactions and hydrogen generation severely restrict their commercial applications. Herein, a quasi-liquid interphase (QLI) with a “solid–liquid” property is constructed to stabilize the Zn-metal anode. The synergistic effect of solid and liquid behavior ensures the stable existence of QLI and simultaneously enables the interphase dynamic and self-adaptive to the anode evolution. Electrolyte erosion, Zn2+ diffusion and side reactions are inhibited during long-term cycling after introducing QLI, significantly improving the cycling stability and capacity retention of the symmetric and full cells modified with QLI (Zn@QLI), respectively. Constructing an interphase with a quasi-liquid state represents a promising strategy to stabilize the metal anodes in aqueous electrolytes and even extend to organic electrolytes.

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Provazi, Kellie, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, and Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório. "Metal Recovery of Discarded Stacks and Batteries, Liquid-Liquid Extraction and Stripping Parameters Effect." Materials Science Forum 727-728 (August 2012): 486–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.727-728.486.

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The purpose of this paper is to study metal separation from a sample composed of a mixture of the main types of spent household batteries, using a hydrometallurgical route, evaluating the parameters effect of the liquidliquid extraction, with Cyanex 272, and stripping. The preparation of solution consisted of: grinding the waste of mixed batteries, reduction and volatile metals elimination using electric furnace and acid leaching. With the best results obtained after liquidliquid extraction and stripping it was possible to get 4 solutions of metal sulfates that they could be used in posterior metals recovery by electroplating, they are: 1) to copper recovery: Cu 203.7 g L-1+ Co 20.8 g L-1+ Mn 2,626.6 g L-1; 2) to cobalt recovery: Co 364.0 g L-1; to manganese recovery: Mn 49,929.0 g L-1and 4) to nickel recovery: Ni 1,241.9 g L-1.

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Chang, Wesley. "Operando Ultrasonic Characterization of Lithium Metal Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 3 (December 22, 2023): 468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-023468mtgabs.

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Significant progress has been made in understanding and engineering rechargeable lithium metal batteries. Here, I discuss ultrasound as a technique to probe cell-level dynamics for lithium metal batteries in liquid and solid electrolytes. Multiple imaging modalities provide information on physical properties of lithium metal cells, including electrode wetting and consumption, lithium microstructural change and gas evolution. In a first case study, I discuss correlations between ultrasonic transmission signals and lithium microstructure size in liquid electrolytes, as a function of stack pressure and temperature. Anode and cathode effects can be decoupled. In a second case, acoustic amplitude is used to detect void formation in solid-state electrolytes. Third, ultrasound is used to characterize the formation process for various anode-free cells, where the improved chemical and electrochemical stability of localized ether electrolytes is correlated with decreased rates of cell swelling and minimal gas formation. Ultrasonic characterization and imaging is a portable and non-invasive means of probing commercial lithium metal cells after manufacturing, during use, or at the end-of-service.

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Catalina, Sofia K., Jianbo Wang, William C. Chueh, and J. Tyler Mefford. "Advanced Characterization Development for Metal Anodes in Aqueous Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 4 (December 22, 2023): 570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-024570mtgabs.

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Renewable penetration of the electric grid necessitates inexpensive and safe energy storage solutions. With these priorities, aqueous batteries with metal anodes (Zn, Al, Mg, Sn, etc.) are an exciting area of development as they have low material costs, inherent safety, and high theoretical energy density. Understanding and quantifying the faradaic and chemical reactions occurring in aqueous alkaline batteries with metal anodes necessitates probing the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases that evolve during cycling. The interplay of plating, stripping, precipitation, disproportionation, and parasitic gases generation complicates our understanding of metal anode cycling behavior and often muddle the real failure mechanisms in aqueous batteries. In our work, we have developed a robust toolbox of direct characterization tools to investigate metal anodes in aqueous batteries. Our investigation focuses on tin (Sn) as a largely unexplored metal anode and characterizes its performance and speciation during cycling. We will present a variety of methods to probe the charge/discharge speciation and efficiency losses to parasitic side reactions, including operando XRD, in-situ gas detection, RRDE, EQCM, and liquid 119Sn NMR. These techniques have allowed us to develop a mechanistic understanding of the Sn metal anode system and construct a high coulombic-efficiency, high utilization, and long cycle-life aqueous battery.

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Gueon, Donghee, and Jung Hoon Yang. "Carboxylic Acid Functionalized Ionic Liquid Electrolyte Additives for Stable Zinc Metal Anodes." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2024-02, no. 9 (November 22, 2024): 1349. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2024-0291349mtgabs.

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Aqueous zinc batteries are promising devices among next-generation low-cost rechargeable batteries due to low cost, high specific capacity (820 mAh g-1 and 5,855 mAh cm-2), and safe compatibility of zinc. However, zinc metal anode suffers from irregular zinc deposition and consequent formation of dendrite that deteriorates the cycle life of zinc batteries. Herein, we proposed designing strategies of electrolyte additives for stable metal anode during repeated plating/stripping by using carboxylic acid functionalized imidazolium-based ionic liquid. Imidazolium ionic liquids that has a carboxylic acid functional group (IL-COOH) formed a shielding layer on the zinc surface by electrostatic adhesion, which leads to facilitated Zn2+ ion flux by proper interaction between hydrophilic COOH and Zn2+. It leads to uniform zinc nucleation and deposition. Ex-situ scanning electron microscopy that tracks the Zn deposition verified the suppressed growth of the zinc dendrite by the IL-COOH. High Coulombic efficiency over 99% and a stable life span over 1,400 hr (1 mA cm-2 and 1 mAh cm-2) are achieved in a symmetric zinc cell. Even under harsh plating/stripping conditions (10 mA cm-2 and 5 mAh cm-2), stable cycle performance was retained. These results give obvious evidence of stable Zn deposition and suppressed dendrite growth by a zincophilic and hydrophilic functional group, which provides innovative strategies for a long lifespan of zinc batteries.

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Khani, Hadi, Somayyeh Kalami, and John B. Goodenough. "Micropores-in-macroporous gel polymer electrolytes for alkali metal batteries." Sustainable Energy & Fuels 4, no. 1 (2020): 177–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9se00690g.

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Korf, Kevin S., Yingying Lu, Yu Kambe, and Lynden A. Archer. "Piperidinium tethered nanoparticle-hybrid electrolyte for lithium metal batteries." J. Mater. Chem. A 2, no. 30 (2014): 11866–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ta02219j.

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Amanchukwu, Chibueze. "Solvent-Free Molten Salts for Next Generation Lithium Metal Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2024-02, no. 7 (November 22, 2024): 904. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2024-027904mtgabs.

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Lithium metal batteries (LMBs) promise high energy densities for electrified transport. Liquid electrolytes are currently state-of-the-art, but they are highly volatile and flammable and exacerbate safety concerns. In addition, the desolvation barrier for metal electrodeposition can be high. Solid state batteries promise to address the safety concerns plaguing liquids but suffer from highly resistive electrode/electrolyte interfaces. In our work, we explore the use of low melting inorganic molten salts as electrolytes for LMBs. These electrolytes do not contain organic moieties and are not susceptible to the reactions that plague organic moieties in conventional ionic liquids and small molecule electrolytes. Furthermore, they are non-volatile and nonflammable, retaining the promise of solid-state systems. We show these electrolytes have high ionic conductivities at ~80°C, enable smooth lithium deposits, support high Coulombic efficiencies, and can support battery cycling. These inorganic molten salts with accessible melting temperatures open a new class of electrolyte media for both conventional and next generation battery chemistries.

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Periyapperuma, Kalani, Laura Sanchez-Cupido, Jennifer M. Pringle, and Cristina Pozo-Gonzalo. "Analysis of Sustainable Methods to Recover Neodymium." Sustainable Chemistry 2, no. 3 (September 17, 2021): 550–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/suschem2030030.

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Neodymium (Nd) is one of the most essential rare-earth metals due to its outstanding properties and crucial role in green energy technologies such as wind turbines and electric vehicles. Some of the key uses includes permanent magnets present in technological applications such as mobile phones and hard disk drives, and in nickel metal hydride batteries. Nd demand is continually growing, but reserves are severely limited, which has put its continued availability at risk. Nd recovery from end-of-life products is one of the most interesting ways to tackle the availability challenge. This perspective concentrates on the different methods to recover Nd from permanent magnets and rechargeable batteries, covering the most developed processes, hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy, and with a special focus on electrodeposition using highly electrochemical stable media (e.g., ionic liquids). Among all the ionic liquid chemistries, only phosphonium ionic liquids have been studied in-depth, exploring the impact of temperature, electrodeposition potential, salt concentration, additives (e.g., water) and solvation on the electrodeposition quality and quantity. Finally, the importance of investigating new ionic liquid chemistries, as well as the effect of other metal impurities in the ionic liquid on the deposit composition or the stability of the ionic liquids are discussed. This points to important directions for future work in the field to achieve the important goal of efficient and selective Nd recovery to overcome the increasingly critical supply problems.

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Ruiz-Martínez, Débora, Andras Kovacs, and Roberto Gómez. "Development of novel inorganic electrolytes for room temperature rechargeable sodium metal batteries." Energy & Environmental Science 10, no. 9 (2017): 1936–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ee01735a.

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Wang, Hansen, Zhiao Yu, Xian Kong, Sang Cheol Kim, David T. Boyle, Jian Qin, Zhenan Bao, and Yi Cui. "Liquid electrolyte: The nexus of practical lithium metal batteries." Joule 6, no. 3 (March 2022): 588–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2021.12.018.

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Weber, Norbert, Carolina Duczek, Gerrit M. Horstmann, Steffen Landgraf, Michael Nimtz, Paolo Personnettaz, Tom Weier, and Donald R. Sadoway. "Cell voltage model for Li-Bi liquid metal batteries." Applied Energy 309 (March 2022): 118331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118331.

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Xing, Zerong, Junheng Fu, Sen Chen, Jianye Gao, Ruiqi Zhao, and Jing Liu. "Perspective on gallium-based room temperature liquid metal batteries." Frontiers in Energy 16, no. 1 (February 2022): 23–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11708-022-0815-y.

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Ouchi, Takanari, Hojong Kim, Xiaohui Ning, and Donald R. Sadoway. "Calcium-Antimony Alloys as Electrodes for Liquid Metal Batteries." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 161, no. 12 (2014): A1898—A1904. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.0801412jes.

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Personnettaz, Paolo, Pascal Beckstein, Steffen Landgraf, Thomas Köllner, Michael Nimtz, Norbert Weber, and Tom Weier. "Thermally driven convection in Li||Bi liquid metal batteries." Journal of Power Sources 401 (October 2018): 362–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.08.069.

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Ue, Makoto, and Kohei Uosaki. "Recent progress in liquid electrolytes for lithium metal batteries." Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 17 (October 2019): 106–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2019.05.001.

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