Relevant bibliographies by topics / Ligands

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  2. Dissertations / Theses
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  4. Book chapters
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Academic literature on the topic 'Ligands'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 1 August 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Ligands"

1

Oszwałdowski, Sławomir, Katarzyna Zawistowska-Gibuła, and Kenneth Roberts. "Characterization of CdSe quantum dots with bidentate ligands by capillary electrophoresis." Open Chemistry 9, no. 4 (August 1, 2011): 572–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/s11532-011-0037-3.

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AbstractThe CdSe quantum dots (QDs) with bidentate ligands: a-diimine (NN) and dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) were synthesized and characterized by UV-Vis, particle size and capillary electrophoretic techniques. Two systems were analyzed: CdSe with one ligand (CdSe/ligand) and CdSe with two different ligands (CdSe//ligand1/ligand2), where ligand = α-diimine or DHLA. Hydrodynamic features of functionalized QDs were characterized by zone capillary electrophoretic (CZE), and particle size techniques and these methods were consistent. It was established that CZE, micellar (MEKC) and microemulsion (MEEKC) modes were suitable for separating charged CdSe QDs and that no peaks were obtained for QDs passivated with electrically neutral ligands. For CdSe QDs with neutral (NN) ligands, a preconcentration method with the use of a micellar plug was introduced for visualizing these QDs. A sharp peak representing neutral QDs was obtained within the zone of micellar plug of a non-ionic surfactant, Here, a ligand character used for CdSe modification and the type of the electrophoretic method applied were the determining factors for the QDs peak visualization. Moreover, examples of visualization of charged and neutral QDs on the same run were presented, and for this purpose, dual mechanism (separation/preconcentration) was proposed.
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Bakhtiari, Atefeh, and Javad Safaei-Ghomi. "Effects of Chiral Ligands on the Asymmetric Carbonyl-Ene Reaction." Synlett 30, no. 15 (July 23, 2019): 1738–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1611875.

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The carbonyl-ene reaction is one of the most well-known reactions for C–C bond formation. Based on frontier molecular orbitals (FMO), carbonyl-ene reactions occur between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the ene compound bearing an active hydrogen atom at the allylic center and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the electron-deficient enophile, which is a carbonyl compound. A high activation barrier enforces the concerted ene reaction rather than a Diels–Alder reaction at high temperature. Employing a catalytic system can eliminate defects in the ene reaction, and chiral catalysts promote the reaction under mild conditions to produce optically active compounds. In this account, we highlight investigations on the effects of various classes of chiral ligands on intermolecular and intramolecular carbonyl-ene reactions.1 Introduction2 Biaryl-Type Chiral Ligands3 C 1- and C 2-Symmetric Bis(oxazoline) Ligands4 Schiff Base Ligands5 N,N′-Dioxide Ligands6 Conclusions
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Murphy, Patrick B., Feng Liu, Stephen C. Cook, Nusrat Jahan, D. Gerrard Marangoni, T. Bruce Grindley, and Peng Zhang. "Structural control of Au and Au–Pd nanoparticles by selecting capping ligands with varied electronic and steric effects." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 87, no. 11 (November 2009): 1641–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/v09-127.

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Weakly interacting ligands including three Gemini surfactants, didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB), and amines (RNH2, R2NH, and R3N) were used to prepare Au nanoparticles (NPs). Aqueous Au NPs capped with DDAB and Gemini surfactants showed similar sizes (3–4 nm), whereas toluene-based NPs stabilized with DDAB, amines, and their mixtures range from 2.5 to 9.3 nm. Ligand effect on Au–Pd NP structure was also studied with EXAFS. These findings were consistently accounted for by considering the ligand’s electronic/steric effects and mixed ligands coadsorption, and suggest useful ways to control NP structure by manipulating the two effects and using mixed capping ligands.
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Finkina, Ekaterina I., Daria N. Melnikova, Ivan V. Bogdanov, Natalia S. Matveevskaya, Anastasia A. Ignatova, Ilia Y. Toropygin, and Tatiana V. Ovchinnikova. "Impact of Different Lipid Ligands on the Stability and IgE-Binding Capacity of the Lentil Allergen Len c 3." Biomolecules 10, no. 12 (December 13, 2020): 1668. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom10121668.

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Previously, we isolated the lentil allergen Len c 3, belonging to the class of lipid transfer proteins, cross-reacting with the major peach allergen Pru p 3 and binding lipid ligands. In this work, the allergenic capacity of Len c 3 and effects of different lipid ligands on the protein stability and IgE-binding capacity were investigated. Impacts of pH and heat treating on ligand binding with Len c 3 were also studied. It was shown that the recombinant Len c 3 (rLen c 3) IgE-binding capacity is sensitive to heating and simulating of gastroduodenal digestion. While being heated or digested, the protein showed a considerably lower capacity to bind specific IgE in sera of allergic patients. The presence of lipid ligands increased the thermostability and resistance of rLen c 3 to digestion, but the level of these effects was dependent upon the ligand’s nature. The anionic lysolipid LPPG showed the most pronounced protective effect which correlated well with experimental data on ligand binding. Thus, the Len c 3 stability and allergenic capacity can be retained in the conditions of food heat cooking and gastroduodenal digestion due to the presence of certain lipid ligands.
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Moreno, Maria João, Luís M. S. Loura, Jorge Martins, Armindo Salvador, and Adrian Velazquez-Campoy. "Analysis of the Equilibrium Distribution of Ligands in Heterogeneous Media–Approaches and Pitfalls." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 17 (August 28, 2022): 9757. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23179757.

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The equilibrium distribution of small molecules (ligands) between binding agents in heterogeneous media is an important property that determines their activity. Heterogeneous systems containing proteins and lipid membranes are particularly relevant due to their prevalence in biological systems, and their importance to ligand distribution, which, in turn, is crucial to ligand’s availability and biological activity. In this work, we review several approaches and formalisms for the analysis of the equilibrium distribution of ligands in the presence of proteins, lipid membranes, or both. Special attention is given to common pitfalls in the analysis, with the establishment of the validity limits for the distinct approaches. Due to its widespread use, special attention is given to the characterization of ligand binding through the analysis of Stern–Volmer plots of protein fluorescence quenching. Systems of increasing complexity are considered, from proteins with single to multiple binding sites, from ligands interacting with proteins only to biomembranes containing lipid bilayers and membrane proteins. A new formalism is proposed, in which ligand binding is treated as a partition process, while considering the saturation of protein binding sites. This formalism is particularly useful for the characterization of interaction with membrane proteins.
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Mura, Ulrike, Matthias Pfeiffer, Rupert Handgretinger, and Peter J. Lang. "Expression of Activating Natural Killer Cell Receptor Ligands in Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia." Blood 108, no. 11 (November 16, 2006): 4478. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood.v108.11.4478.4478.

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Abstract Activating and inhibitory cell surface receptors regulate natural killer (NK) cell effector functions. The extent of expression of their activating ligands on target cells probably plays a critical role in tumor immune surveillance, but the data of this expression on blasts of leukemia patients are still poor. We examined blasts of children with ALL for the activating human NKG2D ligands MICA, MICB, ULBP1, ULBP2 and ULBP3, and for the ligands of the activating human natural cytotoxic receptors (NCRs) NKp30, NKp44 and NKp46. Using ligand specific mouse monoclonal antibodies and flow cytometry, we screened 24 children (23 common-ALL, one pre-T-ALL) for the expression of NKG2D ligands and 15 children (all common-ALL) for NCR ligands. In 13 patients (all common-ALL), also the density of the NKG2D ligands was determined by quantitative flow cytometry. Considering cells positive for a particular ligand in case of a two fold increase of median fluorescence above negative control, 38 percent of the patients were positive for one or more NKG2D ligands, while only 13 percent expressed one or more NCR ligands at significant levels. ULBP1 was most frequently expressed (29 percent of patients positive), while no patients were positive for ULBP2 and NKp44 ligands. ULBP3 was positive in 17 percent of the patients, NKp30 and NKp46 ligands in 13 percent, MICA and MICB in 4 percent. The patient with pre-T-ALL was positive only for ULBP1. So ULBP1 was expressed more frequently, while the other NKG2D ligands were expressed less frequently in children than reported for adult leukemia patients before (Salih et al. Blood.2003;102:1389–1396.). The density of detected NKG2D ligand molecules was always rather low. For MICA the maximum were 1700 molecules per cell in a single patient, for MICB 900, for ULBP1 1100, and for ULBP3 1000 molecules per cell. In summary, blasts of pediatric ALL patients displayed low or negative surface levels of ligands for the human activating NK cell receptors NKG2D, NKp30, NKp44 and NKp46. QUALITATIVE LIGAND EXPRESSION QUALITATIVE LIGAND EXPRESSION QUANTITATIVE LIGAND EXPRESSION QUANTITATIVE LIGAND EXPRESSION
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Miller, Shannon M., Van Cybulski, Lois Walsh, Mark Livesay, Laura Bess, David J. Burkhart, Helene Bazin-Lee, and Jay T. Evans. "Investigation of novel TLR7/8 ligands in combination with TLR4 ligands as adjuvants to drive cell mediated anti-influenza immunity." Journal of Immunology 200, no. 1_Supplement (May 1, 2018): 125.16. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.200.supp.125.16.

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Abstract Influenza is a highly communicative viral pathogen that infects 9–35 million individuals and results in 12,000–56,000 deaths in the US annually. For the most commonly used seasonal influenza vaccine, historical efficacy rates range from 10–60% thus improvements to the current vaccine are needed. We identified a novel series of synthetic TLR7/8 ligands that improve influenza vaccine efficacy when used alone or in combination with our synthetic TLR4 ligand. In human PBMCs, TLR7/8 ligands elicited secretion of the inflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-6, and IL-1β as well as the Th1-polarizing cytokine IL12-p70. These responses can be altered by modification of novel structural features of the TLR7/8 ligands. The addition of a synthetic TLR4 ligand modified the cytokine expression profile, indicating that the structure of a TLR7/8 ligand and/or addition of a TLR4 ligand can drive substantive changes in the innate immune response. To evaluate the adjuventicity of these TLR ligands, Balb/c mice were vaccinated with split-flu vaccine containing TLR7/8 ligands alone or in combination with our TLR4 ligand. TLR7/8 ligands increased influenza-specific total IgG and IgG2a, but not IgG1, over antigen alone. Addition of a TLR4 ligand further increased influenza-specific total IgG and IgG2a. These data demonstrate that these ligands act as adjuvants to promote a Th1 skewed humoral response. The combination of TLR7/8 and TLR4 ligands elicited superior cell mediated immunity compared to either TLR7/8 or TLR4 ligand alone. These data demonstrate that heightened innate and adaptive immune responses can be elicited through a combination adjuvant using novel synthetic TLR7/8 and TLR4 ligands.
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Fan, Qikui, Hao Yang, Juan Ge, Shumeng Zhang, Zhaojun Liu, Bo Lei, Tao Cheng, Youyong Li, Yadong Yin, and Chuanbo Gao. "Customizable Ligand Exchange for Tailored Surface Property of Noble Metal Nanocrystals." Research 2020 (January 21, 2020): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.34133/2020/2131806.

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It is highly desirable, while still challenging, to obtain noble metal nanocrystals with custom capping ligands, because their colloidal synthesis relies on specific capping ligands for the shape control while conventional ligand exchange processes suffer from “the strong replaces the weak” limitation, which greatly hinders their applications. Herein, we report a general and effective ligand exchange approach that can replace the native capping ligands of noble metal nanocrystals with virtually any type of ligands, producing flexibly tailored surface properties. The key is to use diethylamine with conveniently switchable binding affinity to the metal surface as an intermediate ligand. As a strong ligand, it in its original form can effectively remove the native ligands; while protonated, it loses its binding affinity and facilitates the adsorption of new ligands, especially weak ones, onto the metal surface. By this means, the irreversible order in the conventional ligand exchange processes could be overcome. The efficacy of the strategy is demonstrated by mutual exchange of the capping ligands among cetyltrimethylammonium, citrate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and oleylamine. This novel strategy significantly expands our ability to manipulate the surface property of noble metal nanocrystals and extends their applicability to a wide range of fields, particularly biomedical applications.
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Sim, Jaeung, Taemin Kim, and Jin Kuk Yang. "Poly[(μ6-benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylato-κ6O1:O1′:O3:O3′:O5:O5′)tris(N,N-dimethylformamide-κO)tris(μ3-formato-κ3O:O:O′)trizinc(II)]." Acta Crystallographica Section E Structure Reports Online 69, no. 11 (October 26, 2013): m619. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600536813028687.

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The asymmetric unit of the title compound, [Zn3(HCO2)3(C9H3O6)(C3H7NO)3]n, contains one Zn ion, one formate ligand, oneN,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) ligand and one-third of a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate (btc) ligand situated on a crystallographic 3 axis. Each ZnIIatom is coordinated by one O atom from a DMF ligand, two O atoms from two btc ligands and three O atoms from three formate ligands in a distorted octahedral geometry. The ZnIIatoms are connected by the formate and btc ligands, forming hexanuclear cores, which are linked by btc ligands, constructing a two-dimensional layered network along theabplane.
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Crawford, Sarah M., Craig A. Wheaton, Vinayak Mishra, and Mark Stradiotto. "Probing the effect of donor-fragment substitution in Mor-DalPhos on palladium-catalyzed C–N and C–C cross-coupling reactivity." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 96, no. 6 (June 2018): 578–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjc-2017-0749.

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The competitive catalytic screening of 18 known and newly prepared Mor-DalPhos ligand variants in the palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of chlorobenzene with aniline, octylamine, morpholine, indole, ammonia, or acetone is presented, including ligands derived from the new secondary phosphine HP(Me2Ad)2 (Me2Ad = 3,5-dimethyladamantyl). Although triarylphosphine ancillary ligand variants performed poorly in these test reactions, ligands featuring either PAd2 or P(Me2Ad)2 donors (Ad = 1-adamantyl) gave rise to superior catalytic performance. Multiple Mor-DalPhos variants proved effective in cross-couplings involving aniline, octylamine, or morpholine; conversely, only a smaller subset of ligands proved useful in related cross-couplings of indole, ammonia, or acetone. In the case of the N-arylation of indole, a Mor-DalPhos ligand variant featuring ortho-disposed PAd2 and dimethylmorpholino donor fragments (L13) proved superior to all other ligands surveyed, including the parent ligand Mor-DalPhos (L5). Conversely, L5 was found to be superior to all other ligands in the palladium-catalyzed monoarylation of ammonia. Ligand L6 (i.e., the P(Me2Ad)2 variant of L5) proved superior to all other ligands in the monoarylation of acetone and, with the exception of indole N-arylation, was the most broadly useful of the Mor-DalPhos ligands surveyed herein.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Ligands"

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Stewart, Peter John. "Metal-ligand multiply bonded complexes supported by amidinate ligands." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 1998. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.243747.

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Maaß, Christian. "Exploring Metal-Ligand Interactions of Pyrrole Based Pincer Ligands." Doctoral thesis, Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-1735-0000-0022-5E31-1.

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Baylies, Christian John. "Synthesis of multidentate pyridyl-thiazole ligands and ligand recognition studies." Thesis, University of Huddersfield, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.399824.

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Yamamoto, Izumi. "Structure-function studies of GABA-C receptor ligands." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2012. https://hdl.handle.net/2123/28927.

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Throughout the central nervous system (CNS), the Cys-loop superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels {LGICs), including nicotinic acetylcholine, serotonin type-3A, strychnine-sensitive glycine and y-aminobutyric acid A/C receptors, play important roles in synaptic transmission by converting chemical signals into electric signals. Designing potent and subtype-selective ligands with therapeutic value requires knowledge about how ligands interact with their binding sites. y-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS and its binding modes at GABA receptors have not been fully elucidated. GABAc receptors consist of p subunits (p1-p3) and they are known to form homomeric receptors. The five subunits are arranged around a central chloride selective ion channel pore. Each subunit contains a large extracellular N-terminal domain, four transmembrane domains {Ml-M4) of which the second (M2) lines the channel pore and a large M3-M4 intracellular loop. The orthosteric binding site is located at the interface between two subunits in the N-terminal domain and the key residues for ligand binding are found at the five discontinuous loops (A-E). This thesis describes how ligand binding and receptor gating are closely related and explores the effect of receptor conformational changes upon ligand binding. A series of point mutations in the N-terminal domain of the GABAc p1 receptor were created and expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The mutant receptors were then examined using a range of pharmacological tools to probe function which was measured using the two-electrode voltage clamp method. The GABA binding mode was explored at GABA receptors using the enantiomers of 3-fluoro-y-aminobutyric acid (3F-GABA) and stereoisomers of 2,3-difluoro-4-aminobutyric acids as conformational probes. Both enantiomers of 3F­GABA were full agonists, with the R-3F-GABA being approximately 3-fold more potent than 5-3F-GABA at GABAc receptors. In contrast, both enantiomers were partial agonists with similar efficacy and potency at GABAA receptors. These results suggest a different GABA binding mode at GABAc receptors to that found in the related but pharmacologically distinct GABAA receptors. The effect of the different stereoisomers of 2,3-difluoro-4-aminobutyric acids were also examined at GABAA, GABA8 and GABAc receptors. In the study, two enantiomeric GABAc receptor ligands were identified, one of which is an agonist (25,35-2,3-difluoro-4-aminobutyric acid) while the other is an antagonist (2R,3R-2,3-difluoro-4-aminobutyric acid). 4-Amino-3-hydroxybutanoic acid (GABOB) is an endogenous ligand found in the CNS in mammals and a metabolite of GABA. Homology modeling of the GABAc Pi receptor revealed a potential hydrogen (H-bond) interaction between the hydroxyl group of GABOB and threonine 244 (T244) located on loop C of the ligand binding site. Using site-directed mutagenesis, the effect of mutating T244 on the efficacy and pharmacology of GABOB and various ligands were examined. It was found that mutating T244 to amino acids that lacked a hydroxyl group in the side chain produced GABA insensitive receptors. Only by mutating PiT244 to serine (PiT2445) produced a GABA responsive receptor, albeit 39-fold less sensitive to GABA than Pi wild-type. It was also found that this mutation also changed the activity of GABAc receptor partial agonists, muscimol and imidazole-4-acetic acid (I4AA). At the concentrations tested, both muscimol and I4AA antagonized the currents produced by GABA at PiT2445 mutant receptors (Muscimol: PiWild-type, EC50 = 1.4 µM; PiT2445, IC50 = 32.8 µM. I4AA: Pi wild-type, EC50 = 8.6 µM; PiT2445, IC50 = 21.4 µM). This indicates that T244 is predominantly involved in channel gating. R-(-)-GABOB and 5-(+)-GABOB are full agonists at Pi wild-type receptors. In contrast, R-(-)-GABOB was a weak partial agonist at PiT2445 (lmM activates 26 % of the current produced by GABA ECso versus Pi wild-type, EC50 = 19 µM; lmax 100%), and 5-(+)-GABOB was a competitive antagonist at PiT2445 receptors (Pi wild-type, EC50 = 45 µM versus PiT2445, IC50 = 417.4 µM, Ks = 204 µM). This highlights that the interaction of GABOB with T244 is enantioselective. In contrast, the potencies of a range of antagonists tested, 3-aminopropyl(methyl)phosphinic acid (3-APMPA), 3-aminopropylphosphonic acid (3-APA), 5- and R-(3-amino-2-hydroxypropyl)methylphosphinic acid (5-(-)-CGP44532 and R-(+)-CGP44533), were not altered. This suggests that T244 is not critical for antagonist binding. Receptor gating is dynamic and this study highlights the role of loop C in agonist-evoked receptor activation, coupling agonist binding to channel gating. Ligands acting on receptors are considered to induce a conformational change within the ligand-binding site by interacting with specific amino acids. In this study, tyrosine 102 (Y102) located in the GABA binding site of the Pi subunit of the GABAc receptor was mutated to alanine (piY102A), serine (piY102S) and cysteine (piY102C) to assess the role of this amino acid plays on the action of 12 known and 2 novel antagonists. Of the mutated receptors, piY102S was constitutively active providing an opportunity to assess the activity of the antagonists on Pi receptors with a proportion of receptors existing in the open conformational state compared to those existing predominantly in the closed conformational state (pi wild-type, PiY102C and PiY102A). It was found that the majority of antagonists studied were able to inhibit the constitutive activity displayed by PiY1025, thus displaying inverse agonist activity. The exception was (±)-4-aminocyclopent-1-enecarboxamide ((±)-4-ACPAM) not exhibiting any inverse agonist activity, but acting explicitly on the closed conformational state of Pi receptors. It was also found that GABA antagonists were more potent at the closed compared to the open conformational states of Pi receptors suggesting that they may act by stabilizing the closed conformational state and thus reducing activation by agonists. Furthermore, of the antagonists tested, Y102 was found to have the greatest influence on the antagonist activity of gabazine (SR-95531) and its analogue (SR-95813). Our GABAc Pi receptor homology model identified a novel cavity, which extended beyond the GABA binding site. The model predicted phenylalanine 124(F124), one of the residues lining the cavity, was pointing towards the orthosteric binding site. In this study, F124 was mutated to various amino acids and only a modest effect on receptor pharmacology was observed. However, the mutations had a significant effect on the channel deactivation rate ('toeactivation)- This finding suggests that F124 may play a role in channel gating or stabilizing the open conformation of the receptor. Designing potent selective agents are the key for the further understanding of the physiological roles of GABAc receptors. Gabazine (SR-95531) is a potent GABAA receptor competitive antagonist. In this study, a series of novel gabazine analogues were tested at GABAA and GABAc receptors. Of the compounds studied, (p)-methoxy analogue without the butyric acid side-chain was 20-fold more potent at GABAc over GABAA receptors. As there was no butyric acid side chain, it is suggested that the carboxylic acid is not important for gabazine activity at this receptor. Establishing the structure-activity relationship based on this analogue will facilitate the development of selective GABAc receptor antagonists with possible physiological effects including memory-enhancement. Overall, our studies describe agonist and GABAc receptor antagonist induced conformational changes within the ligand binding site. Our findings also highlight the dynamic nature of receptor gating, initiated by ligand binding at a site physically distinct from the ion channel.
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Badarau, Eduard Guillaumet Gérald Fînaru Adriana. "Conception, synthèse et évaluation biologique de nouvelles classes de ligands sérotoninergiques 5-HT7." S. l. : S. l. : Orléans ; Université de Bacau, 2009. http://intranet.univ-orleans.fr/bibliotheques/theses/eduard.badarau_1653.pdf.

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Thèse de doctorat : Chimie et physicochimie des composés d'intérêt biologique : Orléans : 2009. Thèse de doctorat : Chimie et physicochimie des composés d'intérêt biologique : Université de Bacau : 2009.
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Duraj-Thatte, Anna. "Fluorescent GFP chromophores as potential ligands for various nuclear receptors." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/44764.

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Nuclear receptors are ligand activated transcription factors, where upon binding with small molecule ligands, these proteins are involved in the regulation of gene expression. To date there are approximately 48 human nuclear receptors known, involved in multiple biological and cellular processes, ranging from differentiation to maintenance of homeostasis. Due to their critical role in transcriptional regulation, these receptors are implicated in several diseases. Currently, 13% of prescribed drugs in the market are NR ligands for diseases such as cancer, diabetes and osteoporosis. In addition to drug discovery, the mechanism of function, mobility and trafficking of these receptors is poorly understood. Gaining insight into the relationship between the function and /or dysfunction of these receptors and their mobility will aid in a better understanding of the role of these receptors. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) has revolutionized molecular biology by providing the ability to monitor protein function and structure via fluorescence. The fluorescence contribution from this biological marker is the chromophore, formed from the polypeptide backbone of three amino acid residues, buried inside 11-stranded â-barrel protein. Synthesis of GFP derivatives of is based on the structure of the arylmethyleneimidazolidinone (AMI), creating a molecule that is only weakly fluorescent. Characterizing these AMI derivatives for other proteins can provide a powerful visualization tool for analysis of protein function and structure. This development could provide a very powerful method for protein analysis in vitro and in vivo. Development of such fluorescent ligands will prove beneficial for the nuclear receptors. In this work, libraries of AMIs derviatives were synthesized by manipulating various R groups around the core structure, and tested for their ability to serve as nuclear receptor ligands with the ability to fluoresce upon binding. The fluorogens are developed for steroidal and non-steroidal receptors, two general classes of nuclear receptors. Specific AMIs were designed and developed for steroid receptor estrogen receptor á (ERá). These ligands are showed to activate the receptor with an EC50 of value 3 ìM and the 10-fold activation with AMI 1 and AMI 2 in comparison to the 21-fold activation observed with natural ERá ligand, 17â-estradiol. These novel ligands were not able to display the fluorescence upon binding the receptor. However, fluorescence localized in nucleus was observed in case of another AMI derivative, AMI 10, which does not activate the receptor. Such ligands open new avenues for developing fluorescent probes for ERá that do not involve fluorescent conjugates attached to a known ERá ligand core. AMIs were also characterized for non-steroidal receptors,specifically the pregnane x receptor (PXR) and retinoic acid receptor á (RARá). To date, fluorogens which turn fluorescence upon binding and activate the receptor have not been developed for these receptors. With respect to PXR, several AMI derivatives were discovered to bind and activate this receptor with a fold-activation better than the known agonist, rifampicin. The best characterized AMI derivative, AMI 4, activates the receptor with an EC50 of value 6.3 ìM and the 154-fold activation in comparison to the 90-fold activation and an EC50 value of 1.3 ìM seen with rifamipicin. This ligand is not only able to activate PXR but also displays fluorescence upon binding to the receptor. The fluroscence pattern was observed around the nucleus. Besides AMI 4, 16 other AMI derivatives are identified that activate PXR with different activation profiles. Thus, a novel class of PXR ligands with fluorescence ability has been developed. The AMI derivatives able to bind and activate RAR, also displayed activation profiles that were comparable to the wild-type ligand, all trans retinoic acid. These ligands activated the receptor with an EC50 value of 220 nM with AMI 109 in comparison to an EC50 value of 0.8 nM with the natural ligand for RARá. When these ligands were tested for fluorescence in yeast, the yeast were able to fluoresce only in the presence of the receptor and the AMI derivative, indicating that these agonists also have the ability to fluoresce.
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Kandala, Srikanth. "Diphosphine Ligand Substitution in H4Ru4(CO)12: X-ray Diffraction Structures and Reactivity Studies of the Diphosphine Substituted Cluster Products." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2006. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5410/.

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The tetraruthenium cluster H4Ru4(CO)12 has been studied for its reactivity with the unsaturated diphosphine ligands (Z)-Ph2PCH=CHPPh2, 4,5-bis (diphenylphosphino)-4-cyclopenten-1,3-dione, bis(diphenyphosphino)benzene and 1,8- bis(diphenyl phosphino)naphthalene under thermal, near-UV photolysis, and Me3NO-assisted activation. All three cluster activation methods promote loss of CO and furnish the anticipated substitution products that possess a chelating diphosphine ligand. Clusters 1, 2, 3 and 4 have been characterized in solution by IR and NMR spectroscopies, and these data are discussed with respect to the crystallographically determined structures for all new cluster compounds. The 31P NMR spectral data and the solid-state structures confirm the presence of a chelating diphosphine ligand in all four new clusters. Sealed NMR tubes containing clusters 1, 2, 3 and 4 were found to be exceeding stable towards near-UV light and temperatures up to ca. 100°C. The surprisingly robust behavior of the new clusters is contrasted with the related cluster Ru3(CO)10(bpcd) that undergoes fragmentation to the donor-acceptor compound Ru2(CO)6(bpcd) and the phosphido-bridged compound Ru2(CO)6 (µ-PPh2)[µ-C=C(PPh2)C(O)CH2C(O)] under mild conditions. The electrochemical properties have been investigated in the case of clusters 1 and 2 by cyclic voltammetry, and the findings are discussed with respect to the reported electrochemical data on the parent cluster H4Ru4(CO)12.
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Malgas, Rehana. "The application of novel multinuclear catalysts derived from dendrimeric ligands in the polymerization and oligomerization of unsaturated hydrocarbons." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2007. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_7858_1183727432.

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G1 and G2 dendrimeric salicylaldimine ligands containing both substituted and unsubstituted aryl rings were synthesized via a Schiff base condensation of the appropriate salicylaldehyde and the peripheral amino groups of the corresponding G1 and G2 polypropyleneimine dendrimers. The new ligands were characterized using FTIR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopy, elemental analysis and ESI mass spectrometry. The dendrimeric ligands were converted to multinuclear nickel complexes by reaction with nickelacetate. The metal complexes were characterized by FTIR spectroscopy, elemental analysis and ESI mass spectrometry.

Some of the dendritic complexes were evaluated as catalyst precursors in the oligomerization of &alpha
-olefins such as ethylene and 1-pentene, using aluminium alkyls such as EtAlCl2 and modified methylaluminoxane (MMAO) as activators. All the dendrimeric catalysts evaluated are active in the oligomerization reactions. From the oligomerization results it was observed that there is a clear dendritic effect, in that both catalyst activity as well as selectivity are impacted by the dendrimer generation. In most cases it was observed that the second generation complexes show higher activity than the corresponding first generation complexes.

The dendrimeric complexes were also evaluated as catalyst precursors in the vinyl polymerization of norbornene. In this case methylaluminoxane (MAO) were employed as an activator. Once again it was noted that a dendritic effect is operative, with second generation metallodendrimers having a higher activity than the first generation complexes.

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Lewis, William. "Chiral Heterocyclic Ligands." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Chemistry, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/1383.

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This thesis describes the preparation and characterisation of a number of homochiral coordination and metallosupramolecular assemblies. These species were formed from the reaction of chiral pyridine and quinoline containing ligands and metal ions. The combination of traditional coordination chemistry and supramolecular interactions led to a range of polymeric and network structures being formed. The ligands used in this thesis can be divided into two broad categories: alkaloids and ligands derived from them, and amino acid-based ligands. In the first category three new ligands were synthesized, and a variety of routes towards alkaloid-based homochiral ligands were investigated. The second category focused on three ligand motifs, and resulted in the preparation of 16 ligands. These two categories of ligands were reacted with a range of metal salts to investigate their coordination and supramolecular chemistry. The structure of twenty complexes was determined by single crystal X-ray crystallography. The complexes had a range of structures, with discrete and polymeric species being formed. Hydrogen bonding was an important feature in the supramolecular chemistry of the complexes, playing a different role in different series of complexes. Two chiral coordination polymers and one chiral coordination network were synthesized. All three of these structures possessed directionality to some degree: in the coordination network and one of the polymers the directionality is counterbalanced by the opposite directionality being present in the crystal, while the second coordination polymer is generated by the screw axis present and has a high degree of overall directionality.
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Seymour, L. C. "Chiral organometallic ligands." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1990. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.279979.

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Books on the topic "Ligands"

1

S, Braterman Paul, ed. Reactions of coordinated ligands. New York: Plenum Press, 1986.

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Cancro, Michael P., ed. BLyS Ligands and Receptors. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-013-7.

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Braterman, Paul S., ed. Reactions of Coordinated Ligands. Boston, MA: Springer US, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0755-6.

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Braterman, Paul S., ed. Reactions of Coordinated Ligands. Boston, MA: Springer US, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-1785-2.

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1941-, Navratil James D., and Walton Harold F. 1912-, eds. Ligand exchange chromatography. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press, 1988.

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Zhou, Qi-Lin. Privileged chiral ligands and catalysts. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2011.

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Zhou, Qi-Lin, ed. Privileged Chiral Ligands and Catalysts. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527635207.

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Ahmed, Rafi, and Tasuku Honjo, eds. Negative Co-Receptors and Ligands. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19545-7.

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Rammensee, Hans-Georg, Jutta Bachmann, and Stefan Stevanović. MHC Ligands and Peptide Motifs. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-22162-4.

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Berend, Olivier, Wijngaarden I. van, and Soudijn W, eds. Serotonin receptors and their ligands. Amstersam: Elsevier, 1997.

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Book chapters on the topic "Ligands"

1

Fischer, Gabriele, Annemarie Unger, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, Cécile Viollet, Jacques Epelbaum, Daniel Hoyer, Ina Weiner, et al. "Ligands." In Encyclopedia of Psychopharmacology, 710. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68706-1_1182.

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Lefort, Laurent, and Johannes G. de Vries. "Phosphoramidite Ligands." In Phosphorus(III) Ligands in Homogeneous Catalysis: Design and Synthesis, 133–57. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118299715.ch4.

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Müller, Christian. "Phosphinine Ligands." In Phosphorus(III) Ligands in Homogeneous Catalysis: Design and Synthesis, 287–307. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118299715.ch8.

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Schirripa, Marta, Heinz-Josef Lenz, and Stefan J. Scherer. "VEGF Ligands." In Cancer Therapeutic Targets, 639–58. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0717-2_17.

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Kawaguchi, Shinichi. "Monoatomic Ligands." In Inorganic Chemistry Concepts, 7–34. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-50148-7_2.

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Kawaguchi, Shinichi. "Diatomic Ligands." In Inorganic Chemistry Concepts, 35–57. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-50148-7_3.

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Kawaguchi, Shinichi. "Triatomic Ligands." In Inorganic Chemistry Concepts, 59–74. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-50148-7_4.

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Bausch, Cory C., and Andreas Pfaltz. "PHOX Ligands." In Privileged Chiral Ligands and Catalysts, 221–56. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527635207.ch6.

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Pellissier, Hélène. "TADDOLate Ligands." In Privileged Chiral Ligands and Catalysts, 333–59. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527635207.ch9.

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Kuwano, Ryoichi. "Biferrocene Ligands." In Chiral Ferrocenes in Asymmetric Catalysis, 283–305. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527628841.ch10.

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Conference papers on the topic "Ligands"

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Puchta, Ralph, and Dušan Ćoćić. "IRM@Be2+ – quantum chemistry between Bavaria and Šumadija." In 2nd International Conference on Chemo and Bioinformatics. Institute for Information Technologies, University of Kragujevac, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/iccbi23.053p.

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Quantum chemical (density functional theory) mechanistic investigations on ligand exchange reactions at a tetrahedrally-coordinated dicationic Beryllium center offer a harmless and alternative way to learn about the traversed reaction pathways compared to experimental studies. Calculations for solvent exchange at [Be(H2O)4]2+, [Be(NH3)]2+, and [Be(HCN)4]2+ showed interchange (I) type mechanisms. To learn about the potential influences of spectator ligands we calculated the water exchange at [Be(L)(H2O)3]n+ (L: neutral ligands, mono-anionic ligands or cationic ligands) and got again consequently I-type paths. The activation energies depend strongly on the starting complexes, e.g., if hydrogen bonds have to be broken. The influence of spectator ligands is limited to the charge of the ligand and therefore the overall charge of the beryllium complex. The small size of the beryllium solvent complexes allows to test tools like AIM to dissect between pure interchange mechanisms, associative mechanisms and dissociative interchange mechanisms based on electron density along the reaction pathway.
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Dzichenka, Yaraslau, Michail Shapira, Sergei Usanov, Marina Savić, Ljubica Grbović, Jovana Ajduković, and Suzana Jovanović-Šanta. "NOVEL LIGANDS OF HUMAN CYP7 ENZYMES – POSSIBLE MODULATORS OF CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL: COMPUTER SIMULATION STUDIES." In 1st INTERNATIONAL Conference on Chemo and BioInformatics. Institute for Information Technologies, University of Kragujevac, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/iccbi21.435d.

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Our in vitro studies showed that a couple of perspective steroidal derivatives showed previously biomedical potential via enzyme inhibition, receptor binding or antiproliferative effect against the cancer cells of reproductive tissues are able to bind to human CYP7 enzymes – key enzymes taking part in hydroxylation of cholesterol, 25-, 27-hydroxycholesterol and a number of steroidal hormones. In silico screening of binding affinity of the modified steroids toward CYP7 enzymes showed that interaction energy for the new ligands is comparable with consequent values, calculated for the ‘essential’ substrates of the enzymes – cholestenone (CYP7A1) and DHEA (CYP7B1). However, no correlation between binding energy and the affinity of the ligand was found. Novel ligands interact with conserved amino acids taking part in stabilization of natural substrates of CYP7 enzymes. A couple of structural features, governing ligand binding, were identified. Among which are planar structure of A-ring for CYP7A1 ligands, absence of many polar fragments in side-chain and presence of polar group at C3 position. Analysis of the docking results showed that CYP7B1 higher selectivity in comparison with CYP7A1 is connected by the structure of the cavity formed by α-helices I and B`. The data obtained will be used for the explanation of ligand specificity of human sterol- hydroxylases.
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Murade, Chandrashekhar U., and George T. Shubeita. "Detecting DNA-Ligand Electrostatic Interactions With a FRET-Based Probe." In 3D Image Acquisition and Display: Technology, Perception and Applications. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/3d.2022.jw5d.5.

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DNA-ligand interactions are dominated by electrostatics as DNA is a highly charged molecule at physiological conditions. Here, we present a FRET-based sensor which can optically report on these interactions between DNA and charged ligands.
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Gao, Yandong, Dana Brantley-Sieders, Devi Majumdar, Jin Chen, Donna Webb, and Deyu Li. "A Simple Approach to Probe the Extracellular Signaling Pathways Using Ligand Traps." In ASME 2012 Third International Conference on Micro/Nanoscale Heat and Mass Transfer. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/mnhmt2012-75106.

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Cells communicate with one another through a huge variety of extracellular soluble signaling molecules. A common method in biology to investigate the signaling pathways is to inactivate the gene coding the interested ligand or receptor from cells using modern DNA technology, known as gene knockout. Even though very effective, however, gene knockout is a time-consuming and cost-prohibitive process and requires huge amount of efforts to conduct. Here we present a simple method to probe the extracellular signaling pathways through engineering a semi-permeable barrier between two cell populations. In this approach, ligand traps, receptor-coated nano/micro-particles, are embedded inside the nanoporous barrier. Because the receptors have the ability to selectively bind to certain ligand(s) with high affinity, the associated ligands can be ‘trapped’ inside the barrier when they try to perfuse from one cell population to the other. As a result, the targeted soluble ligands can be effectively blocked from the molecular exchange between the two cell populations. We have demonstrated the feasibility of this novel approach using fluorescent proteins. An analytical model has also been developed to guide the design of the ligand-trap-embedded barrier.
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Slater, John H., Jordan S. Miller, Shann S. Yu, and Jennifer L. West. "Multifaceted Nano- and Micropatterned Surfaces for Cell Adhesion Manipulation." In ASME 2010 First Global Congress on NanoEngineering for Medicine and Biology. ASMEDC, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/nemb2010-13177.

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Surfaces displaying nano- and micropatterned cell adhesive ligands have led to numerous discoveries in cell biology. Soft lithography techniques such as microcontact printing are well suited for creating surfaces displaying micropatterns of one ligand type in a single arrangement but are difficult to implement for the creation of multifaceted surfaces that present multiple ligand types with each ligand confined to their own pattern. To better understand the influence of extracellular matrix (ECM) composition on adhesion site formation and gross cell behavior (motility, proliferation, differentiation, etc.) it would be advantageous to posses the ability to create surfaces displaying multiple patterned ligands with length scales ranging from < 0.25 μm2, the typical size of a focal complex to > 1 μm2, the size of focal adhesions. Higher spatial resolution than what is easily achieved with microcontact printing is also desired. Such surfaces would allow for the simultaneous investigations of adhesion site maturation and composition and how changes in these properties can be implemented to engineer cell behavior via cell-surface interactions.
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Chesla, Scott E., Bryan T. Marshall, and Cheng Zhu. "Measuring the Probability of Receptor Extraction From the Cell Membrane." In ASME 1997 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece1997-0262.

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Abstract Recently, there has been an increasing interest in measuring the interaction forces between cell adhesion receptors and their ligands [1–3]. These molecules are either anchored on the membrane of a cell or coated on the surface of a substratum. The two surfaces are joined together as a result of the formation of non-covalent bonds between the receptors and ligands. The forces are measured when the two surfaces are separated. In a theoretical paper published nineteen years ago, George Bell estimated the force required to break a receptor-ligand bond and that required to uproot the receptor from the cell membrane to be of the same order of magnitude [4]. The interpretation of the force data therefore requires the knowledge of detachment mode, i.e., via adhesive mechanism if the receptor-ligand bond is dissociated or via cohesive mechanism if the receptor-membrane anchor is disrupted.
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Christensen, Ulla. "Kinetics of piasminogen-activation. Effects of ligands binding to the AH-site of plasminogen." In XIth International Congress on Thrombosis and Haemostasis. Schattauer GmbH, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1644420.

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Detailed kinetic studies of the urokinase catalysed conversion of Lys-77- and Val-440-plasminogens in the presence and absence of ligands binding to the AH-site of the plasminogens shows that the effects of such ligand-binding correspond with a model of the activation reaction in which the effective Km and kc decreases, but kc/Km increases when the ligands bind. Apparently plasminogen with a free AH-site is a less specific substrate for urokinase, than is plasminogen with an AH-site-bound ligand.The AH-site is a weak lysine binding site of plasminogen located in the mini plasminogen part (Val-440-Asn-790) of plasminogen and is suggested to participate in the binding of the plasminogens to undegraded fibrin.
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Timkin, Pavel, E. Timofeev, A. Chupalov, and Evgeniy Borodin. "ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF LIGANDS FOR TRPM8 USING HARD DOCKING AND MACHINE LEARNING." In XIV International Scientific Conference "System Analysis in Medicine". Far Eastern Scientific Center of Physiology and Pathology of Respiration, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/conferencearticle_5fe01d9b233509.17835494.

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In this work, using the in-silico experiment modeling method, the receptor and its ligands were docked in order to obtain the data necessary to study the possibility of using machine learning and hard intermolecular docking methods to predict potential ligands for various receptors. The protein TRPM8 was chosen, which is a member of the TRP superfamily of proteins and its classic agonist menthol as a ligand. It is known that menthol is able to bind to tyrosine 745 of the B chain. To carry out all the manipulations, we used the Autodock software and a special set of graphic tools designed to work with in silico models of chemicals. As a result of all the manipulations, the menthol conformations were obtained that can bind to the active center of the TRPM8 receptor.
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Alper, Joshua, Aaron Schmidt, and Kimberly Hamad-Schifferli. "Thermal Transport From Gold Nanorod to Solvent, an Investigation of Ligand Effects by Ultrafast Laser Spectroscopy." In ASME 2008 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2008-67266.

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To facilitate analysis of nanoscale heat transfer in nanoparticle systems the thermal properties of ligand layers must be understood. To this end, we use an optical pump-probe technique to study the thermal transport across ligands on gold nanorods and into the solvent. We find that varying properties of the ligand can have large impacts on the thermal decay of a nanorod after exposure to a laser pulse. By raising the concentration of free CTAB from 1 mM and 10 mM in solutions, the CTAB layer’s effective thermal interface conductance increases three fold. The transition occurs near the CTAB critical micelle concentration. Similar results are found for other ligand layers.
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"Predicting the protein-ligand interactions based on ligands’ structures and proteins’ sequences." In Bioinformatics of Genome Regulation and Structure/Systems Biology (BGRS/SB-2022) :. Institute of Cytology and Genetics, the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.18699/sbb-2022-193.

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Reports on the topic "Ligands"

1

Potts, K. Macrocyclic ligands for uranium complexation. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), April 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/7201376.

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Muenchausen, Ross. MACROCYCLIC LIGANDS AND THEIR COMPLEXES. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1893650.

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Walensky, Justin. Exploring Covalency in the Actinides Using Soft Donor-Based Ligands and Metal-Ligand Multiple Bonding. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), May 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1782213.

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Goodrich, Jennifer S. EGFR Activation by Spatially Restricted Ligands. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, June 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada426969.

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Kung, H. F. Receptor Specific Ligands for Spect Imaging. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), February 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/836898.

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Sachs, Frederick. Ligands for Stretch Activated Ion Channels. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, May 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada315807.

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Mukherjee, Sayan, Noor U. Din Reshi, and Jitendra K. Bera. Asking Ligands to Lend a Hand. The Israel Chemical Society, March 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.51167/acm00039.

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Lehnert, B., and D. Allen. Targeted in vitro evolution of protein ligands. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/767437.

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Cutler, A. R. Selective transformation of carbonyl ligands to organic molecules. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), May 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/5021885.

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Paine, Robert T. Preorganized and Immobilized Ligands for Metal Ion Separations. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), July 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1236699.

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