Journal articles on the topic 'Libraries Scotland History 18th century'

In December 2004, a local family donated a cream silk slashed doublet to Perth Museum and Art Gallery. 1 Stylistically, the doublet is given a date between 1620 and 1630, but the family story is that it was a gift to one of their ancestors about the time of the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689. The donation stimulated a programme of investigation centred on the doublet’s conservation, curatorial research, the production of two replica suits and the mounting of an exhibition. This project won the United Kingdom Award for Conservation 2007. The Institute of Conservation, the Museums, Archives & Libraries Council and the National Preservation Office support this nationwide award. This essay reflects four different specialists’ engagement with the doublet: historical context, tailoring, conservation and reconstruction.

Peculiarities of Belarus libraries' development in the context of political, religious and cultural traditions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth are considered. It is told about history of monastic libraries, and also about private collections and libraries of educational institutions.

We analyze the qualitative and quantitative composition of the book collection of the civil press of the 18th century, which are in the collection of the Tambov regional universal library named after A.S. Pushkin (hereinafter TRUL). The relevance of the work is connected with the need to restore an objective picture of the creation and functioning of manor libraries of the late 18th century as an element of the cultural environment. The implementation of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research project allowed showing the world of the Tambov book of the 18th century in all its diversity. The novelty of the work lies in a system approach to the study of the array of books in Russian and foreign languages of pre-revolutionary libraries of the Russian province. We consider Tambov collections of foreign books of the 18th century, system information of which is currently absent in historiography and appears only as separate mentions in the works of local historians. The work with the existing repertoire of the library showed the key importance of Derzhavin library for the formation of modern Tambov collections of rare books of the 18th century. It is shown that the main array of the identified publications reflects the products of the Capital printing houses of the 18th century. The variety of thematic composition of the revealed collections is demonstrated. Among these collections of TRUL books there are publications on history, literature, philosophy, religion and natural sciences. The research proves that the study of the composition of the book collections of civil press of the 18th century gives important information for the study of book culture of the Tambov province, allows to analyze the appearance of the book works in the region and to find out the degree of attention to foreign and Russian media. Also it allows to detect the role of the book in the structure of cultural environment.

This article investigates the linguistic work of the English Jesuit James Adams (1737–1802). It places Adams’ work in the socio-cultural context of 18th-century linguistic writing, in particular with respect to two ongoing debates: (1) on a monogenetic vs. a polygenetic origin of language and (2) on the origins of Scots. Both of these were highly ideological debates, in the first case between a biblical and a scientific world view, and in the latter between those who were content with the political state of affairs (the Union of Scotland and England), and those who would rather have had an independent Scotland. Adams manages to reconcile linguistic evidence with monogenism, while his views on language and dialects are guided by ‘Christian phil­anthropy’. They contrast sharply with those of many of his contemporaries. In his “Vindication of the Dialect of Scotland”, which is the central part of the “Appendix” of hisPronunciation of the English Language(published in 1799), Adams strongly votes for Scottish linguistic independence, though not for political independence, even advocating a separate Scots spelling. The analysis of this work shows that his attitude to dialects is informed by his education and life as a Jesuit in the 18th century, his belief that all people are created as equals, his didactic concerns as a teacher, and the personal experience of an extended stay in Scotland.

Summary This article investigates the linguistic work of the English Jesuit James Adams (1737–1802). It places Adams’ work in the socio-cultural context of 18th-century linguistic writing, in particular with respect to two ongoing debates: (1) on a monogenetic vs. a polygenetic origin of language and (2) on the origins of Scots. Both of these were highly ideological debates, in the first case between a biblical and a scientific world view, and in the latter between those who were content with the political state of affairs (the Union of Scotland and England), and those who would rather have had an independent Scotland. Adams manages to reconcile linguistic evidence with monogenism, while his views on language and dialects are guided by ‘Christian phil­anthropy’. They contrast sharply with those of many of his contemporaries. In his “Vindication of the Dialect of Scotland”, which is the central part of the “Appendix” of his Pronunciation of the English Language (published in 1799), Adams strongly votes for Scottish linguistic independence, though not for political independence, even advocating a separate Scots spelling. The analysis of this work shows that his attitude to dialects is informed by his education and life as a Jesuit in the 18th century, his belief that all people are created as equals, his didactic concerns as a teacher, and the personal experience of an extended stay in Scotland.

David Ure (1749–98) contributed, in his History of Rutherglen and East-Kilbride (1793) not only to local history but, especially, to the development in Scotland of natural history, in some aspects of which he played a pioneering part. His studies at Glasgow University (with John Anderson as one of his teachers) were followed by ordination to the ministry of the Church of Scotland. A ‘stickit minister’ for most of his life, he played a significant part in Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland and contributed also to the surveys prepared for Sinclair's Board of Agriculture and Internal Improvement. Had he lived, he would have been Anderson's choice as professor of natural history in what became the Andersonian Institute. His writings reflect a lifelong commitment to the pursuit of knowledge with a view to improvement: he is thus a notable example of what the Enlightenment in late 18th-century Scotland was meant to exemplify and uphold.

The formation of the Khorezm school of calligraphy has a long history, and in the 16th century, schools of calligraphy and writing were formed in the palace libraries of the rulers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the art of calligraphy has developed as an independent school. The article describes the school of calligraphy that developed in Khorezm at the beginning of the 19th-20th centuries, as well as the life and spiritual heritage of its representatives.

The structure of a personal library indicates the public prestige and social role of a scientist and is a significant touch to the portrait of its owner. The composition of a traveling, or field library is determined by specific practical tasks, that’s why it has a special place among personal libraries. The traveling library of the German naturalist D. G. Messerschmidt (1685—1735), who made the first trip to Siberia for scientific purposes, is considered as a case. The Messerschmidt book collection is a professionally compiled traveling l library, including about 150 books and a dozen manuscripts, maps and engravings. The only piece of information about it is an entry in the manuscript of his travel diary. So, researchers of Messerschmidt’s traveling library face two interrelated tasks: preparation of an archival document for publication, on the one hand, and the reconstruction of the library in the absence of the books themselves, on the other. This reconstruction could expand our understanding of Messerschmidt’s reading circle, as well as the background and context of his activity.

The article focuses on the use of Russian and Latin in rhetoric classes in Russian seminaries of the 18th century, based on published and archival documents. Over the course of the century, the status of the Russian language changed significantly, which may be attributed to a number of factors: the development of belletristic literature, an increase in book publishing, the encouragement of preaching, etc. However, despite the fact that rhetorical textbooks began to be published in Russian, Latin remained the language of rhetorical theory in seminaries. These processes are illustrated both by surviving collections of extracts and exemplary texts, and catalogs of seminar libraries.

Founded 300 years ago, Marsh’s Library in Dublin – Ireland’s first public library – is described by its librarian as a ‘treasury of the European mind’. The outstanding collections, in their purpose-built 18th-century accommodation, are still accessible to the public. They include Irish books and manuscripts and books on subjects such as travel, botany, music and natural history. Recently the catalogue of printed books has been computerized and made available on the Internet.

John Hunter (1728–93) was one of the most popular and controversial surgeons of the 18th century. He treated the celebrities of his day including William Pitt the younger, Adam Smith and David Hume. Today he is acclaimed for his pioneering approach as the founder of scientific surgery. Yet a hitherto unknown aspect of his work – looking after the illegitimate offspring of one of his patients – has only recently come to light in some letters transcribed in archives at Glamis Castle in Scotland.

In 2018, we celebrated three hundred years birth anniversary of the prominent Russian scholar A.S. Barsov (1718—1763). While scientific legacy of other Lomonosov’s contemporaries has been hugely studied in dozens of articles and books, Barsov’s name has been rarely mentioned in the indexes of the extensive literature devoted to M.V. Lomonosov. Meanwhile, a vast array of documents have been preserved and partially published, indicating that Barsov played an important role in the development of book printing in Russia and elaboration of the Russian literary language norms. The purpose of the article is to determine the role of A.S. Barsov in the process of formation of new, secular culture in the post-Petrine time. The authors attempted to highlight the life and manners of academic students and employees in the middle of the 18th century, to show in what difficult conditions there were created the book masterpieces of the Academy, preserved in hundreds of libraries around the world. The article established the main milestones of A.S. Barsov’s life path. He was born in the family of priest; studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. After five years at the Academy Gymnasium and University, he was examined by professors and appointed proofreader at the Academic printing house; later on — supervisor of the printing house and its Figure chamber; shortly before his death, he was subjected to severe administrative sanctions. The authors analyse the fate of A.S. Barsov as one of the typical representatives of the early development stage of the academic science in Russia. The article introduced into scientific circulation a number of sources that allow assessing from a new, unexpected angle the evolution of the Academy of Sciences in the 1730s — 1760s. The authors revealed the degree of influence of his activity on the development of publishing activity and librarianship in Russia. The results of this study can be used in preparation of fundamental works in the field of science studies, library science, history of publishing, historiography, as well as special courses on the history of culture.

Varlaam Shyshatsky (1750-1821) was a prominent figure in the Russian Orthodox Church. In this article, the author’s focus is on his personal library – one of the most substantial book collections in Eastern Europe in the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has never been analyzed before. The article not only analyzes the composition of Varlaam Shyshatsky’s library, but also compares this collection with the personal libraries of other figures belonging to the same social group. The analysis is grounded in the broad context of the history of reading and book culture in Europe. Based on a number of criteria, it is concluded that significant changes in the culture of reading took place in the Ukrainian lands of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century – first and foremost the emergence of ‘extensive’ reading and development of a number of new cultural practices among the ‘enlightened elite’. The composition of the library of Varlaam Shyshatsky also attests to the cultural uniqueness of the region and argues in favor of the thesis about the existence of a ‘Ukrainian Enlightenment’ as a phenomenon with national and regional specifics of its own.

This article analyses Polish book collections in Ekaterinburg. The author has found such collections in four of the city’s libraries: the Sverdlovsk regional library, the Sverdlovsk regional history museum, the Central Academic Library of the Ural branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Ural Law University. In the article, the history of how these collections were formed and their particularities are discussed, as are the fates of individual books. The largest collection (250 books at the Sverdlovsk regional library) has as its basis books from the libraries of the Catholic Church of St Anna and the Catholic Philanthropic Society. The foundation of the Polish collection at the Sverdlovsk regional history museum consists of books from the archive of the Ural Society for the Admirers of the Natural Sciences. This collection includes a total of 17 works: the earliest of them coming from the beginning of the 18th century. A further focused search for Polish books in the libraries of Ekaterinburg would probably result in new findings.

On January 2008 in the bank of the Bogak Beach, in the front of Fisherman Housing, Dusun XII Bogak Village, Tanjung Tiram District, Batubara Regency, North Sumatera Province found a boat. It was already researched that it was a heritage and related to that area in 18 century, and in that era was trade lines witches’ traders and fishermen from foreign countries sailed to Sumatera. Not only boat but also found Chinese ceramic and coins in 1734, 1752, 1760, 1780, 1781, 1788 and 1790 years. This paper tries to describe the role of Pantai Bogak Port at 18th Century until 20th Century in the east coast maritime, and to research the archaeological and historical resources in Tanjung Tiram Regency; to look for the authenticity from Batubara Regency, North Sumatera Province. It could be proud Indonesia, and give a horizon about the activities and the cultural human history in 18th century until 20th century.The data was from collecting data observation in the field, and to analysis data then to give recommendation. The information process is from collecting data about historical data and the archaeological data, and the collecting data was also used from the primer data through observation. The secondary data was from rapport, inventories register, study result, and from libraries.

The article discusses the history of translation by the 18th-century Serbian translators of the Greek treatise “Πέτρα σκανδάλου” (“Rock of Offence”) written by the theologian and preacher Elias Meniates (1667–1714) in which he deals with the causes of interconfessional polemic between the Orthodox and the Catholic Churches. The history of these translations is placed within the context of interest in Meniates’ works, evidenced in Europe and in the Christian East throughout the 18th century. The vivid style and argumentation of Meniates inspired Stefan Pisarev, inter alia, to translate “Πέτρα σκανδάλου” into Russian, which he did in 1744. In the focus of our research are manuscripts stored in several Serbian libraries and archive collections, namely, manuscripts of “Πέτρα σκανδάλου” translations made by Jovan Mladenović (in 1742) and Vićentije Rakić (in 1797/98). In the study we present, the biographies of the two authors of these unpublished translations are traced and defined more accurately. At the final stage of the study, we correlate the historical settings and probable reasons motivating Mladenović and Rakić to make the Serbian translations of the Greek treatise “Πέτρα σκανδάλου”, on the one hand, and the factors leading to the emergence of a Russian translation of the same treatise by Pisarev, on the other. As believed by the author of this article, the aforementioned translations will serve as a valuable linguistic source for historians of Slavic languages and letters in their comparative studies.

The need for studies to analyze the evolution of university libraries at the various historical stages is substantiated. The authors identify three periods when the library role was changing radically due to the changes in ideology and social demands. The authors explore the first period in detail and point to the narrative character of most publications on the library history lacking analysis of their humanitarian origins. The authors argue that, to conceptualize academic libraries mission at the present time, it is necessary to understand the university library mission from the historical perspective. They emphasize that cultural and educational activitiestoday is viewed in the context of personal socialization, or student’s social adaptation while the vector of information space development calls for conceptualization of the libraries’ humanitarian mission.The authors argue that, to understand a university library mission and, speaking wider – an education humanitarian principle we have to turn to historical and philosophic essence of humanism and enlightenment at the earliest stage of Russian academic libraries of the late 18th – early 20th century.

Mutual improvement, an early form of lifelong learning, was widespread among the nineteenth-century working classes and has been portrayed as a variable and relatively unstructured phenomenon. This essay challenges this view by examining the movement in north-east Scotland in the nineteenth century and its symbiotic relationship with library activity as libraries provided information to facilitate debate. The movement originated in the 1830s and flourished until the end of the century. Mutual improvement activity was fuelled by religious division and a relationship with the Liberal Party. The principal ideologue of the movement, which peaked in the 1850s, was Robert Harvie Smith, who articulated a sophisticated lifelong learning ideology supported by specific learning objectives, prioritised in order. A notable feature was the involvement of women in the movement. Most of the participants were tradesmen or small tenant farmers, and the subjects of their debates reflected their preoccupations: modern farming, religious controversy, and the ‘farm servant problem’. The movement anticipated the university extension movement by about thirty years. Because the north-east had its own university and was a self-contained learning culture, mutual improvers might proceed to university, thus anticipating modern ideas about received prior learning (RPL) and articulation. Mutual improvement activity demonstrates the continuing intellectual vitality in rural Scotland in the late nineteenth century.

Abstract<title> SUMMARY </title>This short essay should be - event though not exaustive at all a view on the situation of the Cotugno papers. Domenico Cotugno (1736-1822) was one of the most eminent scientists among them who worked in Naples in the 18th and in the early 19th century. This essay is particularly centred upon the Cotugno papers founded in National Library of Naples (Carteggio Cotugno, mss. S. Martino, 394-401). Among these papers there are many letters written by scientists and learned people, from Italy and from abroad. This writing finally gives some indications about Cotugno's letters founded in other libraries, and a list of edited papers.

Back in the last century (just over a year ago, actually), reading an original copy of a paper published in The Royal Society's Philosophical Transactions or Proceedings journals in, say, the 18th century required a visit to a library, probably by appointment and certainly with considerable inconvenience. Now, through JSTOR (an acronym for ‘journal storage’) scholars are able to call up the full text of papers to their desktops, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, from the comfort of their university libraries, offices and homes. The archive begins with the first issue of Philosophical Transactions published on 6 March 1665 and runs through to the December 1996 issues of the modern journals. This totals about 700 000 pages, all of which are completely browsable, searchable and retrievable. Each year a further 12 months of publishing will be added to the archive. Meanwhile, the Society's own electronic archive facilities record the papers published from January 1997 to date.

AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH INTO THE HISTORY OF LIBRARIES AND LIBRARIANSHIP IN POLAND IN 1945–2015The author of the article discusses selected academic and popular publications concerning the history of libraries and librarianship in Poland which appeared in 1945–2015. In that period information about the most important historical resources of various Polish libraries and early book collections was made available; in addition, the period was marked by progress in the study of materials originating before the end of the 18th century. Scholars published a range of methodological studies as well as studies dealing with sources, contributing to the development of scholarship. On the other hand, there were too few editions of source materials.After 1989 scholars intensified their efforts to find sources in foreign collections, especially in Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and Germany. Polish collections kept abroad are yet to be fully researched and have their inventories and catalogues published.The vast body of literature is uneven when it comes to its focus on the various historical periods, regions, subregions and local centres. It comprises publications dealing with the history of libraries, their function and role in culture with regard to the history of the book, and publications focused on the types of libraries or individual libraries — of different traditions, sizes and stature. Scholars also explored the history of home book collections, reading rooms and libraries as well as biographies of librarians and collectors. The quality of the publications varies. There are gaps in, for example, the history of libraries in the former Polish Eastern Borderlands as well as “blank pages” in the historiography of Polish librarianship after the Second World War. There is a visible shortage of quantification of phenomena from the past of libraries, despite the fact that there are some possibilities in this respect. What is also needed is development in comparative studies, also in an international perspective, although this would require Polish historians to become more interested than before in the history of librarianship in other countries.

Abstract. Researches aimed at enriching the number of available documentary sources on earthquakes have an important role in seismology. To this end, this paper documents the history of prominent earthquakes associated with the NW-SE trending Sultandag-Aksehir Fault and Aksehir-Afyon graben system in Western-Central Anatolia since the historical times through 1766. This work also combines the earthquake data for both historical and instrumental periods, previously listed in various catalogues and resources, for the studied area. Documents from the Ottoman archives and libraries as well as the Ottoman and Turkish newspapers were scrutinized, and eight previously unreported earthquakes in the latter half of the nineteenth century and four new earthquakes in the period 1900–1931 were revealed. For the period from 1766 to 1931, the total number of known earthquakes for the area under investigation increased from eighteen to thirty thanks to the document search. Furthermore, the existing information on eleven previously reported earthquakes is updated for the period from 1862 to 1946. Earthquakes from 1946 to 1964 are compiled from the catalogues for data completeness.

James Ferguson, the self-taught astronomer, scientific instrument maker, author and lecturer was a remarkable 18th century figure. This paper traces his life from humble origins as a shepherd boy in Banffshire, Scotland. There he observed the stars and planets by night and conjectured on the mechanics of the heavens. He taught himself to make and repair clocks and his outstanding talent as a portraitist enabled him to earn a living while he invented scientific instruments. He eventually came to London where he continued to design instruments and globes and commenced his career as lecturer and author. His later years as an esteemed recipient of a royal pension from King George III brought him Fellowship of the Royal Society with extraordinary provisions, and contact with Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Johnson and many other leading figures of his day.

The Bibliographie Bildende Kunst has come out annually since 1973. It records literature of various kinds about painting, graphic art, plastic art, architecture, applied art, book art, design, folk art, artistic photography as well as theory and history of art. The compilation comprises monographs, periodical essays and important contributions from the daily press. Every yearly volume contains an index of authors and an index of subjects. Every five years a cumulated index is published. Since 1973 the Bibliographie Illustrierte Bucher der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik has come out. It lists GDR publications containing artistic illustrations. Every yearly volume is made accessible by means of an index of authors and subject titles. Index cumulations are published every five years. In 1984 a list concerning the location of periodicals and serials about Fine Arts in libraries of the German Democratic Republic was published. It contains titles from the 18th mid-century onward up to the present, including information on the particular ownership of GDR libraries. These publications are obtainable from Sächsische Landesbibliothek Dresden, GDR-8060 Dresden, PSF 467/468.

This article presents a catalogue of books from the private libraries of counts A. I. Osterman, M. G. Golovkin, B.-Ch. Minnich, and baron K. L. Mengden. These books were confiscated after the coup d’état (25 November 1741) as a part of their property and then were transferred to the Library of the Academy of Sciences in accordance with Empress Elizabeth’s order in 1742–43. On 1 December 1741, «The record Commission for Osterman’s and others’ movable property, villages and debt obligations» was established. One of its tasks was to allocate the books to different institutions such as the Collegium of Foreign Affairs and the Library of the Academy of Sciences. The rest of the books were sold. The religious books belonging to A. I. Osterman and M. G. Golovkin were given to the Church of the Resurrection in the grounds of Pokrov Palace in Moscow.

Popular perception has historically constructed the Highlands and Islands of Scotland to be economically and socially backwards in comparison with the rest of the United Kingdom. As evoked in the phrase the ‘Highland Problem’, the area has been considered by outsiders to be beyond help and destined to remain in a state of underdevelopment and chronic depopulation. Despite the history of economic intervention in the area from the late 18th century onwards from private and government initiatives intended to alleviate poverty and bring wealth to the area, it was not until the 1980s with the implementation of sustained and tailored structural assistance from the European Union that emigration slowed and the population of the Highlands and Islands began to grow significantly. This economic success has largely been the result of not only a significant injection of capital but also the willingness of the EU to use local knowledge and collaborate with local agencies. This remarkable development, which is far from over, is being directly threatened by the Brexit phenomenon.

The article gives the first extensive review of the multivolume ‘Hermetic Library.’ It is stored in the Research Division of Manuscripts of the Russian National Library. This collection includes translations from European authors from Ancient Greece to the 18th century. Some manuscripts of the ‘Hermetic Library’ collection were believed by the Order of the Golden and Pink Cross to belong to the legendary Rosicrucians. The Order of the Golden and Pink Cross emerged in the 18th century within the Masonic movement. Until early 19th century the Order, mostly focused on alchemy, developed as a branch of Freemasonry. In 1782 the Order of the Golden and Pink Cross opened its subdivision in Russia. Having survived a number of prohibitions, the organization of Russian Rosicrucians continued until early 20th century. The ‘Hermetic Library’ is the largest literary heritage of Russian Rosicrucians. The ‘Hermetic Library’ was started by educator and book publisher N. I. Novikov in early 19th century. It was Europe’s largest collection of alchemical and Rosicrucian works of the time. The library was to be kept secret and be used for education of the Order members. Two collections of the library fell into hands of different groups of Rosicrucians. The Moscow collection was kept in Arsenyev's family. The Petersburg collection passed from hand to hand; in late 19th century it was put up for sale. Only after 1917 the two collections of the ‘Hermetic Library’ were acquired by libraries of Moscow and St. Petersburg. The study of the St. Petersburg collection shows that it was copied and translated by several Rosicrucians. After Novikov’s death in 1818, two different groups continued the library, and volumes following the 30th differ in content and design. Novikov’s library included manuscripts on the development of alchemy from Ancient Egypt and to 18th century Europe. They included the most important Rosicrucian works. 35 volumes of the St. Petersburg collection include 191 works. The volumes were compiled to insure consistent training of the Order adepts. The article analyses the St. Petersburg collection of the ‘Hermetic library.’ Within the frameworks of an article it is impossible to review the contents every volume. It offers a summary of the history of writing and storage of the library until the 20th century and an overview of the volumes’ design and layout, which allows to judge the overall design of the library. It also compares the St. Petersburg collection and the Moscow one.

ABSTRACTThe Cape Granites are a granitic suite intruded into Neoproterozoic greywackes and slates, and unconformably overlain by early Palaeozoic Table Mountain Group orthoquartzites. They were first recognised at Paarl in 1776 by Francis Masson, and by William Anderson and William Hamilton in 1778. Studies of the Cape Granites were central to some of the early debates between the Wernerian Neptunists (Robert Jameson and his former pupils) and the Huttonian Plutonists (John Playfair, Basil Hall, Charles Darwin), in the first decades of the 19th Century, since it is at the foot of Table Mountain that the first intrusive granites outside of Scotland were described by Hall in 1812. The Neptunists believed that all rocks, including granite and basalt, were precipitated from the primordial oceans, whereas the Plutonists believed in the intrusive origin of some igneous rocks, such as granite. In this paper, some of the early descriptions and debates concerning the Cape Granites are reviewed, and the history of the development of ideas on granites (as well as on contact metamorphism and sea level changes) at the Cape in the late 18th Century and early to mid 19th Century, during the emerging years of the discipline of geology, is presented for the first time.

В статье автор анализирует литературную практику на основе материалов популярного либерального издания «Эдинбургского обозрения, или критического журнала». Это было издание, специально посвященное критическим обзорам книг, вышедших в Британии, Париже, Берлине и других городах мира. Их тематика охватывала широкий круг тем по политике, экономике, общественным пробле-мам и истории. Рецензии освещали либеральный взгляд на историю в контексте идей Просвещения. Авторы обзоров восприняли теоретическое осмысление исторического процесса шотландскими просветителями. Они предполага-ли, что все люди в своем развитии проходят одни и те же стадии: дикость, варварство и цивилизацию. В контексте идей о стадиях развития рецензенты рассматривали труды, где говорилось о путешествиях, встречах с иной культурой чиновников, миссионеров и военных. При несовершенстве предложенной схемы вслед за авторами книг рецензенты оценивали уровень развития народов и племен, населявших Африку, Америку и Азию. Как правило, они относили их к стадии дикости и варварства. Полагая, что британцы до-стигли высшего уровня — цивилизации, авторы ряда книг и рецензенты выдвигали планы по цивилизации этих народов. The author analyses the literary practice liberal edition “The Edinburgh review, or critical journal”. It was original special edition with review of books from Britain, Paris, Berlin and other towns of the world. Their problems spread all themes over economy, politics, civil problems, etc. and history from liberal opinions on them from enlightenment position. The authors of journal shared Scotland enlightenment’s theo-retical opinion about historical development. They thought all people gone same stages: savage, barbarity and civilization. From that opinion the authors analyzes books wrote about travels meeting with another culture. As the author of books reviewers thought the tribes and people of America, Asia and Africa were at the stages of savage and barbarity. And Britons as civilized nation should bring civilization to them.

Review of the collection of acts of the Kaunas dietine 1733–1795 compiled by M. Jusupowić («Akta sejmiku kowieńskiego z lat 1733–1795» / Wyd. Jusupović, Monika. Warszawa: Instytut Historii PAN, Wydawnictwo Neriton, 2019. 660 p.). T. Ambroziak points out the importance of this publication for the study of the political and social life of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 18th century. The reviewer notes the relative stability of the activities of the Kaunas dietine, due to the political position of the Zabiełło family. The author draws attention to the significant difference in the publication of dietines’ documents of Lithuania and Poland and to the fact that this work is the first publication of documents of dietines of the Grand Duchy. T. Ambroziak positively assesses this publication, emphasizing its completeness and the fact that materials from the collections of various archives and libraries in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Russia were attracted. The peer-reviewed publication complies with the modern Polish archaeographic practice of publication of such source material. This collection suits the model of the publication of «acts» of the dietine, formulated by S. Kutrzeba. At the same time, the reviewer points to a number of issues that have not yet been resolved by Polish historiography, as the question of transmission of the text of the source material. The author emphasizes that, despite the ongoing discussion on the development of a new instruction for the publication of historical sources of the Early Modern period, Polish scholars still, although with significant reservations, adhere to the «Publishing instruction for historical sources of the 16th – first half of the 19th centuries» formulated in the middle of the last century by K. Lepszy.

The Shetland Isles, a group of islands settled in the North Sea approximately halfway between Norway and Scotland, are perhaps popularly best known for ponies, sheep dogs, and knitwear. Considerably less well known is the fact that the isles are also home to a highly distinct local dialect. The Shetland dialect constitutes a form of Lowland Scots but also displays a significant Scandinavian component. This is attributable to Shetland's history: the isles were settled by Vikings around 800AD and a Nordic language - first Old Norse and later Norn - was spoken there up until about the 18th century. As for many local speech forms, however, there are strong signs that the Shetland dialect is undergoing drastic change; arguably, it is even in rapid decline. The aim of this essay is to provide an accessible introduction to the Shetland Isles, their settlement and linguistic history, and the complex local language situation. Furthermore, some of the discourse surrounding current language change, involving both local and non-local contributors, is reviewed. Recent empirical research, which provides important clues to the future of the Shetland dialect, is also discussed, as well as its various implications.

The article considers the history of foundation and development of scientific libraries in Yakutia. In many ways, the opening of libraries was caused by the scientific interest in Siberia, the emergence of scientific and cultural-educational societies. Libraries strengthened the status of the societies and provided information support for their activities. The first scientific libraries were opened at the Yakut Regional Statistical Committee (1853), the Yakut Regional Museum (1891), the Yakut Department of the Agricultural Society (1899) and the Yakut Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society (1913).The article notes the contribution of the State Public Scientific and Technical Library of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the National Library of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) to the study of history of libraries and librarianship in Siberia, including Yakutia. Particularly, the author describes the influence of political exiles on the formation of libraries and the development of culture in the region. The author focuses on the activities of the Yakut Regional Statistical Committee, which established one of the first special libraries, which later became the main one for scientific libraries. The article considers its activities as an integral part of scientific research in the Eastern Siberia, since the Committee not only collected statistical data on the region, but also supported research institutions, took part in organizing expeditions to study the region, etc. The author describes the role of the Secretary of the Committee, S.F. Saulsky, in the ordering and systematization of the library’s collection, as well as the role of A.I. Popov, state councillor, full member of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, in the organization of the Yakut Regional Museum. The article reveals the activities of the museum library on selection of books and periodicals of scientific societies, Sibirika, local history literature and manuals for the identification of collections and their systematization. The library kept valuable materials: manuscripts, archival files, geographical maps, route maps, plans of cities, villages, dwellings of foreigners, etc. Academic expeditions of the 18th — first half of the 19th century made an invaluable contribution to the study of Siberia; and the Academy of Sciences gradually transferred the functions of specialized stationary scientific body to the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. The author attempts to trace the origins of the library at the Yakut Branch of the Russian Geographical Society. Attention is paid to the activities of the governor of affairs N.N. Gribanovsky, who identified one of the main directions of the library activity — creation of local history reference and bibliographic apparatus that reflects the literature about Yakutia.The article notes the general trends of scientific libraries: insufficient financing; acquisitions mostly consisted of donations and book exchange; involvement of political exiles in the work; limited access of readers (only for the staff or members of societies). The author reveals the fate of the first scientific libraries, whose collections were distributed among the libraries of Yakutsk and partially preserved in the historically formed library holdings.

The author considers the crisis events of medieval craft structures in England. The focus of his attention is the modernization of guilds and liveried companies of masons-builders. The analysis was carried out using special sources and scientific literature. This allowed us to draw a number of important conclusions. It is noted that the crisis processes observed in the economy of England of the 15—17th Centuries had a decisive influence on the evolution of the guild institution. These structures, in particular, construction guilds received the status of liveried companies. Subsequently, the craft Masonry of England was transformed into an enlightenment community. The study showed that his ideology provided for the allegorical use of building craft symbols. In particular, members of the Royal Society in London are named the project’s inspirers. Its main goal is the “construction” of a new society, religion and the formation of a new man. The author also emphasizes that the phenomenon of new Masonry should not be associated with the activities of a secret organization. In his opinion, the initial stage in the history of the Masonry in England should be associated with the influence of the Freemasonry of Scotland. However, at the beginning of the 18th Century, the intellectual elite of England managed to seize the initiative. The intellectual elite was the first to establish the work of the transnational structures of the new Masonic movement.

The subject of this article is the role and place of music store as a phenomenon in cultu­ral history. It is located “at the intersection” of historical and socio-cultural musicology but it has not been previously studied from this perspective. The relevance of the topic is related to the fact that the study of the music store phenomenon in all versati­lity gives an opportunity to have a new look at different aspects of musical and social life: history of performing art, concert practice, music management, development of music instruments, book and music publishing. It covers the emergence of music stores (based on bookstalls with an expanded pro­duct range, publishing houses, factories for production of musical instruments); their locations as well as different aspects of functioning (including in the system of music management, edu­cation and enlightenment). On the example of the most famous stores of Moscow and Petersburg of the end of the 18th — beginning of the 20th century, it is shown that music stores played a strongly pronounced culture spreading role in the history of Russian culture. In particular, reading rooms and libraries were organized at music stores; concerts were organized with their mediation; skilled staff of the music industry grew in their depths. There is noted that the cultural function of music store was particularly evident in the provinces where it would become a noticeable cultural and intellectual centre. The article indicates main directions of further research in this and related fields of knowledge; traces the fate of this institution in our days: changing the forms of work, going from offline to online space.

Customs books are the main mass source on the history of domestic and foreign trade of Russia in the 17th – 18th centuries. The main body of these documents is available in various fonds of the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts. Customs books are also kept in several other archives, libraries, and museums in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Scientific literature provides information on the availability of documents of this type in some regional archives of the Russian Federation. However, no systematic identification and registration of customs books in regional archives has been made. In 2019–2020, the author of the article has carried out a survey of several regional archives that, according to the information in scientific literature, store customs books. The survey was mostly carried out in absentia (by sending written requests to the archives and by viewing digitized copies of archival series on the Internet). The information on the customs books found in the regional archives was compared with the data provided in the historiography. The survey has established presence of customs books in eight regional archives, including the State Archive of the Arkhangelsk Region (23 books), the State Archive of the Astrakhan Region (84), the State Archive of the Voronezh Region (4), the State Archive of the Irkutsk Region (13), the State Archive of the Murmansk Region (1), the State Archive of the Pskov Region (42), the State Archive of the Tyumen Region (201), the Velikoustyug Central Archives (2). In total, 370 such sources have been identified in 34 towns (about 10% of all currently known sources of this type). The revealed customs books date from 1646/47 to 1754. Their overwhelming majority are 18th century documents. The results of the customs books identification in the regional archives are preliminary, since only archives cited in historiography have been examined so far. In addition, the identified corpus of customs books demands clarification and supplementation, since references provided by the archives may be incomplete, and there are inaccuracies and omissions in the series. It is concluded that to collect comprehensive and accurate data on customs books in central and regional archives is only possible de visu.

AbstractThe Europeana Collections, inaugurated in 2008, represents the completion of an ambitious project intended to be a journey and an instrument for the access to the culture, the history and the identity of the Europeans. Nowadays, Europeana contains in its collections more than 58 million digital units, organized on domains and themes, from art works, artefacts and books to movies and music. The patrimony of the Europeana enriches yearly and constantly by the contribution of the European Member States, as response to the common aspiration to open the access to knowledge beyond the national or territorial borders. The Europeana Project represents the implementation by digitization of a set of standards and of a unitary approach on the valorisation by digitization of the patrimony of the European states. The country reports reflect the most accurate the measures and the achievements of each contributing state to Europeana. Therefore, the Romanian report – a document updated in January 2019 – presents punctually the achievements of our country and of the Romanian institutions contributing to the enrichment of the Europeana collections. The list of the contributors contains, next to the names of well-known libraries, the name of the National Museum of the Union from Alba Iulia, with 986 digital units. Related to the field of the prints, the National Museum of the Union is not a direct contributor, but its collections are uploaded by other contributors. The National Museum of the Union has a remarkable and extremely valuable collection of Transylvanian books, mainly printed in Cluj during the 18th century. There are 78 titles with a preponderantly religious, juridical and educational content, representing an important segment of the national cultural heritage. The present paper aims to approach the above mentioned works and to identify them in the Europeana collections.

From 1999 Polish and Romanian humanists face each other on conferences in Suceava (Romanian Bucovina) which are part of “Polish Days” in Romania organized by the Association of Poles in Romania. Polish and Romanian historians, ethnographers, sociologists, politologists and linguists deliver lectures and discuss Polish-Romanian contacts and relations in the past and present. from the Polish part many historical lectures concern the interwar period and the problem of Polish refugees in Romania during the World War II. In the period between1918–1945 the relations between Poles and Romanians were rather friendly and now these topics are discussed most frequently. Among the Romanian historians there are more specialists on the relations between Moldova and the Polish Kingdom till the end of 18th century. Many historians focus on the Polish-Romanian relations in the years 1945–1989. Most of the lectures concerning the political present were delivered by the Poles. Cultural sections of the conference concentrate on mutual language influences, Polish–Romanian literature contacts, translations of Polish literature into Romania and Romanian literature into Poland, the analyses of literary works, Polish studies in Romania and Romanian studies in Poland, the perception of Romanian culture among the Poles and vice versa, the problems of religions, education, libraries, music and tourism. Polish etnographers concentrate on the problems of Polish Bucovinians but the most discussed subject is not the history of Polish Bucovinians but their local dialect. Most of the conference lectures were printed. “Polish Days” in Suceava are the most important event organized by the very active Association of Poles in Romania and they help breaking the stereotypes and enhance the integration between the Poles and Romanians.. In general the conferences in Suceava do not have their equivalent in the contacts between humanists of other countries.

Anders Toftgaard: Amongst speaking statues and admonishing ghosts. Mazarinades in the collections of The Royal Library Mazarinade is a term for political writing that was published in different forms in France during (and related to) the Fronde (1648–1653). The Fronde was a series of civil wars that first broke out when Louis XIV (born 1638) was still a child, and Mazarin was the Chief Minister of France and responsible for the young king’s education. Mazarin governed the country together with the king’s mother, Anne of Austria. The term mazarinade covers pamphlets, letters, official documents, burlesque poetry, sonnets and ballads, discourses and dialogues.The Royal Library in Copenhagen holds a collection of mazarinades. The Copenhagen collection was overlooked by scholars and Hubert Carrier (who travelled widely) because it had not been properly catalogued. The collection of mazarinades in the Royal Library has now been catalogued by the author of the article, and the catalogue is available in Fund og Forskning online. The article serves as an introduction to this hitherto unknown collection of mazarinades. After a presentation of the Fronde, and the term mazarinade and its denotation, the article lists the rare and unique mazarinades in the collections of The Royal Library, Copenhagen and where possible, traces their provenance.The collection consists of 33 volumes of mazarinades that have been put together in the 19th century in order to form a single collection: Collection de mazarinades. Apart from this Collection de mazarinades there are other mazarinades in the holdings, stemming both from the Royal Library and from the University Library. The 33 volumes (one volume has been missing for years) have been grouped together by various subsets. One of these subsets is a collection of mazarinades created by Pierre Camuset, who lived during the time of the Fronde. Camuset introduces himself as “conseiller du roi, eslu en l’election de Paris”. Archival records show that he was appointed to this position on 9 December 1622, that in 1641 he married Agnès, daughter of Jean Le Noir, lawyer to the Parliament of Parisian, and that he died some years before 1670.In the Collection de Mazarinades, there are approx. 100 mazarinades which were considered rare or “rarissime” by Célestin Moreau in his Bibliographie des mazarinades (1850–1851). There are three mazarinades, which would seem to be unique; three mazarinades, which are not recorded in the existing bibliographies of mazarinades (made by D’Artois and Carrier, in the Bibliothèque Mazarine) but of which there are copies in other libraries. There is a mazarinade printed by Samuel Brown in The Hague, which has not been recorded elsewhere. Finally, there are 11 mazarinades printed by Jean-Aimé Candy in Lyon, of which only three, judging from existing catalogues and bibliographies, seem to exist in other libraries.Only few of the mazarinades were brought to Denmark during the Fronde. Most of them were collected by Danish 18th century collectors. Surprisingly, only a small part stems from the incredibly rich library of Count Otto Thott (1703–1785). When Thott’s library was auctioned off, his mazarinades were bought by Herman Treschow (1739–1797) who acted as a commission agent for numerous book collectors, and due to the detailed cataloguing in Thott’s auction catalogue, it would probably be possible to find the volumes from his library in a foreign library.Both Hans Gram (1685–1748) and Bolle Willum Luxdorph (1716–1788) owned copies of Gabriel Naudé’s Mascurat in which they wrote handwritten notes. Luxdorph was the great collector of Danish press freedom writings. In his marginal notes he compares a passage in Naudé’s text about common people appropriating the art of printing with his own experience of a servant who came up with songs that were “assez mechants” during the fall of Struensee on 17 January 1772: “Mon valet faisait aussi d’asséz méchans vers su aujet de la revolution du 17de janvier 1772”. Luxdorph’s reading of Mascurat is thus in close connection with his interest in writings on press freedom.The Mazarinades are valuable both for studies in history, literary history and history of the book. More specifically, the collection of Mazarinades in the Royal Library, on the one hand, through the example of Pierre Camuset, shows how an individual tried to get a grasp of an abnormal period, and on the other hand, through the example of Luxdoph, very clearly testifies to the 18th century interest in the history of the book and in historical periods with de facto freedom of the press.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> It seems that the aim of conventional studies on tactile maps for visually impaired people have been to improve their utility in terms of instrumentalism. However, given the recent progress of disability studies in social science and post-representational approach in recent map studies, it is necessary to examine how tactile maps work in the society and how they relate to “disability” as a social phenomenon. These are also important issues to think about how geospatial information technology for visually impaired people embed in the society. Hence, regarding the map as more-than-representation, this paper analysed various documents (e.g. newspaper articles, essays, instruction manuals for orientation and mobility specialist), and considered the social position of tactile maps in Japan. The results showed the following.</p><p>The tactile map has a long history as a teaching material of geography. It was used for education for the blind in Western countries in the late 18th century. This situation was introduced to Japan by overseas memoir. For example, in the late Edo era, Namura Gohachirou who was a member of Japanese Embassy to the United States witnessed geography education using tactile maps at the blind school in New York. In his diary named <i>Akou Nikki</i>, Namura said that the education for blinds using tactile maps seemed to “translation” from the words of those who can see both eyes well to the words of visually impaired people. His statement clearly shows the material difference of tactile maps. Many tactile maps have acquired social status as “translated objects”. The material form of tactile maps is different from the “map” (visual map) known to the general public, so it makes awareness of physical differences between the body of visually impaired people and sighted people. In 1880, the first blind school in Japan, Kyoto Moua In had exhibited teaching materials and other instruments to the exposition, including a tactile map representing the city of Kyoto. Such a social event also had a role to attract the attention of sighted people to the material heterogeneity of the tactile map <i>and</i> visually impaired people.</p><p>The 1960s-80s was the period of the situation of tactile maps changed significantly in Japan. In the 1960s, rehabilitation techniques for visual impairments was introduced to Japan from USA, and the concept of “orientation” which was lacking in conventional walking training diffused. In accordance with these movement, the teaching manual of orientation and mobility (O&amp;M) training became write the methodologies to make and use the tactile map for the training. In 1964, Kazuo Honma, the founder of Japan Brail Library, visited all over the world and bought lots of tools for visually impaired people, including tactile maps, at the blind libraries in various places and brought them back to Japan. He held an exhibition to show those materials in the following year. Furthermore, as the International Year of Disabled Persons 1981 and the subsequent enforcement of various laws related to people with disability, it has been emphasized to create cities where physically impaired people can go out of their homes. Since that time the tactile maps began to be installed in public facilities, and were introduced in the assistive technology catalogs. In this way, the tactile map was incorporated into the context of “outdoor behavior” and “walking”. Not only the body of visually impaired people but also the tactile maps as material objects have increasingly been exposed to the “outside” spaces (e.g. city, road). As a result, the tactile map became understood from the viewpoint of “safety”, and it became involved with human and non-human actors (e.g. government offices, volunteer organizations, barrier-free laws, traffic guidelines) different from those of geography education.</p>

Becker, Helaine. Lines, Bars and Circles: How William Playfair Invented Graphs. Illustrated by Marie-Ève Tremblay. Kids Can Press, 2017.Lines, Bars and Circles follows the life story of William Playfair. William was a dreamer and he saw the world differently than most people. Born in 1759 in Scotland, William was a joker with a unique sense of humour as a child. As he grew up, his independent spirit led him to leave home at fourteen to seek his fortune. He worked for inventors like William Watt and longed to invent something or make a discovery that would make him rich. Unfortunately, William’s dreaming and scheming did not yield much success and most of his ideas and businesses failed.William wrote books to make money and while doing so, used his unique way of thinking to describe the information he was writing about. His use of a vertical and horizontal line system to plot results, demonstrated a visual way of displaying numeric values, and thus invented the first line chart. Later he invented the bar graph and the pie chart. Despite interest from the King of France, William’s charts were not taken seriously at first, mostly because of his reputation. It was not until a hundred years after his death that his charts were revisited for their value. In our time, charts and graphs are used in infographics every day, and are greatly valued for their ability to make information easier to understand.Lines, Bars, and Circles is a great way to introduce both history and mathematics to young readers. The digitally drawn, textured illustrations by Marie-Ève Tremblay bring the 18th century to life with simplicity and whimsy. The Playfair caricature in the book reflects both his creativity and his self-involved personality, aspects of his character that led him to be viewed as uncommitted, ambitious to a fault, and an occupational drifter. Playfair’s story is an interesting one, as it shows how a unique independent spirit can be both a blessing and a curse. The book also shows how not all inventors are fabulously successful, and that one can never know which ideas will be the most impactful. Given the richness of topics in this book it would most suitable for older school age children ages 8-12. Small snippets of historical information are distributed throughout the narrative, about the people William knew and the times he lived in. The end of the book also provides a comprehensive biography of William Playfair. I would recommend this book for children with interests in math and/or history. Recommended: 3 out of 4 starsReviewer: Hanne PearceHanne Pearce has worked at the University of Alberta Libraries since 2004. She holds a BA and MLIS and is currently working towards her Master of Arts in Communications and Technology. Her research interests include: visual communication, digital literacy, information literacy and the intersections between communication work and information work. She is also a freelance photographer and graphic designer.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, two sets of scholars – Tom and Joan Flett, and George Emmerson – gleaned many English-language sources to recover aspects of the history of dance in Scotland. They correctly pointed out the pervasive influence of French court culture and the French-trained dancing masters on Scottish forms of dance, including in the Highlands, but did not examine the majority of potential Gaelic sources in their work. This article examines Scottish Gaelic sources referring to dance practices in the Scottish Highlands from the late-seventeenth century to the end of the eighteenth century, placing them within the context of wider European developments in music and dance and confirming that they demonstrate a consciousness of the strong connections with France and corresponding effects on Gaelic dance traditions.

Abstract<title> SUMMARY </title>R. G. Boscovich's correspondence with scientists, men of learning, clergymen and politicians constitutes one of the most important instruments for improving knowledge on one of the most illustrious thinkers of the 18th century and for the study of his contributions to the development of the positive sciences, from astronomy to physics, optics and natural philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment.In consideration of the personality of the author, R. G. Boscovich's correspondence is very wide and is to be found in a great many different libraries and archives.This catalogue of letters represents a first attempt at supplying scholars with the elements necessary for locating Boscovich's correspondence, at least that part of it now available in the bestknown libraries and national archives.The author wishes to thank in advance all those who will be so kind as to point out errors in the catalogue or its indices as well as the existence of other letters, whether published or not, that do not appear in this catalogue.

Abstract This article presents the results of a preliminary inquiry into the theatrical activity of Sephardic Jews in Italy from 1492 to the 18th century. Through archival investigation conducted on catalogues of manuscripts and published books from Italian libraries, as well as on documents produced by Sephardic communities, the study focuses on three case studies: the communities in Venice, Naples, and Tuscany. Concerning the Venetian community, literary witnesses to the dramatic activity in the Ghetto are collected and analyzed, including Ester by Salomon Usque and Leon Modena. Concerning the Neapolitan community, the reasons for the absence of Sephardic cultural traces are clarified. The only extant Judeo-Spanish plays produced in Italy come from Pisa and Livorno, testifying to the prolific activity of Iberian Jews in Tuscany. Finally, a list of Hebrew dramatic works written by Italian authors of Sephardic origin is provided in order to reflect on the very categories of ‘Sephardic’ and ‘Italian.’

The article describes the history of the construction of medieval Jungian cult buildings Abylaikit, Semipalatinsk and Dolon - Karagai in the eastern part of Kazakhstan on the basis of the works of European and Russian researchers of the XVIII-XIX centuries and their functions. The features of the construction of these religious structures are given, analysis of the reasons for their destruction. Based on the construction and operation of these construction sites, a description of the course of Kazakhstan-Dzhungarian and Kazakhstan-Russian relations in East Kazakhstan, the Altai Territory of that period is given. It is estimated to be the place of these religious monuments in the history of Kazakhstan. Diplomatic relations of the Kazakh Khanate with neighboring countries in the XVIII century and mutual conflicts between the Kazakh Khanate and the Dzhungarian Khanate, the heroic feats of Abylai Khan, Cabanbai Batyr, Bogenbai Batyr and others during the invasion of the Qin Empire in the Kazakh Khanate to the State Archives of Russia and Kazakhstan, the actual data considered And systematically represented on the basis of ancient and modern scientific literature in domestic and foreign scientific libraries. Famous from the beginning of the 18th century, one of the few scientific destroyed rooms in Abilaykit, retained the remnants of religious books written by the Mongolian letter, thus the construction has even more religious and historical significance.

IntroductionIn the year 2000, a group of likeminded individuals got together and convened the first annual World Barista Championship in Monte Carlo. With twelve competitors from around the globe, each competitor was judged by seven judges: one head judge who oversaw the process, two technical judges who assessed technical skills, and four sensory judges who evaluated the taste and appearance of the espresso drinks. Competitors had fifteen minutes to serve four espresso coffees, four cappuccino coffees, and four “signature” drinks that they had devised using one shot of espresso and other ingredients of their choice, but no alcohol. The competitors were also assessed on their overall barista skills, their creativity, and their ability to perform under pressure and impress the judges with their knowledge of coffee. This competition has grown to the extent that eleven years later, in 2011, 54 countries held national barista championships with the winner from each country competing for the highly coveted position of World Barista Champion. That year, Alejandro Mendez from El Salvador became the first world champion from a coffee producing nation. Champion baristas are more likely to come from coffee consuming countries than they are from coffee producing countries as countries that produce coffee seldom have a culture of espresso coffee consumption. While Ireland is not a coffee-producing nation, the Irish are the highest per capita consumers of tea in the world (Mac Con Iomaire, “Ireland”). Despite this, in 2008, Stephen Morrissey from Ireland overcame 50 other national champions to become the 2008 World Barista Champion (see, http://vimeo.com/2254130). Another Irish national champion, Colin Harmon, came fourth in this competition in both 2009 and 2010. This paper discusses the history and development of coffee and coffee houses in Dublin from the 17th century, charting how coffee culture in Dublin appeared, evolved, and stagnated before re-emerging at the beginning of the 21st century, with a remarkable win in the World Barista Championships. The historical links between coffeehouses and media—ranging from print media to electronic and social media—are discussed. In this, the coffee house acts as an informal public gathering space, what urban sociologist Ray Oldenburg calls a “third place,” neither work nor home. These “third places” provide anchors for community life and facilitate and foster broader, more creative interaction (Oldenburg). This paper will also show how competition from other “third places” such as clubs, hotels, restaurants, and bars have affected the vibrancy of coffee houses. Early Coffee Houses The first coffee house was established in Constantinople in 1554 (Tannahill 252; Huetz de Lemps 387). The first English coffee houses opened in Oxford in 1650 and in London in 1652. Coffee houses multiplied thereafter but, in 1676, when some London coffee houses became hotbeds for political protest, the city prosecutor decided to close them. The ban was soon lifted and between 1680 and 1730 Londoners discovered the pleasure of drinking coffee (Huetz de Lemps 388), although these coffee houses sold a number of hot drinks including tea and chocolate as well as coffee.The first French coffee houses opened in Marseille in 1671 and in Paris the following year. Coffee houses proliferated during the 18th century: by 1720 there were 380 public cafés in Paris and by the end of the century there were 600 (Huetz de Lemps 387). Café Procope opened in Paris in 1674 and, in the 18th century, became a literary salon with regular patrons: Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Condorcet (Huetz de Lemps 387; Pitte 472). In England, coffee houses developed into exclusive clubs such as Crockford’s and the Reform, whilst elsewhere in Europe they evolved into what we identify as cafés, similar to the tea shops that would open in England in the late 19th century (Tannahill 252-53). Tea quickly displaced coffee in popularity in British coffee houses (Taylor 142). Pettigrew suggests two reasons why Great Britain became a tea-drinking nation while most of the rest of Europe took to coffee (48). The first was the power of the East India Company, chartered by Elizabeth I in 1600, which controlled the world’s biggest tea monopoly and promoted the beverage enthusiastically. The second was the difficulty England had in securing coffee from the Levant while at war with France at the end of the seventeenth century and again during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13). Tea also became the dominant beverage in Ireland and over a period of time became the staple beverage of the whole country. In 1835, Samuel Bewley and his son Charles dared to break the monopoly of The East India Company by importing over 2,000 chests of tea directly from Canton, China, to Ireland. His family would later become synonymous with the importation of coffee and with opening cafés in Ireland (see, Farmar for full history of the Bewley's and their activities). Ireland remains the highest per-capita consumer of tea in the world. Coffee houses have long been linked with social and political change (Kennedy, Politicks; Pincus). The notion that these new non-alcoholic drinks were responsible for the Enlightenment because people could now gather socially without getting drunk is rejected by Wheaton as frivolous, since there had always been alternatives to strong drink, and European civilisation had achieved much in the previous centuries (91). She comments additionally that cafés, as gathering places for dissenters, took over the role that taverns had long played. Pennell and Vickery support this argument adding that by offering a choice of drinks, and often sweets, at a fixed price and in a more civilized setting than most taverns provided, coffee houses and cafés were part of the rise of the modern restaurant. It is believed that, by 1700, the commercial provision of food and drink constituted the second largest occupational sector in London. Travellers’ accounts are full of descriptions of London taverns, pie shops, coffee, bun and chop houses, breakfast huts, and food hawkers (Pennell; Vickery). Dublin Coffee Houses and Later incarnations The earliest reference to coffee houses in Dublin is to the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85). Public dining or drinking establishments listed in the 1738 Dublin Directory include taverns, eating houses, chop houses, coffee houses, and one chocolate house in Fownes Court run by Peter Bardin (Hardiman and Kennedy 157). During the second half of the 17th century, Dublin’s merchant classes transferred allegiance from taverns to the newly fashionable coffee houses as places to conduct business. By 1698, the fashion had spread to country towns with coffee houses found in Cork, Limerick, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Wexford, and Galway, and slightly later in Belfast and Waterford in the 18th century. Maxwell lists some of Dublin’s leading coffee houses and taverns, noting their clientele: There were Lucas’s Coffee House, on Cork Hill (the scene of many duels), frequented by fashionable young men; the Phoenix, in Werburgh Street, where political dinners were held; Dick’s Coffee House, in Skinner’s Row, much patronized by literary men, for it was over a bookseller’s; the Eagle, in Eustace Street, where meetings of the Volunteers were held; the Old Sot’s Hole, near Essex Bridge, famous for its beefsteaks and ale; the Eagle Tavern, on Cork Hill, which was demolished at the same time as Lucas’s to make room for the Royal Exchange; and many others. (76) Many of the early taverns were situated around the Winetavern Street, Cook Street, and Fishamble Street area. (see Fig. 1) Taverns, and later coffee houses, became meeting places for gentlemen and centres for debate and the exchange of ideas. In 1706, Francis Dickson published the Flying Post newspaper at the Four Courts coffee house in Winetavern Street. The Bear Tavern (1725) and the Black Lyon (1735), where a Masonic Lodge assembled every Wednesday, were also located on this street (Gilbert v.1 160). Dick’s Coffee house was established in the late 17th century by bookseller and newspaper proprietor Richard Pue, and remained open until 1780 when the building was demolished. In 1740, Dick’s customers were described thus: Ye citizens, gentlemen, lawyers and squires,who summer and winter surround our great fires,ye quidnuncs! who frequently come into Pue’s,To live upon politicks, coffee, and news. (Gilbert v.1 174) There has long been an association between coffeehouses and publishing books, pamphlets and particularly newspapers. Other Dublin publishers and newspapermen who owned coffee houses included Richard Norris and Thomas Bacon. Until the 1850s, newspapers were burdened with a number of taxes: on the newsprint, a stamp duty, and on each advertisement. By 1865, these taxes had virtually disappeared, resulting in the appearance of 30 new newspapers in Ireland, 24 of them in Dublin. Most people read from copies which were available free of charge in taverns, clubs, and coffee houses (MacGiolla Phadraig). Coffee houses also kept copies of international newspapers. On 4 May 1706, Francis Dickson notes in the Dublin Intelligence that he held the Paris and London Gazettes, Leyden Gazette and Slip, the Paris and Hague Lettres à la Main, Daily Courant, Post-man, Flying Post, Post-script and Manuscripts in his coffeehouse in Winetavern Street (Kennedy, “Dublin”). Henry Berry’s analysis of shop signs in Dublin identifies 24 different coffee houses in Dublin, with the main clusters in Essex Street near the Custom’s House (Cocoa Tree, Bacon’s, Dempster’s, Dublin, Merchant’s, Norris’s, and Walsh’s) Cork Hill (Lucas’s, St Lawrence’s, and Solyman’s) Skinners’ Row (Bow’s’, Darby’s, and Dick’s) Christ Church Yard (Four Courts, and London) College Green (Jack’s, and Parliament) and Crampton Court (Exchange, and Little Dublin). (see Figure 1, below, for these clusters and the locations of other Dublin coffee houses.) The earliest to be referenced is the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85), with Solyman’s (1691), Bow’s (1692), and Patt’s on High Street (1699), all mentioned in print before the 18th century. The name of one, the Cocoa Tree, suggests that chocolate was also served in this coffee house. More evidence of the variety of beverages sold in coffee houses comes from Gilbert who notes that in 1730, one Dublin poet wrote of George Carterwright’s wife at The Custom House Coffee House on Essex Street: Her coffee’s fresh and fresh her tea,Sweet her cream, ptizan, and whea,her drams, of ev’ry sort, we findboth good and pleasant, in their kind. (v. 2 161) Figure 1: Map of Dublin indicating Coffee House clusters 1 = Sackville St.; 2 = Winetavern St.; 3 = Essex St.; 4 = Cork Hill; 5 = Skinner's Row; 6 = College Green.; 7 = Christ Church Yard; 8 = Crampton Court.; 9 = Cook St.; 10 = High St.; 11 = Eustace St.; 12 = Werburgh St.; 13 = Fishamble St.; 14 = Westmorland St.; 15 = South Great George's St.; 16 = Grafton St.; 17 = Kildare St.; 18 = Dame St.; 19 = Anglesea Row; 20 = Foster Place; 21 = Poolbeg St.; 22 = Fleet St.; 23 = Burgh Quay.A = Cafe de Paris, Lincoln Place; B = Red Bank Restaurant, D'Olier St.; C = Morrison's Hotel, Nassau St.; D = Shelbourne Hotel, St. Stephen's Green; E = Jury's Hotel, Dame St. Some coffee houses transformed into the gentlemen’s clubs that appeared in London, Paris and Dublin in the 17th century. These clubs originally met in coffee houses, then taverns, until later proprietary clubs became fashionable. Dublin anticipated London in club fashions with members of the Kildare Street Club (1782) and the Sackville Street Club (1794) owning the premises of their clubhouse, thus dispensing with the proprietor. The first London club to be owned by the members seems to be Arthur’s, founded in 1811 (McDowell 4) and this practice became widespread throughout the 19th century in both London and Dublin. The origin of one of Dublin’s most famous clubs, Daly’s Club, was a chocolate house opened by Patrick Daly in c.1762–65 in premises at 2–3 Dame Street (Brooke). It prospered sufficiently to commission its own granite-faced building on College Green between Anglesea Street and Foster Place which opened in 1789 (Liddy 51). Daly’s Club, “where half the land of Ireland has changed hands”, was renowned for the gambling that took place there (Montgomery 39). Daly’s sumptuous palace catered very well (and discreetly) for honourable Members of Parliament and rich “bucks” alike (Craig 222). The changing political and social landscape following the Act of Union led to Daly’s slow demise and its eventual closure in 1823 (Liddy 51). Coincidentally, the first Starbucks in Ireland opened in 2005 in the same location. Once gentlemen’s clubs had designated buildings where members could eat, drink, socialise, and stay overnight, taverns and coffee houses faced competition from the best Dublin hotels which also had coffee rooms “in which gentlemen could read papers, write letters, take coffee and wine in the evening—an exiguous substitute for a club” (McDowell 17). There were at least 15 establishments in Dublin city claiming to be hotels by 1789 (Corr 1) and their numbers grew in the 19th century, an expansion which was particularly influenced by the growth of railways. By 1790, Dublin’s public houses (“pubs”) outnumbered its coffee houses with Dublin boasting 1,300 (Rooney 132). Names like the Goose and Gridiron, Harp and Crown, Horseshoe and Magpie, and Hen and Chickens—fashionable during the 17th and 18th centuries in Ireland—hung on decorative signs for those who could not read. Throughout the 20th century, the public house provided the dominant “third place” in Irish society, and the drink of choice for itd predominantly male customers was a frothy pint of Guinness. Newspapers were available in public houses and many newspapermen had their own favourite hostelries such as Mulligan’s of Poolbeg Street; The Pearl, and The Palace on Fleet Street; and The White Horse Inn on Burgh Quay. Any coffee served in these establishments prior to the arrival of the new coffee culture in the 21st century was, however, of the powdered instant variety. Hotels / Restaurants with Coffee Rooms From the mid-19th century, the public dining landscape of Dublin changed in line with London and other large cities in the United Kingdom. Restaurants did appear gradually in the United Kingdom and research suggests that one possible reason for this growth from the 1860s onwards was the Refreshment Houses and Wine Licences Act (1860). The object of this act was to “reunite the business of eating and drinking”, thereby encouraging public sobriety (Mac Con Iomaire, “Emergence” v.2 95). Advertisements for Dublin restaurants appeared in The Irish Times from the 1860s. Thom’s Directory includes listings for Dining Rooms from the 1870s and Refreshment Rooms are listed from the 1880s. This pattern continued until 1909, when Thom’s Directory first includes a listing for “Restaurants and Tea Rooms”. Some of the establishments that advertised separate coffee rooms include Dublin’s first French restaurant, the Café de Paris, The Red Bank Restaurant, Morrison’s Hotel, Shelbourne Hotel, and Jury’s Hotel (see Fig. 1). The pattern of separate ladies’ coffee rooms emerged in Dublin and London during the latter half of the 19th century and mixed sex dining only became popular around the last decade of the 19th century, partly infuenced by Cesar Ritz and Auguste Escoffier (Mac Con Iomaire, “Public Dining”). Irish Cafés: From Bewley’s to Starbucks A number of cafés appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, most notably Robert Roberts and Bewley’s, both of which were owned by Quaker families. Ernest Bewley took over the running of the Bewley’s importation business in the 1890s and opened a number of Oriental Cafés; South Great Georges Street (1894), Westmoreland Street (1896), and what became the landmark Bewley’s Oriental Café in Grafton Street (1927). Drawing influence from the grand cafés of Paris and Vienna, oriental tearooms, and Egyptian architecture (inspired by the discovery in 1922 of Tutankhamen’s Tomb), the Grafton Street business brought a touch of the exotic into the newly formed Irish Free State. Bewley’s cafés became the haunt of many of Ireland’s leading literary figures, including Samuel Becket, Sean O’Casey, and James Joyce who mentioned the café in his book, Dubliners. A full history of Bewley’s is available (Farmar). It is important to note, however, that pots of tea were sold in equal measure to mugs of coffee in Bewley’s. The cafés changed over time from waitress- to self-service and a failure to adapt to changing fashions led to the business being sold, with only the flagship café in Grafton Street remaining open in a revised capacity. It was not until the beginning of the 21st century that a new wave of coffee house culture swept Ireland. This was based around speciality coffee beverages such as espressos, cappuccinos, lattés, macchiatos, and frappuccinnos. This new phenomenon coincided with the unprecedented growth in the Irish economy, during which Ireland became known as the “Celtic Tiger” (Murphy 3). One aspect of this period was a building boom and a subsequent growth in apartment living in the Dublin city centre. The American sitcom Friends and its fictional coffee house, “Central Perk,” may also have helped popularise the use of coffee houses as “third spaces” (Oldenberg) among young apartment dwellers in Dublin. This was also the era of the “dotcom boom” when many young entrepreneurs, software designers, webmasters, and stock market investors were using coffee houses as meeting places for business and also as ad hoc office spaces. This trend is very similar to the situation in the 17th and early 18th centuries where coffeehouses became known as sites for business dealings. Various theories explaining the growth of the new café culture have circulated, with reasons ranging from a growth in Eastern European migrants, anti-smoking legislation, returning sophisticated Irish emigrants, and increased affluence (Fenton). Dublin pubs, facing competition from the new coffee culture, began installing espresso coffee machines made by companies such as Gaggia to attract customers more interested in a good latté than a lager and it is within this context that Irish baristas gained such success in the World Barista competition. In 2001 the Georges Street branch of Bewley’s was taken over by a chain called Café, Bar, Deli specialising in serving good food at reasonable prices. Many ex-Bewley’s staff members subsequently opened their own businesses, roasting coffee and running cafés. Irish-owned coffee chains such as Java Republic, Insomnia, and O’Brien’s Sandwich Bars continued to thrive despite the competition from coffee chains Starbucks and Costa Café. Indeed, so successful was the handmade Irish sandwich and coffee business that, before the economic downturn affected its business, Irish franchise O’Brien’s operated in over 18 countries. The Café, Bar, Deli group had also begun to franchise its operations in 2008 when it too became a victim of the global economic downturn. With the growth of the Internet, many newspapers have experienced falling sales of their printed format and rising uptake of their electronic versions. Most Dublin coffee houses today provide wireless Internet connections so their customers can read not only the local newspapers online, but also others from all over the globe, similar to Francis Dickenson’s coffee house in Winetavern Street in the early 18th century. Dublin has become Europe’s Silicon Valley, housing the European headquarters for companies such as Google, Yahoo, Ebay, Paypal, and Facebook. There are currently plans to provide free wireless connectivity throughout Dublin’s city centre in order to promote e-commerce, however, some coffee houses shut off the wireless Internet in their establishments at certain times of the week in order to promote more social interaction to ensure that these “third places” remain “great good places” at the heart of the community (Oldenburg). Conclusion Ireland is not a country that is normally associated with a coffee culture but coffee houses have been part of the fabric of that country since they emerged in Dublin in the 17th century. These Dublin coffee houses prospered in the 18th century, and survived strong competition from clubs and hotels in the 19th century, and from restaurant and public houses into the 20th century. In 2008, when Stephen Morrissey won the coveted title of World Barista Champion, Ireland’s place as a coffee consuming country was re-established. 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