Journal articles on the topic 'Linguistic change – Egypt – History'
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Yehoshua, A. B. "From Myth to History." AJS Review 28, no. 1 (April 2004): 205–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0364009404000121.
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If we were to unravel the foundation of Jewish identity into its primary components, we would discover that beyond the religious commandments, beyond the various national sentiments, beyond the sense of belonging and connection to the Land of Israel and the Hebrew language, beyond certain historical and family memories that uniquely determine the Jewish identity of each individual, the common basis of all Jewish identities, in their various dosages and strengths, comprises several fundamental stories—stories that have shed any clear indicia of historical time and place and have become myths, metastories, which can no longer be changed, only interpreted. These myths, such as the binding of Isaac (the akedah), the story of the exodus and other bible stories, the stories of the destruction of the Temple (and recently, in a certain sense, the Holocaust), have become the infrastructural components of Jewish consciousness and identity, both religious and secular. They have served for millennia as effective ingredients in the preservation of the identity of many Jews, scattered among various lands and continents, in the midst of various peoples and religions and assorted civilizations, and for centuries without being specifically dependent on the clear historical context of a defined territory or language. These myths are the most primary basis for the existence of diaspora Jewish identity, which makes possible the preservation of Jewish identity “outside history,” in the famous phrase of Gershon Scholem, notwithstanding the terrible toll that this existence has taken on the Jewish people in the end. The power of these myths lies in the fact that one's connection to them can be immediate, in all places and at all times, and beyond their original linguistic form; this connection finds succinct expression in the sentence, “In every generation, a person is obligated to regard himself as if he himself left Egypt.”
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Zaborowski, Jason. "From Coptic to Arabic in Medieval Egypt." Medieval Encounters 14, no. 1 (2007): 15–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/138078507x254631.
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AbstractThe question of when and where Egyptian Christians began to disuse the Coptic language and adopt Arabic remains a puzzle. The Apocalypse of Samuel of Qalamūn (ASQ) offers interesting hints about the process of language change by referring to the loss of Coptic in church functions. This paper argues that the ASQ represents Christians from the specific region of the Fayyūm and their struggle of identity maintenance that occurred after the Coptic language had generally fallen into disuse. Some scholars have speculated that the ASQ has a Coptic Vorlage, even though it is only extant in Arabic. This paper argues that the ASQ may have been originally an Arabic composition, perhaps written as late as the fourteenth century, as a means of connecting the Christian community to the Coptic language at a time when they were unable to access their tradition through Coptic-language texts.
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Krikh, Sergey. "Disappointment in Slavery: Late Soviet Egyptology on the Ways of Neopositivism." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 3 (2022): 234. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080017251-3.
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The article is devoted to the changes in late Soviet Egyptology, which characterize new features in its development, manifested in the post-war period and developed to the maximum in the 1970s – 1980s. The author believes that the Soviet Egyptological school, which raised itself to the legacy of the school of B.A. Turaev, in fact it was created anew by V.V. Struve, while a feature of its development was the fact that both a formal leader (V.V. Struve himself) and an informal leader (Yu.Ya. Perepyolkin) existed in it. This determined the fact that the revision of views on ancient Egyptian society, which takes place in the late Soviet period, was somewhat different from how there was a change in views on the history of ancient Mesopotamia.Instead of a rather clearly defined conflict of generations in Soviet Assyriology, in Soviet Egyptology, on the contrary, there was a gradual, outwardly conflict-free change of landmarks. Despite the fact that there were attempts at a limited revision of Struve's concept from a general theoretical standpoint (I.A. Stuchevsky), nevertheless, the main line was to establish the cult of working with historical data, which ultimately led to a consistent tendency to abandon the use of modern terms to describe the social reality of ancient Egypt (O.D.Berlev, E.S.Bogoslovsky).From a theoretical point of view, the searches of Soviet Egyptologists were most similar to not fully reflected neopositivism, while further theoretical evolution was hampered by both external circumstances (in the form of Marxist-Leninist ideology) and the aforementioned orientation toward working with particular historical facts.
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Salama, Amir H. Y. "Whose face to be saved? Mubarak’s or Egypt’s? A pragma-semantic analysis." Pragmatics and Society 5, no. 1 (May 5, 2014): 128–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ps.5.1.06sal.
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The 25th of January, 2011 witnessed a wave of political unrest all over Egypt, with repercussions that have re-shaped the future of contemporary Egypt. For the first time in the modern history of Egypt since the 1952 Nasserite revolution, grass-root protestors went to streets chanting slogans against the military regime headed by the (since then ex-) President of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak. This placed the then regime, as well as its mainstay, the National Democratic Party (NDP), in a political crisis on both local and international scales. It is this critical moment that led Mubarak to give his unprecedented speech on February 1st, 2011. The speech has brought about epoch-making political changes in the history of contemporary Egypt. Under public pressure, two seminal declarations were made in this speech: (1) Mubarak’s intention not to nominate himself for a new presidential term; (2) a call on the Houses of Parliament to amend articles 76 and 77 of the constitution concerning the conditions on running for presidency and the period for the presidential term in Egypt. The present paper seeks to answer the following overarching question: what are the discursive strategies used for saving the political face of Mubarak in his speech on February 1st, 2011? I follow a text-analytic framework based on the socio-semantic theory of social actors and the pragmatic models of speech acts and face-threatening acts. The analysis reveals Mubarak’s attempt to save his positive political face as a legitimate President who regarded himself as the official ruler invested with absolute power over Egypt.
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Koselleck, Reinhart. "Linguistic Change and the History of Events." Journal of Modern History 61, no. 4 (December 1989): 650–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/468339.
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Андриевский, Д. В., and М. М. Чореф. "Antique coins found near of the Poshtove village (Crimea) as a historical source." Proceedings in Archaeology and History of Ancient and Medieval Black Sea Region, no. 14 (September 23, 2022): 358–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.53737/2713-2021.2022.24.16.018.
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Наше внимание привлекла небольшая подборка античных монет (10 экз.), найденных в начале XXI в. жителями пос. Почтовое на территории близлежащего сада. Есть основания полагать, что эти артефакты в свое время находились в собственности у жителей позднескифских селищ Альминское, Терек-Эли или пока еще неразведанного объекта, находившегося в районе обнаружения монет. Самые ранние находки — билонные тетрадрахмы, чеканенные в Александрии при Нероне и в честь Тита при Веспасиане. Остальные монеты — разменные, изготовленные из малоценных бронзовых сплавов. Большая их часть (7 экз.) эмитирована в восточных римских провинциях во II — начале III вв. Позднейшую из монет отчеканили в Александрии от имени Галерия в период правления Диоклетиана. Примечательно, что в подборке нет монет Херсонеса и Боспора, при том, что их жители не использовали деньги, чеканенные в римском Египте. Следовательно, изучаемые артефакты поступили к поздним скифам не от херсонеситов и боспорян или иноземных купцов, торговавших в Таврике, а от римских легионеров, переведённых на полуостров и размещённых, по-видимому, в Алма-Кермене. Тот факт, что большая часть найденных монет была эмитирована во II — начале III вв., свидетельствует о пике внешнеполитической активности империи в Таврике в тот период. Что же касается бронзы Галерия, то она могла поступить в регион в ходе мелкой приграничной торговли. Сам факт обнаружения этих артефактов в достаточно удалённом от побережья районе Юго-Западной Таврики позволяет уточнить наши представления об экономике региона в римский период его истории. Есть все основания полагать, что его жители торговали с подконтрольными римлянам территориями, причём ценили деньги не только из благородных металлов, но и из бронзы. Our attention was drawn to a small sample of antique coins (10 items) found at the beginning of this century by residents of the town of Poshtove, on the territory of the nearby garden. There are some reasons to believe that these artifacts were once owned by the inhabitants of late Scythian settlements: Alma, Terek-Eli, or an as yet unexplored site located in the area where coins were discovered. The earliest finds are the billon tetradrachms minted in Alexandriaunder Nero and in honor of Titus under Vespasian. All other coins are change coins made of low-value bronze alloys. Most of them (seven items) were issued in the Eastern Roman provinces in the 2nd — early 3rd cc. The latest of these was minted in Alexandriaon behalf of Galerius during the reign of Diocletian. It is noteworthy that there are no coins of Chersonesos and Bosporusin the sample. Moreover, their inhabitants did not use money minted in Roman Egypt. Consequently, the studied artifacts came to the late Scythians not from Chersonesites and Bosporans or foreign merchants who traded in Taurica, but from Roman legionnaires transferred to the peninsula and apparently located in Alma-Kermen. The fact that most of the coins found were issued in the 2nd— early 3rd cc. testifies to the peak of the foreign policy of the Empire in Taurica at that time. In turn, the bronze of Galerius could have come to the region in the process of frontier petty trade. The very fact that these artifacts were discovered in a region of Southwestern Taurica quite far from the coast allows us to clarify our understanding of the economy of the region in the Roman period of its history. There is every reason to believe that its inhabitants traded with the territories controlled by the Romans. Moreover, they valued money not only made of precious metals, but also from bronze.
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Hacham, Noah. "The Letter of Aristeas: A New Exodus Story?" Journal for the Study of Judaism 36, no. 1 (2005): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1570063054012150.
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AbstractA common opinion views the purpose of the Letter of Aristeas as strengthening the self-identity of Egyptian Diaspora Jewry by sanctifying the Greek translation of the Torah. As Orlinsky has shown, this view is supported by linguistic and thematic parallels between Aristeas and biblical descriptions of the giving of the Torah. The linguistic and thematic associations, however, do not only apply to this specific biblical episode, but also to the entire book of Exodus including the exodus story itself. The author of Aristeas transformed the biblical stories of the exodus and the giving of the Torah into a new foundation story of Egyptian Jewry. In doing so, the new story disregards the biblical hostility to Egypt and instead expresses sympathy for the Ptolemaic king who released the Jews from slavery, settled them in Egypt and initiated the Torah translation into Greek. The aim of Aristeas was to offer a religious justification for the residence of Jews in Egypt.
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Gesink, Indira Falk. "Islamic Reformation: A History ofMadrasaReform and Legal Change in Egypt." Comparative Education Review 50, no. 3 (August 2006): 325–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503878.
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Kress, Gunther. "History and language: Towards a social account of linguistic change." Journal of Pragmatics 13, no. 3 (June 1989): 445–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(89)90065-9.
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Bárta, Miroslav, Veronika Dulíková, Radek Mařík, and Matej Cibuľa. "Modelling the Dynamics of Ancient Egyptian State During the Old Kingdom Period: Hidden Markov Models and Social Network Analysis." Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 149, no. 1 (June 1, 2022): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zaes-2020-0017.
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Summary The present study aims to outline new, more adjusted approaches of research addressing social complexity of past societies. In doing so, we use varied evidence to detect major ‘leap events’ in the history of ancient Egypt which were reflected by the state administration and its fluctuating complexity. The archaeological and inscriptional evidence shows that crucial changes in history had a non-linear, punctuated character. To reveal their true character, newly developed mathematical models have been applied. The analyses of early complex civilisations have made a noticeable progress recently. The current scholarship pays significant attention to a processual approach, description of the dynamics and its interpretation against the specific background formed by varied datasets originating from disciplines such as archaeology, history, art history, philology or environmental sciences to name but a few of the most relevant ones. Within this context, Old Kingdom Egypt evidence is reassessed using specific methods of analysis and interpretation. The ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom (2592–2120 BC), one of the earliest territorial states on this planet, is still frequently considered to be a homogenous continuum of isolated historical events manifested in various forms of architecture, art or religion. Some recent studies applied to its study put emphasis on a non-linear, ‘punctuated approach’ which appears to provide some new important perspectives on this traditional problem. The application of modern mathematical methods based on Hidden Markov Models and Social Network Analysis significantly changes this view. These methods have the potential to detail a vivid, heterogenous process of historical progress as a punctuated equilibria model, as a non-linear system with changing dynamics of its development in time. In this process, human agency, the rise and fluctuation of complexity and particular strategies of different social groups played significant roles and can be detected with the help of impartial approaches. The emerging picture can be used not only to describe the evolution of a past society but also for comparative purposes when studying the dynamics of past or present societies.
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Brett, Michael. "Continuity and Change: Egypt and North Africa in the Nineteenth Century." Journal of African History 27, no. 1 (March 1986): 149–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700029248.
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Marsot, Afaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid, and Robert L. Tignor. "State, Private Enterprise, and Economic Change in Egypt, 1918-1952." American Historical Review 90, no. 1 (February 1985): 195. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1860873.
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RICKARD, P. "Review. Linguistic Change in French. Posner, Rebecca." French Studies 52, no. 3 (July 1, 1998): 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/52.3.372.
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Clay, Christopher, and Robert L. Tignor. "State, Private Enterprise, and Economic Change in Egypt, 1918-1952." Economic History Review 38, no. 3 (August 1985): 480. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2597034.
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Helmawati, Helmawati. "Spiritual Values Learning Through History and Archeaology in Egypt." HIKMATUNA : Journal for Integrative Islamic Studies 3, no. 1 (January 23, 2018): 177. http://dx.doi.org/10.28918/hikmatuna.v3i1.1056.
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Learning is a core in educational process. In the process of education, spiritual values can be implemented through various method in the class interaction to improve spiritual belief of students. One of subject material in curriculum which can be implemented to grow and to improve spiritual values is history and archaeology. To listen story, to read it, and to come to visit and observe the history places such as in Egypt gives strengthen sense of spiritual to human kind. For instance, there are lot of historical places spread out in Egypt which can be grow and improve the sense of someone spirituality, i.e. story of Pharaohs, which explained the journey of Moses in the Qur’an. The existence of Nile river, Cairo and Giza, the mosque of Amr bin Ash story, and some other places in Egypt gives spiritual history from ancient time. The spiritual values are also included in aim main goal of Islamic education and The National Educational Goal of Indonesia. In the holly Qur’an, Allah says many stories to be taken the lesson as the guidance to the right and safe ways. In university level, the students who have enough in psychologically and age to go around the world can see directly and observe the place the histories are happened. So, the focus of the article is how to build and growth the spiritual values in someone personality through strategy of learning in historical subject matter. Data were collected through observation to the place where the histories are happened and using NLP (neuro-linguistic programing) as communication strategy as well, interviews and documentary study. Data were analyzed qualitatively. The result of this article is through history and archaeology, people can take the lessons to grow their belief and faith to Allah. To have faith in one God, to struggle in right way, to be patient facing the trial of life, to have critical intelligence, are as some of the spiritual values stated.
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POUWELS, RANDALL L. "EAST AFRICAN COASTAL HISTORY." Journal of African History 40, no. 2 (July 1999): 285–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853798007403.
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Swahili and Sabaki: A Linguistic History. By DEREK NURSE and THOMAS J. HINNEBUSCH. Edited by THOMAS J. HINNEBUSCH, with a special addendum by GERARD PHILIPPSON. (University of California Publications in Linguistics, 121). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1993. Pp. xxxii+780. $80 (ISBN 0-520-09775-0).Shanga. The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa. By MARK HORTON. (Memoirs of the British Institute of East Africa, 14). London: The British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1996. Pp. xvi+458. £75 (ISBN 1-872-56609-x).Nurse's and Hinnebusch's Swahili and Sabaki: A Linguistic History is the most comprehensive study yet done of Swahili history through linguistic analysis. It is an encyclopedic work representing many years of research by the authors and other scholars, and it focuses particularly on the emergence and evolution of the Swahili language. The massive and diverse evidence they marshal is, of course, almost entirely linguistic: as such they discuss four basal parameters of language relationship and change, namely lexis, morphology, phonology and tone. (The last two are treated together, and G. Philippson reviews the latter.)
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Jügel, Thomas. "On the linguistic history of Kurdish." Kurdish Studies 1, no. 1 (October 11, 2014): 123–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.33182/ks.v2i2.398.
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Historical linguistic sources of Kurdish date back just a few hundred years, thus it is not possible to track the profound grammatical changes of Western Iranian languages in Kurdish. Through a comparison with attested languages of the Middle Iranian period, this paper provides a hypothetical chronology of grammatical changes. It allows us to tentatively localise the approximate time when modern varieties separated with regard to the respective grammatical change. In order to represent the types of linguistic relationship involved, distinct models of language contact and language continua are set up. Li ser tarîxa zimannasî ya zimanê kurdîÇavkaniyên tarîxî yên zimanê kurdî bes bi qasî çend sedsalan kevn in, lewma em nikarin di zimanê kurdî de wan guherînên bingehî yên rêzimana zimanên îranî yên rojavayî destnîşan bikin. Ev meqale kronolojiyeke ferazî ya guherînên rêzimanî yên kurdiyê dabîn dike bi rêya muqayesekirina bi wan zimanên xwedan-belge yên serdema îraniya navîn. Bi vî rengî, em dikarin bi awayekî muweqet dem û serdemeke teqrîbî diyar bikin ku tê de ziman û şêwezarên nû ji aliyê guherînên rêzimanî ve jêk cuda bûne. Ji bo berçavkirina awayên têkiliya zimanî di navbera zimanan de, modêlên cihê yên temasa zimanî û dirêjeya zimanî hatine danîn. ١. سەبارەت بە مێژووی زمانناسیی زمانی کوردی سەرچاوە مێژووە زمانناسییەکانی زمانی کوردی تەنیا بۆ چەند سەدە پێش ئێستا دەگەڕێنەوە، بۆیە ناکرێت شوێن پێی گۆڕانکارییە پڕمانا ڕێزمانییەکانی زمانەکانی ڕۆژئاوای ئێران لەناو زمانی کوردیدا هەڵگرین. ئەم وتارە، لە ڕێگەی بەراوردکردنی زمانی کوردی لەگەڵ زمانەکانی قۆناغی ئێرانی ناوەندی کە بەڵگەمەندن، کرۆنۆلۆجیایەکی گریمانەیی لە گۆڕانکارییە ڕێزمانییەکان بەدەستەوە دەدات. ئەم ڕێکارە ڕێگەمان پێ دەدات، کە بەشێوەیەکی تاقیکاری، کاتێک نزیک بەو سەردەمە دەستنیشان بکەین کە جۆراوجۆرییە نوێکان بەگوێرەی گۆڕانی ڕێزمانیی پەیوەندیدار لە یەک جیا دەبنەوە. بۆ پیشاندانی جۆرەکانی پەیوەندی زمانناسی کە لێرەدا خۆیان دەردەخەن، چەند مۆدێلی جیاواز لە بەرکەوتنی زمانی و درێژەدانی زمانی ئامادە کراوە.
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Smith-Hefner, Nancy J. "A Social History of Language Change in Highland East Java." Journal of Asian Studies 48, no. 2 (May 1989): 257–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2057377.
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Throughout east and southeast asia multilingual speech communities are the norm rather than the exception. In most countries in the region, nonstandard dialects and ethnic languages survive and even thrive despite the introduction of national languages and their utilization in government, business, and education. Where communicative isolation is not the cause of their survival, the persistence of such regional languages often signals the continuing importance of distinctive infranational identities, operating within (and sometimes across) the boundaries of the modern nation state. Although surely not the only important marker of ethnic or social distinctiveness, language is a particularly rich medium for the expression of social identity. Conversely, the adoption of a new linguistic standard often requires the resolution of what are perceived as competing social identities. In much of developing Asia, therefore, researchers on language history regularly encounter some variant of the same question: what social and historical conditions determine the ways that speakers in multilingual communities resolve problems of language and identity? More specifically, what mix of cultural and political forces ensures that some linguistic varieties persist while others decline or even disappear?
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Gesink. "Islamic Reformation: A History of Madrasa Reform and Legal Change in Egypt." Comparative Education Review 50, no. 3 (2006): 325. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4091405.
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Aroian, Lois A., and A. Chris Eccel. "Egypt, Islam, and Social Change: Al-Azhar in Conflict and Accommodation." American Historical Review 90, no. 5 (December 1985): 1246. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1859786.
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Maftsir, Sharon. "Emotional Change: Romantic Love and the University in Postcolonial Egypt." Journal of Social History 52, no. 3 (March 21, 2018): 831–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jsh/shx155.
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Jo, Eun Seo, and Mark Algee-Hewitt. "The Long Arc of History: Neural Network Approaches to Diachronic Linguistic Change." Journal of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities 3, no. 1 (October 21, 2018): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.17928/jjadh.3.1_1.
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Posner, Rebecca. "Historical linguistics, language change and the history of French." Journal of French Language Studies 4, no. 1 (March 1994): 75–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959269500001988.
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AbstractThis is a personal delineation of part of a methodology for the History of the French Language, aiming to combine the methodology of linguistics with that of history proper. Both traditional and modern methods of ‘historical linguistics’ fail to take account of a real time dimension, whereas ‘language history’ often resembles institutional, cultural and social history. We ask how we identify the ‘event’ and the ‘object’ of linguistic history, and how we distinguish variation, innovation, shift and change. We ask also what the linguist can contribute to the historian's reconstruction of the past.
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VANSINA, JAN. "LINGUISTIC EVIDENCE AND HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION." Journal of African History 40, no. 3 (November 1999): 469–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853799007598.
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A Green Place, a Good Place: Agrarian Change, Gender and Social Identity in the Great Lakes Region to the Fifteenth Century. By David Lee Schoenbrun. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann: Oxford: James Currey, 1998. Pp. xiv+301. £40 (ISBN 0-325-00041-7); £15.95, paperback (ISBN 0-325-00040-9).An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. By Christopher Ehret. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia; Oxford: James Currey, 1998. Pp. xvii+354. £35 (ISBN 0-8139-1814-6).Recently several historical reconstructions based on linguistic evidence and dealing with ancient times have been published in African history. In 1998 alone there are the two books reviewed here as well as a major work by Gerda Rossel. Linguistic sources contribute much to the recovery of aspects of the past, which would otherwise remain out of reach, and the standard methodologies of historical linguistics are well known to readers of this journal. Yet in practice many historians remain all too often disconcerted by such studies because they have great difficulty in evaluating them: i.e. in linking assertions made to the evidence provided and so to establish the credibility of such statements. This is not just because many historians are unfamiliar with linguistic evidence but because all the evidence necessary for evaluation is usually not available in the work studied, and often enough authors do not clearly indicate where it can be found. Indeed sometimes it is not available at all. In such cases one has to take the statements made by the authors on faith: one believes the author or not. That is clearly unacceptable. For is it not a fundamental rule in history writing that assertions must be substantiated and hence evidence must be cited or provided? Any work without substantiation cannot be considered to be a work of history at all.
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Daly, M. W., and Robert L. Tignor. "State, Private Enterprise, and Economic Change in Egypt, 1918-1952." International Journal of African Historical Studies 19, no. 4 (1986): 707. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/219148.
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Davies, Clare. "Arts Writing in 20th-Century Egypt: Methodology, Continuity, and Change." ARTMargins 2, no. 2 (June 2013): 19–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/artm_a_00046.
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This article discusses an approach to arts writing rooted in the work of Egypt's earliest art critics and historians, yet associated primarily with the legacy of those writers who dominated artistic discourse of the 1960s. In suspending the assumption that Egyptian arts writing resists methodological analysis, I seek to describe the procedures and premises that characterize this approach, as well as address its longstanding dominance within the field, its relationship to the role of concepts of change and continuity in shaping artistic discourse in Egypt of the latter part of the 20th century, and its enduring influence today.
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Gasparro, Giulia Sfameni. "Anubis in the “Isiac Family” in the Hellenistic and Roman World." Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 58, no. 1-4 (December 2018): 529–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/068.2018.58.1-4.31.
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Summary The aim of this paper is to investigate the role of Anubis as a member of the “Isiac Family” (Isis–Osiris/Sarapis–Horus/Harpokrates–Anubis) during the Hellenistic and Roman age. A new religious-historical analysis allows us to detect more or less profound changes of Anubis' ancient religious meaning due to the transfer from Egypt to Greece and Rome. The spread of this cult from its motherland to the Hellenistic world and subsequently to the Roman Empire caused, as well, the creation of its new religious identity.
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Said, Mohamed El Sayed. "Review: Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism, and Political Change in Egypt." Journal of Islamic Studies 16, no. 2 (May 1, 2005): 245–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jis/eti141.
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Leprohon, Ronald J. "The Royal Titulary in the 18th Dynasty: Change and Continuity." Journal of Egyptian History 3, no. 1 (2010): 7–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187416610x487223.
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AbstractThe phraseology used to compose the royal titularies during the Eighteenth Dynasty was as varied as it was circumscribed. Following a long-established tradition, the Eighteenth Dynasty kings chose names that corresponded to the situation they inherited at their accession. When the rulers of the family that re-united Egypt drew up their titulary, they first looked to celebrated predecessors for inspiration to compose their royal titulary. Later pharaohs looked more closely in time to their immediate predecessors. The titulary also reveals much about the concept of kingship during the period. From belligerent phrases to wishes for prosperity and longevity, the kings revealed much about themselves and their personalities through their chosen titulary.
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Reid, Donald Malcolm, and Shimon Shamir. "Egypt from Monarchy to Republic: A Reassessment of Revolution and Change." International Journal of African Historical Studies 30, no. 1 (1997): 152. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/221558.
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Maher, Julianne. "Fishermen, farmers, traders: Language and economic history on St. Barthélemy, French West Indies." Language in Society 25, no. 3 (September 1996): 373–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404500019217.
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ABSTRACTSt. Barthélemy, a small island in the northeastern Caribbean, is populated primarily by descendants of 17th century French settlers, and hosts seven language varieties. To explain the linguistic complexity of the island, this article reconstructs both its social history (using censuses, church records, and land registries) and its economic history, analyzing the effects of economic change on the island's population. The two offshoot communities on St. Thomas provide evidence of social fragmentation related to occupational differences. Functional explanations for St. Barth's linguistic diversity are inadequate; however, the social network theory of Milroy & Milroy 1992 proves useful in explaining the persistence of language differences in this small isolated community. (Social networks, life-modes, economic change, societal multilingualism, creole languages, French, West Indies, St. Barthélemy)
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Buckley, Kevin, and Carl Vogel. "Using character N-grams to explorediachronic change in medieval English." Folia Linguistica 40, no. 2 (November 26, 2019): 249–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/flih-2019-0012.
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Abstract This paper applies character N-grams to the study of diachronic linguistic variation in a historical language. The period selected for this initial exploratory study is medieval English, a well-studied period of great linguistic variation and language contact, whereby the efficacy of computational techniques can be examined through comparison to the wealth of thorough scholarship on medieval linguistic variation. Frequency profiles of character N-gram features were generated for several epochs in the history of English and a measure of language distance was employed to quantify the similarity between English at different stages in its history. Through this a quantification of internal change in English was achieved. Furthermore similarity between English and other medieval languages across time was measured allowing for a measurement of the well-known period of contact between English and Anglo-Norman French. This methodology is compared to traditional lexicostatistical methods and shown to be able to derive the same patterns as those derived from expert-created feature lists (i.e. Swadesh lists). The use of character N-gram profiles proved to be a flexible and useful method to study diachronic variation, allowing for the highlighting of relevant features of change. This method may be a complement to traditional qualitative examinations.
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Adamska-Sałaciak, Arleta. "Jan Baudouin De Courtenay’s contribution to Linguistic Theory." History of Linguistics in Poland 25, no. 1-2 (January 1, 1998): 25–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.25.1-2.05ada.
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Summary The extent of Jan Baudouin de Courtenay’s (1845–1929) contribution to general linguistic theory is still hard to assess. He never wrote a major synthetic work, nor has the bulk of his production been translated into English. Thanks primarily to Jakobson, at least his formative influence on modern phonology is generally acknowledged. Fewer linguists are aware of the relevance of Baudouin’s teaching for the study of language change. His conceptualisation of the nature of change, its causes and goals, and the role played in it by the language system, all seem of more than merely historical interest to the theoretically-minded diachronic linguist.
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François, Alexandre. "Social ecology and language history in the northern Vanuatu linkage." Journal of Historical Linguistics 1, no. 2 (December 31, 2011): 175–246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fra.
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This study describes and explains the paradox of related languages in contact that show signs of both linguistic divergence and convergence. Seventeen distinct languages are spoken in the northernmost islands of Vanuatu. These closely related Oceanic languages have evolved from an earlier dialect network, by progressive diversification. Innovations affecting word forms — mostly sound change and lexical replacement — have usually spread only short distances across the network; their accumulation over time has resulted in linguistic fragmentation, as each spatially-anchored community developed its own distinctive vocabulary. However, while languages follow a strong tendency to diverge in the form of their words, they also exhibit a high degree of isomorphism in their linguistic structures, and in the organization of their grammars and lexicons. This structural homogeneity, typically manifested by the perfect translatability of constructions across languages, reflects the traditions of mutual contact and multilingualism which these small communities have followed throughout their history. While word forms are perceived as emblematic of place and diffuse to smaller social circles, linguistic structures are left free to diffuse across much broader networks. Ultimately, the effects of divergence and convergence are the end result, over time, of these two distinct forms of horizontal diffusion.
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Minets, Yuliya. "The Tower of Babel and Language Corruption." Studies in Late Antiquity 6, no. 3 (2022): 482–518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sla.2022.6.3.482.
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This paper analyzes a set of ideas about language attested by late antique Christian writers—namely, their speculations on what kind of transformation languages undergo over time and their ethical, theological, and historical assessments of linguistic change and linguistic diversity. The incident that triggered the diversification of languages was normally associated with the biblical story about the Tower of Babel (Gen 11.1–9), the single dramatic event that once and for all changed the linguistic makeup of humanity and could be considered a disaster par excellence. And yet, the attitudes of late antique writers to the event and the subsequent linguistic diversification ranged from overtly negative (divine punishment and revenge) to reservedly positive (a minor inconvenience that prevented further wrongdoing) to a wholeheartedly optimistic reaction. Similarly, the gradual process of language change that always happens over time was often described in terms of “corruption” and “decline.” Observations of ancient writers that languages “get corrupted” due to multiple factors presuppose the slippery slope of a slow, empirically unimpressive, but steady and sure catastrophe. Its consequences are more threatening the less attention people pay to it. Comparing the two conceptual frames late antique writers employed to approach linguistic transformations—the sudden dramatic confusion of tongues at Babel and the everyday “slow catastrophe” of language corruption—this study challenges our own scholarly views on what constituted a disaster for intellectuals in Late Antiquity.
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Joseph, John E. "The abandonment of nómos in Greek linguistic thought." Historiographia Linguistica 17, no. 1-2 (January 1, 1990): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.17.1-2.03jos.
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Summary Coseriu (1977) has contended that Aristotle’s abandonment of the term nómos as the counterpart to phýsis represented a clear and willful break from the earlier tradition of linguistic thought. The present article examines a semantic change that nómos (originally “custom”) was undergoing in 5th century Attic Greek, when it became the technical term for a statute law. This change rendered it no longer appropriate in considerations of language. Hence, even if Aristotle had wanted to maintain the term nómos in its late Sophistic sense, he could not have done so. The Aristotelian approach to language may thus maintain a greater continuity with the past than is often recognized. The history of the terms which came to replace nómos as the opposite of phýsis is also surveyed.
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K. K. Aubakirova, А. А. Mustafayeva, and G. A. Kamisheva. "COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE MANUSCRIPT «TARJUMAN» WITH DICTIONARIES IN THE MAMLUK-KIPCHAK LANGUAGE." Bulletin of Toraighyrov University. Philology series, no. 2.2022 (June 30, 2022): 19–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.48081/ucqx1079.
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The article provides a comprehensive analysis of medieval written heritage and Arabic-Kipchak dictionaries written in the old Kipchak language during the Mamluks (13–15th centuries). In particular, a comparative study of lexical sections of linguistic works known in modern Turkic studies, such as «Tarjuman», «Al-Idrak», «At-Tuhfa», «Al-Qawanin» and «Ad-Durra» was conducted, and similarities, structural differences and content features of Arabic-Kipchak dictionaries are determined. By studying the linguistic materials in the Arabic-Kipchak dictionaries sections of these monuments, it is possible to collect valuable data in the study of the history of modern Turkic languages, including the Kazakh language belonging to the Kipchak group. Linguistic data in the Mamluk-Kipchak language preserved in the medieval manuscripts of the Mamluks provide information not only about the medieval Egyptian society, but also about the history, culture, literature, language, religion, mentality and life of the peoples of the Golden Horde, which had close relations with the Mamluk state of Egypt. Therefore, a comprehensive study of the Mamluk manuscripts as a common cultural heritage of all Turkic peoples, including a comparative analysis with a general description of linguistic works, is one of the most important issues in the field of linguistics and Turkic studies. In modern domestic science there is a need to propagate among the people by finding and comprehensively studying written monuments about the history and culture of our nation.
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Vejdemo, Susanne. "Lexical change often begins and ends in semantic peripheries." Pragmatics and Cognition 25, no. 1 (December 31, 2018): 50–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/pc.00005.vej.
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Abstract The article discusses semantic change and lexical replacement processes in the color domain, based on color naming studies in seven Germanic languages (where diachronic intra-linguistic development is inferred from cross-linguistic synchronic studies) and from different generations of speakers in a single language (Swedish). Change in the color domain often begins and ends in conceptual peripheries, and I argue that this perspective is suitable for other semantic domains as well.
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Kensminienė, Aelita. "Lithuanian Riddles of the Pot as Allegories of the Human Life." Tautosakos darbai 61 (June 1, 2021): 173–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.51554/td.21.61.08.
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Further analyzing the rather widespread international phenomenon – the so-called series of suffering in the riddles – this article focuses on the Lithuanian riddles of the pot, namely: ‘When I was young, I used to sit in a golden chair, when I grew old, even the dog does not eat my bones’ and ‘I was made like Adam from clay and annealed in the furnace like the three young people in Babylon. I was sold like Joseph to Egypt by his brothers. I drive a fiery chariot like Elijah. From my insides, the whole family eats, but when I die, they throw my bones over the fence (do not bury them).’ The analysis is based on all the variants of these riddles (both the published and the manuscript ones), their international parallels, and texts belonging to other genres. Despite the common answer to these riddles – pot – and its typical semantic field based on reality, the artistic expressions of these two riddles have little in common: they significantly differ in terms of structure, wording, and semantic. Thus, their recordings are reasonably attributed to different types in the current card file catalogue. The two riddles only share the common motive of bones at the end, which however has different context of the artistic expression and slightly different meaning. Except for some isolated cases and contaminations, the motives like dog does not eat my bones and they throw my bones over the fence (do not bury them) can be discerned only in these two riddle types respectively. The motive dog does not eat my bones is encountered in almost all the available variants of the first riddle and has the meaning of ‘being useless, idle’. However, the motives they throw the bones over the fence or do not bury them, found in the second riddle, also semantically include the aspect of disrespectful treatment of the deceased and neglecting of the proper funeral rites. Perhaps the main objective of this motive is prompting the listener towards the right answer and suggesting that the answer in question is not a human being. The first riddle seems to be of the Baltic origin, as it includes the typically Baltic motive of the golden chair and the common Baltic-Slavic expression dog does not eat (my) bones. Similar motives are encountered in the wedding songs, where they probably suggest the corresponding semantic field, which is narrowed by the pot as an answer to mean blossoming and withering of fertility. This classical riddle is likely to speak of the human life in general, albeit reducing it to the phases of valued youth and useless senility.The significantly more widespread version of the second riddle in Lithuania includes Biblical motives and has most probably found its way from the East, where it had been “Christianized” by a person well versed in the Old Testament and perhaps belonging to the Byzantine culture. Some variants of this riddle do not include Christian motives; such variants are few in Lithuania but abundant among the Eastern Slavs. Although such versions without Christian motives may be of common origins, however, the proportions of the materials suggest higher probability of the Slavic origin of this riddle. Attributing of these riddles to the series of suffering is also somewhat ambivalent: while the first riddle emphasizes the spiritual suffering, the totality of the variants of the second riddle may be rightfully summarized as the description of the pot’s life; descriptions of the suffering being more frequent in the riddles including the Christian motives. Both riddles tacitly compare the clay pot to the man, allegorically describing the shifts occurring in the human life, the inevitability of change and the instability of status. While reminding the perspective of eternity and the direction of the human life towards death, they allegedly fulfil the function of Memento mori and engage in a visual discussion with the Biblical phrase “from dust to dust”.
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Palombo, Cecilia. "The View from the Monasteries: Taxes, Muslims and Converts in the “Pseudepigrapha” from Middle Egypt." Medieval Encounters 25, no. 4 (September 3, 2019): 297–344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12340048.
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Abstract This paper analyzes a group of homilies composed in Middle Egypt around the early ninth century CE by monastic leaders who had to cope with unsettling changes in local politics and society. The corpus deals with issues of taxation, economic distress and conversion to Islam in subtle and indirect ways, showing the inside perspective of Christian leaders on developments on which we are informed primarily from documentary papyri and historical works. It highlights the view of a certain segment of Egyptian Christianity on Islam and ongoing processes of Islamization, adding to the better-known literary sources from the area of Alexandria, and revealing the existence of internal tensions within the monastic world.
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Gracia Zamacona, Carlos. "A Look Back into Ancient Egyptian Linguistic Studies (c. 1995-2019)." Panta Rei. 14, no. 2 (October 16, 2020): 23–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/pantarei.445451.
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En este artículo se propone una revisión personal de la investigación lingüística de los últimos 25 años sobre el egipcio antiguo, la lengua hablada y escrita en Egipto desde el origen de la civilización egipcia escrita (hacia 3150 a. Jc.) hasta la desaparición del copto como lengua viva (siglo XVII d. Jc.), la lengua humana documentada durante más tiempo. Con este fin, se revisarán las principales corrientes teóricas y su relación con la enseñanza del antiguo egipcio en ámbito universitario. Mediante el análisis de la bibliografía más relevante de este periodo, se comentan cuatro líneas de investigación productivas: forma y función; documentos y lengua; léxico y gramática; y metalingüística en el Egipto antiguo. El artículo finaliza con un breve comentario sobre la necesidad de más estudios basados en corpora en el futuro, en lugar de los basados en marcos teóricos para la interpretación del egipcio antiguo. This article provides a personal overview of the last 25-year linguistic research on ancient Egyptian, the language spoken and written in Egypt since the origin of the written Egyptian civilization (c. 3150 BC) until the disappearance of Coptic as a living language (17th century AC), the longest-attested human language. With this purpose, the main theoretical approaches and their relationship to teaching ancient Egyptian at the university are reviewed. Through the analysis of the more relevant bibliography of the period, four productive research lines are discussed: form and function; documents and the language; lexicon and grammar; and ancient Egyptian metalinguistics. The article ends with a short comment on the need of more corpus-based studies in the future instead of theoretically-based frameworks for interpreting the ancient Egyptian language.
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Sterner, Judy, and Nicholas David. "ACTION ON MATTER: THE HISTORY OF THE UNIQUELY AFRICAN TAMPER AND CONCAVE ANVIL POT-FORMING TECHNIQUE." Journal of African Archaeology 1, no. 1 (October 25, 2003): 3–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3213/1612-1651-10001.
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The publication, largely by ethnoarchaeologists, of new data on the tamper and concave anvil technique of pot-forming (TCA) permits a reassessment of this uniquely African technique, its toolkit, and its culture history. A survey, inspired by the technologie culturelle school, of its varied expressions in the southern Saharan, Sahelian and northern Sudan zones from Mali to Sudan and extending north into Egypt emphasises the potential of the technique for the efficient production of spherical water jars of high volume to weight ratio, much appreciated in arid environments. The technique is demanding and therefore practised for the most part by specialists. The origins and diffusion of the technique are assessed in the light of the ethnological, archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence, and a four stage historical development is sketched.
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Narzary, Nobin. "Analyzing the Role of English ‘Loan Lexis’ in the Process of Language Change in Contemporary Bodo Linguistic Community." Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT) 12, no. 3 (April 11, 2021): 5527–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i3.2216.
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Language grows, evolves and develops over a period of time. Reading through old English writings even the native speakers of today would struggle understanding them. No language (including Bodo) is exempt from this fact. According to Edward Sapir an American Linguist, Language contact is one of the main reasons behind such change in a particular linguistic community. Darwin says that ‘languages tended to change in the direction of having shorter easier forms, and that it could be explained by natural selection.’
My close observation lead me to discover that there are numerous English ‘loan words that the ‘Bodos’ use in their conversations. This is a case not only of one linguistic community but of most North East Indian linguistic communities; we can’t deny the fact that English Loan words have found great usage in our conversations, TV shows, songs, films and functions. This practice has to a certain extent ushered in some changes in contemporary Bodo linguistic community.
Edward Sapir talks about how one linguistic community borrows vocabulary from another in the process of cultural and social interaction; this he says has been a common phenomenon among linguistic communities in the history and continues to prevail as a common practice till today. In my paper I discuss the causes of such a practice and their possible pros and cons with special reference to Contemporary Bodo linguistic community.
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Benes, Tuska. "The Shared Descent of Semitic and Aryan in Christian Bunsen’s History of Revelation." Philological Encounters 2, no. 3-4 (August 16, 2017): 270–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24519197-12340027.
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The desire to uphold monogenesis encouraged Christian Bunsen (1791-1866) to bridge the Semitic and Indo-European language families. Bunsen’s identifying ancient Egyptian as a linguistic bridge had implications for the supposed history of God’s revelation to humankind, as well as for German conceptions of “Semitic” as a racial category in the 1840s. The rise of Sanskrit as a possible Ursprache, as well as new critical methods and the rationalist critique of revelation, altered the position Egypt once held in ancient wisdom narratives. However, the gradual decipherment of hieroglyphs and efforts to historicize ancient Egyptian encouraged Bunsen to rethink the history of religion. His faith in monogenesis and Bunsen’s deriving Aryans and Semites from a common ancestor did not inhibit the racialization of “Semitic” as a category or reverse the loss of status Hebrew antiquity suffered as other scholars located primordial revelation in the Aryan past. Instead religion itself became racialized.
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Tissari, Heli. "Current Emotion Research in English Linguistics: Words for Emotions in the History of English." Emotion Review 9, no. 1 (July 8, 2016): 86–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073916632064.
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The aim of this article is to give a general idea of how meanings of single emotion words, and configurations between words, change historically, reflecting changes in people’s understanding of emotions. The article provides a selective overview of linguistic research on the histories of a number of English words for emotions. It focuses on changes in the words emotion and mood as well as analyzing terms for the specific emotions of anger, fear, happiness, joy, love, pride, respect, and sorrow. This article also suggests that it is possible to use linguistic data in order to recover some “psychological” information about emotions, such as information on people’s responses to them.
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Kamwangamalu, Nkonko M. "14. SOCIAL CHANGE AND LANGUAGE SHIFT: SOUTH AFRICA." Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 23 (March 2003): 225–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0267190503000291.
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Studies of social change and language maintenance and shift have tended to focus on minority immigrant languages (e.g., Fishman, 1991; Gal, 1979; Milroy, 2001; Stoessel, 2002). Very little is known about language shift from a demographically dominant language to a minority but economically dominant one (e.g., Bowerman, 2000; de Klerk, 2000; Kamwangamalu, 2001, 2002a,b, & in press; Reagan, 2001). This chapter contributes to such research by looking at the current language shift from majority African languages such as Sotho, Xhosa, and Zulu to English in South Africa. In particular, it examines to what extent the sociopolitical changes that have taken place in South Africa (i.e., the demise of apartheid and its attendant structures) have impacted everyday linguistic interaction and have contributed to language shift from the indigenous African languages to English, especially in urban Black communities. It argues that a number of factors, among them the economic value and international status of English, the perceived lower status of the indigenous African languages, the legacy of apartheid-based Bantu education, the new multilingual language policy, the linguistic behaviors of language policy makers, etc., interact in complex ways to accelerate language shift in urban Black communities. In conclusion, the chapter explores ways in which the observed language shift can be curbed to prevent what Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) has termed “linguistic genocide,” particularly in a country that has a well-documented history of this phenomenon (Lanham, 1978; Prabhakaran, 1998).
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GOODRICH, AMANDA. "UNDERSTANDING A LANGUAGE OF ‘ARISTOCRACY’, 1700–1850." Historical Journal 56, no. 2 (May 3, 2013): 369–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x12000635.
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ABSTRACTThis article engages with current debates about linguistic usage in a new way. It examines linguistic change, the shifts in frequency of usage of ‘aristocracy’, both qualitatively and quantitatively, at specific moments and over time, in print during the period 1700 to 1850. Digital resources are utilized to provide broad quantitative evidence not previously available to historians. The potential use and value of digitized sources is also explored in calculating the volume and frequency of keyword appearance within a broad set of genres. This article also examines qualitatively usage of ‘aristocracy’ by contemporaries and historians and concludes that historians have often used the term anachronistically. It reveals that for much of the eighteenth century ‘aristocracy’ was entirely a political term confined primarily to the educated elite but that by 1850 it had become a common social descriptor of an elite class. It also compares the trajectory of usage of ‘aristocracy’ with that of ‘democracy’ and accounts for the divergence in such usage. It is argued here that analysing the prevalence and usage of ‘aristocracy’ in contemporary contexts reveals an important narrative of linguistic changes that parallel shifts in political and social culture.
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Sundquist, John D. "Productivity, richness, and diversity of light verb constructions in the history of American English." Journal of Historical Linguistics 10, no. 3 (December 8, 2020): 349–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jhl.19009.sun.
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Abstract This study provides an empirical analysis of productivity in Light Verb Constructions (LVCs) in the history of American English. LVCs contain a semantically light verb like make or take that may be paired with an abstract nominal object, as in make an assumption or take charge. Using a 406-million word corpus of texts written between 1810 and 2009, we track the frequency of LVCs and analyze the range of light verb + nominal object pairings. Using statistical measurements of biodiversity from the field of ecology, we evaluate the hypothesis that “the rich get richer” among light verbs: the most frequent verbs become more frequent and more diverse, occurring with an ever-growing variety of different NP complements. The results contribute to ongoing discussions in cross-linguistic, diachronic research on reasons for the growth of LVCs, the gradient nature of linguistic productivity, and the role of exemplars in the interaction between type and token frequencies during periods of linguistic change.
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Kislev, Itamar. "The Census of the Israelites on the Plains of Moab (Numbers 26): Sources and Redaction." Vetus Testamentum 63, no. 2 (2013): 236–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685330-12341107.
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Abstract In its present form, the census description in Numbers 26 can be identified as the product of a protracted literary process. Three principal stages of composition may be discerned as: a) close reliance on the list in Genesis 46 produced a census description and a list of the Israelite clans when they left Egypt ; b) the displacement of the original list from its original location to its extant position, wherein it serves as a “database” for the allocation of Canaan in accordance with the size of the tribes; c) the text reflected in the MT, in which the original form of the list was changed to better fit the new context, thereby establishing a greater similitude between Numbers 26 and other parts in its literary context.
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Joseph, John E. "Saussure’s Notes of 1881–1885 on Inner Speech, Linguistic Signs and Language Change." Historiographia Linguistica 37, no. 1-2 (May 21, 2010): 105–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.37.1-2.04jos.
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Summary This article analyses previously unpublished notes by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) contained in a single large register which he used in the first half of the 1880s. The earliest pages include his detailed reactions to La parole intérieure (1881) by Victor Egger (1848–1909). Although these reactions are sometimes hostile, the later notes, dated December 1884 and March 1885, appear to build on ideas he encountered in Egger. These notes — probably connected to his course on Gothic and Old High German grammar at the École des Hautes Études in Paris — show to what extent the account of language associated with his lectures on general linguistics of 1907–1911 was already present in his teaching a quarter of a century earlier.