Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Liability Terms'

Дисертаційне дослідження присвячено розробці моделі адміністративної відповідальності за порушення порядку подання декларації про доходи та ведення обліку доходів і витрат. У роботі визначено правову природу юридичної відповідальності за правопорушення у податковій сфері України, розкрито сутність і зміст адміністративної відповідальності, передбаченої у ст. 164-1 КУпАП, в структурі юридичної відповідальності за податкові правопорушення. Встановлено та систематизовано підстави та умови адміністративної відповідальності за ст. 164-1 КУпАП. Конкретизовано зміст і складові елементи об’єктивних і суб’єктивних елементів складу порушення, передбаченого ст. 164-1 КУпАП. Виокремлено, проаналізовано та узагальнено основні актуальні проблеми притягнення порушників до адміністративної відповідальності за ст. 164-1 КУпАП, зокрема: теоретичні; ідеологічні; нормативно-правові; політико-правові, економічні і процедурні. Сформульовано пропозиції щодо вдосконалення чинного адміністративного законодавства у досліджуваній сфері, а також окреслено основні шляхи оптимізації адміністративно-юрисдикційної діяльності органів, уповноважених притягувати порушників до адміністративної відповідальності за ст. 164-1 КУпАП. The dissertation for the first time reveals theoretical and practical issues of administrative responsibility for violation of the procedure for income declaration and maintaining records of income and expenditure, as defined in the Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine. Administrative liability for violation of Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine is considered as a special manifestation of the «system of legal responsibility in the tax area», being its integral element, characterized by many common and special features. This liability takes place as a result of illegal actions committed by individuals in the tax area. These unlawful acts belong to the group of «administrative violations of legal obligations for tax payment and declaration of incomes and property status». The social and legal essence and legal content of causes and conditions for administrative responsibility have been clarified. The criteria for causes and a set of necessary conditions for the liability under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine have been defined. Particular attention is paid to a critical analysis of the composition of the offense under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine. The object of this offense is public relations that take place in the field of tax accounting and income declaration, the objective side is the illegal acts provided for in Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine. The social consequences of the illegal act are determined; in addition, a causal link was established between the act under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine, and its consequences. The main characteristics of the subject of the offense (an individual with a corresponding duty) and the subjective side (guilt in the form of intent or negligence; optional characteristics of the offense are the purpose and motive of crime) are revealed. Special conditions have been established under which the objective and subjective elements of this offense will be sufficient for the emergence of administrative responsibility under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine. The work systematized the problems of bringing violators to administrative responsibility under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine, in particular: conceptual problems (lack of an integrated scientific approach for understanding the responsibility under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine); ideological problems (low level of legal society awareness, an increase of legal nihilism, discredited state tax policy); normative problems (a difficult concept understanding of an offense as in Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine, uncertainty in the consequences of ineffective use of administrative resources when prosecuted under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine); political and legal, economic and cultural crisis (difficulties in identifying and bringing violators to responsibility under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine: in the temporarily occupied territories of Ukraine); procedural problems (slow response to offenses, non-compliance with the rules for drawing up a protocol and/or other documents of a case on an administrative offense under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine. Dissertation has identified the factors that aggravate the negative effect of the identified problems of bringing violators to administrative responsibility under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine. Moreover, specific proposals were formulated in order to solve the identified problems, improve the current national legislation, as well as to optimize the administrative and jurisdictional activities of the recently created Tax Service of Ukraine in the context of bringing the relevant violators to administrative responsibility under Art. 164-1 of the Administrative Offense Code of Ukraine.

The aim of this master thesis is to analyse the market of courier, express and parcels services. It focuses on the issue of relevant national and international legal framework, with a particular interest in the principles of liability. Furthermore, it provides information on activities of the major courier, express and parcels suppliers: TNT Express Worldwide and DHL Express. These two companies and their Terms and conditions of carriage are subjects for a case study which deals with logistics provider's liability for destruction or loss of or damage to cargo and liability for damage caused by delay.

Includes bibliographical references.
A regime-switching model allows a process to switch randomly between different regimes which have different parameter estimates. This study investigates the use of a two regime-switching model for inflation in South Africa as a means of determining a hedging strategy for inflation linked liabilities of a financial institution. Each regime is modeled using an autoregressive process with different parameters and the change in regimes is governed by a two state Markov chain. Once the parameters have been estimated, the predictive validity of the regime-switching process as a model for inflation in South Africa is tested and a hedging strategy is outlined for a set of inflation linked cash flows. The hedging strategy is to invest in inflation linked bonds, the number of which is determined through the use of a Rand-per-point methodology that is applied to the inflation linked cash flows and inflation linked bonds. Over the period from January 2008 to June 2013 this hedging strategy was shown to be profitable.

This Master's thesis deals with analysis of the Czech business liability insurance market, while using a predefined client for preparation of insurance proposals. It then performs an analysis of fulfilling the requirements through control of insurance terms and conditions. Furthermore, the thesis compares the information required by individual insurance companies for the insurance calculations and examines the factors on which the client decides among the proposed insurances. In the course of the thesis is mapped the work of insurance broker, whose activity corresponds to the individual tasks performed by the thesis.

У дисертації наведено теоретичне узагальнення та нове вирішення наукового завдання, що полягає у визначенні сутності, змісту та розкриття особливостей адміністративно-правових засад відповідальності за правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією. Установлено, що чинне українське законодавство, яким визначено адміністративно-правові засади відповідальності за правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією, представлене положеннями Конституції України, Кодексу України про адміністративні правопорушення, законами України, серед яких основоположним є спеціальний антикорупційний закон – Закон України "Про запобігання корупції", а також підзаконними нормативноправовими актами. Ознаки адміністративної відповідальності за правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією, класифіковано на загальні (властиві будь-якому виду юридичної відповідальності) та спеціальні (характерні саме адміністративній відповідальності). Установлено, що адміністративна відповідальність за правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією, має на меті перевиховання та покарання особи-правопорушника шляхом застосування заходів державного примусу у формі адміністративних стягнень. Водночас мета адміністративної відповідальності за вчинення зазначеного виду адміністративних правопорушень конкретизується і певним чином виявляється в її функціях, з яких основними є виховна, превентивна та регулятивна. Поняття "адміністративне правопорушення, пов’язане з корупцією" визначене як протиправне, винне діяння (дія чи бездіяльність), що порушує встановлені спеціальним антикорупційним законом та іншими нормативно правовими актами вимоги, заборони та обмеження, за вчинення якого законом передбачено адміністративну відповідальність. Виділено характерні ознаки адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, які класифіковано на загальні (характерні для всіх видів адміністративних правопорушень) та спеціальні (властиві досліджуваному виду адміністративних правопорушень), зокрема, останні додатково класифіковано на обов’язкові й факультативні. Запропоновано під юридичним складом адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, розуміти сукупність основних, визначальних, юридично значущих ознак, за наявності яких протиправне винне діяння (дія чи бездіяльність) можна кваліфікувати як порушення встановлених спеціальним антикорупційним законом та іншими нормативноправовими актами вимог, заборон та обмежень, за вчинення якого законом передбачено адміністративну відповідальність. Розширено класифікацію юридичних складів адміністративних правопорушень, пов’язаних із корупцією, залежно від: 1) ступеня суспільної небезпеки: основні, кваліфіковані; 2) структури складу адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією: однозначні, альтернативні; 3) наявності шкідливих наслідків: формальні, матеріальні; 4) особливостей конструкції: описові, банкетні (або відсильні). Кваліфікацію адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, визначено як діяльність спеціально уповноваженого суб’єкта щодо пізнання, аналізу та оцінки діяння (дії чи бездіяльності), змістом якої є зіставлення і співвідношення ознак учиненого діяння (дії чи бездіяльності) до юридично значущих ознак (юридичного складу) адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, визначених чинним адміністративним законодавством, із відповідним процесуальним оформленням. Установлено коло суб’єктів здійснення кваліфікації адміністративних правопорушень, пов’язаних із корупцією (суб’єкти здійснення первинної та остаточної кваліфікації адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією), а також визначено процес її здійснення як комплекс проведення таких дій: 1) вибору суб’єктом кваліфікації адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, відповідної норми глави 13-А КУпАП, зміст якої відповідає учиненому діянню (дії чи бездіяльності); 2) зіставлення та співвідношення ознак вчиненого діяння (дії чи бездіяльності) до юридично значущих ознак (юридичного складу) адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, визначених чинним адміністративним законодавством; 3) процесуального оформлення кваліфікації діяння (дії чи бездіяльності), що передбачає складення протоколу про адміністративне правопорушення, пов’язане з корупцією; винесення судом (суддею) постанови у справі про адміністративне правопорушення, пов’язане з корупцією. Адміністративні правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією, класифіковано за такими критеріями: 1) юридичним складом залежно від: ступеня суспільної небезпеки, наявності шкідливих наслідків, структури складу адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, особливостей конструкції складу адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією; 2) характером об’єктивної сторони; 3) моментом учинення. З урахуванням норм КУпАП установлено, що видами адміністративних стягнень за вчинення правопорушень, пов’язаних із корупцією, є: 1) штраф; 2) конфіскація; 3) позбавлення права обіймати певні посади або займатися певною діяльністю. Виділено особливості адміністративних стягнень за правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією: 1) є мірою (формою вираження) адміністративної відповідальності, до якої притягається особа в разі вчинення протиправного винного діяння (дії чи бездіяльності), передбаченого відповідною статтею глави 13-А КУпАП; 2) має державно-примусовий характер, що виражається в притягненні особи до адміністративної відповідальності за вчинення правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, незалежно від її волі та бажання; 3) реалізується спеціально уповноваженими органами влади – притягнення особи до адміністративної відповідальності за вчинення правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, шляхом накладення відповідного адміністративного стягнення здійснюється судом; 4) мета застосування містить дві взаємозв’язані складові, а саме: адміністративне покарання (накладення штрафу, конфіскація, позбавлення права обіймати певні посади або займатися певною діяльністю) та запобігання вчиненню нових адміністративних правопорушень (як самою особою-правопорушником, так і іншими особами); 5) здійснюється у визначеному законодавством порядку; 6) має чітко визначені законодавством строки накладення – виходячи зі змісту ст. 38 КУпАП, адміністративне стягнення за вчинення правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією, може бути накладене впродовж шести місяців з дня його виявлення, але не пізніше двох років з дня його вчинення. Узагальнено зарубіжний досвід правового регулювання відповідальності за діяння, аналогічні адміністративним правопорушенням пов’язаним із корупцією, визначеним українським законодавством. З аналізу деяких нормативно-правових документів, що входять до законодавства розглянутих зарубіжних країн (ФРН, Італії, Великобританії, Франції, США, Румунії, Республіки Білорусь, Республіки Польща), з’ясовано, що вчинення протиправних діянь, які, за українським законодавством, визнаються правопорушеннями, пов’язаними з корупцією, і передбачають притягнення до адміністративної відповідальності, за законодавством інших країн, можуть передбачати настання іншого виду юридичної відповідальності (кримінальної, дисциплінарної). Огляд судової практики дозволив з’ясувати проблемні питання, пов’язані з неоднозначним підходом до вирішення судами окремих питань щодо притягнення особи до адміністративної відповідальності за вчинення правопорушень, пов’язаних із корупцією. Зокрема, це стосується: встановлення вини особи у вчиненні такого виду адміністративного правопорушення в разі закриття провадження у справах про притягнення до адміністративної відповідальності; визначення дня виявлення адміністративного правопорушення, пов’язаного з корупцією; обчислення строку накладення адміністративного стягнення (притягнення до адміністративної відповідальності), що мають важливе практичне значення для вирішення та ухвалення судами рішень у категорії таких справ тощо. З метою усунення проблемних аспектів законодавчого регулювання, виявлених під час дослідження особливостей адміністративно-правових засад відповідальності за правопорушення, пов’язані з корупцією, та вдосконалення законодавства України, яким установлено такий вид юридичної відповідальності, запропоновано внести відповідні зміни та доповнення до Кодексу України про адміністративні правопорушення та спеціального антикорупційного закону (Закону України "Про запобігання корупції").
The dissertation provides a theoretical generalization and a new solution to the scientific problem, which is to determine the nature, content and disclosure of the administrative and legal basis of liability for offenses related to corruption. It is established that the current Ukrainian legislation, which defines the administrative and legal basis for liability for corruption-related offenses, is represented by the provisions of the Constitution of Ukraine, the Code of Administrative Offenses, Laws of Ukraine, among which is a special special anticorruption law - Law of Ukraine "On Prevention corruption ”, as well as by-laws. Signs of administrative liability for corruption-related offenses are classified into general (inherent in any type of legal liability) and special (specific to administrative liability). It has been established that administrative liability for corruption-related offenses is aimed at re-education and punishment of the offender by applying coercive measures in the form of administrative penalties. In this case, the purpose of administrative liability for the commission of this type of administrative offenses is specified and in some way manifested in its functions, the main of which are educational, preventive and regulatory. The term "administrative offense related to corruption" is defined as an illegal, culpable act (action or omission) that violates the requirements established by a special anti-corruption law and other regulations, prohibitions and restrictions, for which the law provides for administrative liability. The characteristic features of an administrative offense related to corruption, which are classified into general (characteristic of all types of administrative offenses) and special (inherent in the investigated type of administrative offenses), in particular, the latter are further classified as mandatory and optional. It is proposed to understand the legal structure of an administrative offense related to corruption as a set of basic, defining, legally significant features, in the presence of which an illegal act (action or omission) can be qualified as a violation of special anti-corruption law and other regulations, prohibitions and restrictions, for the commission of which the law provides for administrative liability. The classification of legal structures of administrative offenses related to corruption has been expanded, depending on: 1) the degree of public danger: the main ones; qualified; 2) the structure of the administrative offense related to corruption: unambiguous; alternative; 3) the presence of harmful effects: formal; material; 4) design features: descriptive; banquet (or sending). The qualification of an administrative offense related to corruption is defined as the activity of a specially authorized entity for knowledge, analysis and evaluation of the act (action or inaction), the content of which is the comparison and ratio of signs of the act (action or inaction) to legally significant features ( legal composition) of an administrative offense related to corruption, defined by the current administrative legislation, with the appropriate procedural design. The range of subjects of qualification of administrative offenses related to corruption (subjects of primary and final qualification of administrative offenses related to corruption) has been established, and the process of its implementation as a set of the following actions has been defined: 1) choice the subject of qualification of an administrative offense related to corruption, the relevant provisions of Chapter 13-A of the Code of Administrative Offenses, the content of which corresponds to the committed act (action or omission); 2) comparison and correlation of the signs of the committed act (action or inaction) to the legally significant signs (legal composition) of the administrative offense related to corruption, defined by the current administrative legislation; 3) procedural registration of the qualification of an act (action or omission), which provides for the drawing up of a report on an administrative offense related to corruption; issuance of a court (judge) ruling in a case of an administrative offense related to corruption. Administrative offenses related to corruption are classified according to the following criteria: 1) by legal composition depending on: the degree of public danger; the presence of harmful effects; the structure of the administrative offense related to corruption; features of the structure of the administrative offense related to corruption; 2) by the nature of the objective side; 3) at the time of commission. Taking into account the norms of the Code of Administrative Offenses, it has been established that the types of administrative penalties for committing offenses related to corruption are: 1) a fine; 2) confiscation; 3) deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities. The peculiarities of administrative penalties for offenses related to corruption are highlighted: 1) is a measure (form of expression) of administrative responsibility to which a person is brought in case of committing an illegal offense (action or omission) under Article 13-A of the Code of Administrative Offenses; 2) has a state-coercive character, which is expressed in bringing a person to administrative responsibility for committing an offense related to corruption, regardless of his will and desire; 3) is implemented by specially authorized authorities – bringing a person to administrative responsibility for committing an offense related to corruption, by imposing an appropriate administrative penalty is carried out by the court; 4) the purpose of application includes two interrelated components, namely: administrative punishment (imposition of a fine, confiscation, deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities) and prevention of new administrative offenses (both by the offender and others) ; 5) is carried out in the manner prescribed by law; 6) has clearly defined by law deadlines for imposition - based on the content of Art. 38 of the Code of Administrative Offenses, an administrative penalty for committing an offense related to corruption may be imposed within six months from the date of its detection, but not later than two years from the date of its commission. The foreign experience of legal regulation of liability for acts similar to administrative offenses related to corruption, defined by the Ukrainian legislation, is generalized. From the analysis of some legal documents included in the legislation of the considered foreign countries (Germany, Italy, Great Britain, France, the USA, Romania, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Poland), it is found out that commission of illegal actions which under the Ukrainian legislation are recognized as offenses related to corruption, and provide for administrative prosecution, under the laws of other countries may provide for the emergence of another type of legal liability (criminal, disciplinary). The review of the case law revealed the problematic issues related to the ambiguous approach to the resolution of certain issues by the courts regarding the bringing to justice of a person for committing offenses related to corruption. In particular, this applies to: establishing the guilt of a person in committing this type of administrative offense in the case of closing the proceedings in cases of bringing to administrative responsibility; determining the date of detection of an administrative offense related to corruption; calculation of the term of imposition of administrative penalties (bringing to administrative responsibility), which are of great practical importance for the decision and decision-making of courts in the category of such cases, etc. In order to eliminate the problematic aspects of legislative regulation identified in the study of the administrative and legal basis of liability for corruption-related offenses, and to improve the legislation of Ukraine, which establishes this type of legal liability, it is proposed to make appropriate amendments to the Code of Administrative Offenses and a special anti-corruption law (Law of Ukraine "On Prevention of Corruption").

Composition of financial plan for year 2012 and executing financial analysis of a limited liability company. In composition of financial plan were used three variant -- an optimistic, a realistic and a pesimistic. Used methods of financial analysis were analysis of absolute indicators and financial ratios, including logaritmical decomposition of Return on Equity. Comparing each of those variants with reality valid on May 31, 2012.

Na história recente, o exercício da profissão de Cirurgião-Dentista tem sido alvo de inúmeras ações judiciais das mais diversificadas, impetradas por pacientes descontentes com os resultados obtidos em seus tratamentos odontológicos. Considerando os direitos inerentes à pessoa do paciente e a enorme preocupação da classe odontológica com relação às demandas judiciais originadas pela falta de informação adequada a seus pacientes, alguns aspectos importantes do Consentimento Informado bem como da própria responsabilidade civil odontológica estão abordados neste estudo, a fim de esclarecer e evitar as constantes demandas judiciais contra dentistas por falta de um termo de Consentimento Informado. A informação, seja verbal ou escrita, sobre um diagnóstico, procedimento terapêutico, ou tratamento odontológico aos pacientes ou familiares, e a forma como explicar de maneira compreensiva o que está sendo repassado é um grande conflito entre a classe odontológica nos dias atuais. O Consentimento Informado e o Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido vem ser a forma, verbal e escrita de como o cirurgião-dentista informa o seu paciente ou representante, de modo límpido, os atos e etapas, relacionados ao diagnóstico e ao seu tratamento terapêutico, esclarecendo os riscos e benefícios, vantagens e desvantagens de forma que possa, autonomamente, escolher por realizar, ou não, o possível tratamento. O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar o levantamento e análise das decisões recursais dos Tribunais de Justiça do sul do Brasil, utilizando a Internet. Dos 102 acórdãos avaliados 30 são do Tribunal de Justiça do Paraná, 17 do Tribunal de Justiça de Santa Catarina e 55 do Tribunal de Justiça do Rio Grande do Sul. Em relação ao Consentimento Informado, Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido ou mesmo a prova da Informação, constatou-se que nos referidos acórdãos estes assuntos foram pouco citados, porém observou-se que quando mencionados serviram de subsídios consistentes para defesa do profissional.
In recent history, the profession of dental surgeon has been the target of numerous lawsuits from more diverse, filed by patients dissatisfied with the results obtained in their dental treatment. Considering the inherent rights of the patient and the dental class of great concern with respect to lawsuits stem from the lack of adequate information to their patients, some important aspects of informed consent as well as from civil liability in dentistry are addressed in this study in order to clarify and avoid the constant lawsuits against dentists by a lack of informed consent The information, whether oral or written, about a diagnosis, therapeutic procedure, or dental treatment to patients or relatives, and how to comprehensively explain what is being passed is a major conflict between the dental class nowadays. Informed Consent and the Term of Consent has to be the case, verbal and written like the dentist tells the patient or his representative, so clear, the actions and steps, related to diagnosis and therapeutic treatment, accounting the risks and benefits, advantages and disadvantages so that you can, independently, choose to perform, or not, the possible treatment. The aim of this study was to survey and analysis of appellate decisions of the Courts of Justice in southern Brazil, using the Internet. Of the 102 judgments are assessed 30 of the Court of Paraná, 17 of the Court of St. Catherine and 55 of the Court of Rio Grande do Sul. Regarding Informed Consent, Termination of Consent or even proof of Information it was found that the judgments were seldom mentioned these issues, but noted that when mentioned served as subsidies for consistent defense of the professional.

Tort laws aim to deter risky medical practices and increase accountability for harm. This research examines their effects on deterrence of a high-risk obstetric practice in the United States: elective early-term (37-38 weeks gestation) induction of labor. Using birth certificate data from the Natality Detail Files and state-level data from publicly available sources, this study analyzes the effects of tort laws on labor induction with multilevel models (MLM) of 665,491 early-term births nested in states. Results reveal that caps on damages are associated with significantly higher odds of early-term induction and Proportionate Liability (PL) is associated with significantly lower odds compared to Joint and Several Liability (JSL). The findings suggest that clinicians are more likely to engage in practices that defy professional guidelines in tort environments with lower legal burdens. I discuss the implications of the findings for patient safety and the deterrence of high-risk practices.

Présentes dans de nombreux domaines, les clauses limitatives de réparation et les clauses exonératoires de responsabilité constituent une pratique très courante. Si elles se rencontrent le plus souvent en matière contractuelle, ces conventions peuvent également aménager la responsabilité extracontractuelle d’un potentiel responsable qui connaîtrait déjà la victime éventuelle, tel un voisin ou un cotraitant dans la réalisation d’un ouvrage. Malgré leur utilité et leur fréquence pratique, ces clauses pâtissent aujourd’hui d’un régime incertain, qui suscite nombre d’interrogations, tant en matière contractuelle qu’extracontractuelle. Pour savoir si une clause limitative ou exonératoire de responsabilité peut jouer en faveur du responsable, il faut dans un premier temps vérifier sa validité. Or, tant les droits spéciaux (droit des transports, droit de la consommation…) que la jurisprudence (notamment l’arrêt Chronopost) ont porté de multiples atteintes aux règles classiques de validité de ces stipulations. Il est dès lors nécessaire d’instaurer des directives renouvelées afin de clarifier cette question primordiale. Dans un second temps, il n’est pas certain que la clause relative à la responsabilité, pourtant valable, puisse déployer tous ses effets. L’efficacité de ces stipulations revêt ainsi une grande importance. Cependant, là encore, les règles de paralysie en cas de faute qualifiée du responsable, ainsi que celles qui gouvernent l’opposabilité des clauses aux tiers victimes d’un dommage causé par un manquement contractuel, méritent d’être rénovées pour balayer les incertitudes qui jalonnent aujourd’hui la matière. À l’heure où le droit de la responsabilité civile est en passe d’être réformé, cette étude propose un nouveau régime applicable aux clauses relatives à la responsabilité pour que la notion recouvre sa fonction de véritable outil de prévisibilité pour les parties
Limitation and exclusion clauses constitute a very common practice in many areas. Although they are more often used in the contractual field, these agreements can also change tort liability of a potential tortfeasor who would already know the potential victim, as a neighbour or a consortium member. Nowadays, despite their utility and practical frequency, these stipulations suffer from an uncertain regime, that gives rise to questions, as much in contractual field as in tort field. Firstly, to know whether an exclusion clause can be invoked by the responsible, we need to verify its validity. Yet, both laws in different fields (transport law, consumer law …) and case law (especially the famous Chronopost case) have affected the classic rules of validity of these stipulations. There is therefore a need to establish new guidelines to clarify this important question. Secondly, it is not certain that the exclusion clause, however valid, will apply. The effectiveness of these provisions is also of great importance. Nevertheless, the rules governing the paralysis in case of gross fault from the responsible and those who regulate the enforceability of clauses to third parties, victims of a damage caused by a breach of contract, should be renovated to sweep away the uncertainties that confuse the subject. At a time when French civil liability law is about to be reformed, this study proposes a new regime for exclusion and limitation clauses in order to restore their true function of foreseeability for parties

Este trabalho pretende analisar as particularidades dos contratos de longo prazo que levam a exigir-se dos contratantes uma postura diferenciada quanto à cooperação que eles devem entre si, para que a execução do contrato ocorra de forma eficiente. Analisamos, também, o dever de cooperação decorrente da boa-fé objetiva, suas peculiaridades e forma de aplicação aos contratos de longo prazo, sempre considerando os novos paradigmas dos contratos, associados com o papel e a importância dos contratos à sociedade e à economia. De fato, as contratações duradouras possuem características que as distinguem das relações instantâneas, com especial destaque para seu caráter relacional e incompleto, que demonstram que a postura das partes deve ser mais próxima e leal e, por isso, a cooperação tem forte importância. A boa-fé objetiva determina o dever de cooperação por meio de sua função de criação de regras de conduta. Na prática, o dever de cooperação que deve ser mais intenso para os contratos de longo prazo se concretiza por meio dos deveres anexos de conduta, que só serão conhecidos e individualizados em cada contratação individualizada. Considerados tais aspectos que justificam a maior intensidade da cooperação nos contratos de longo prazo e demonstram como a cooperação se verificará por meio dos deveres anexos de conduta, analisamos os casos de descumprimento de tais deveres por meio do conceito da violação positiva do contrato, em oposição à mora ou inadimplemento, que se relacionam ao descumprimento da própria prestação e suas consequências às relações contratuais, especialmente às de longo prazo.
This thesis has the purpose of analyzing the particularities of the long term contracts that lead to require the contracting parties to adopt a different conduct concerning cooperation between them, so that the performance of the contract may occur in an efficient fashion. We also intend to analyze the cooperation duty arising out of the goodfaith principle, its characteristics and its application to the long term contracts, always taking into consideration the news standards of the Contract Law associated with the role of the contracts to the society and economy. Indeed, the long term contracts have certain particularities that make them different from the spot relationships, in special their relational character and incompleteness, which show that the parties conduct shall be loyal and faithful and, thus, cooperation has a very important task. The principle of good-faith sets forth the duty to cooperate by means of its function of creating conduct rules. In practical terms, the duty to cooperate which shall be more intense for long term contracts is observed by means of the implied or ancillary duties, which are only known and individualized in each particular and concrete contract. Bearing in mind such aspects that justify a more intense cooperation in long term contracts and demonstrate that cooperation will mean, in practice, the compliance with ancillary or implied duties, we analyze the cases of violation of the duty to cooperate in opposition to the breaches of the contract obligations themselves and the consequences of such violation to the contractual relationship, especially to the long term contracts.

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In line with the idea of rule of law and consequent incompatibility with the irresponsibility of its members, the vast expansion of the area of liability is accompanied by the growing interest of society to find solutions that make effective compensation for damage. It forms new doctrine, concerned with protecting the citizens most vulnerable and helpless. It turns out that the increasing number of complaints begins to disrupt society in general, to increase the financial cost for the professional and the patient because of the increase especially in the application of more sophisticated laboratory tests and refusal to higher-risk procedures, contributing to a consolidation of defensive medicine. The aim of this paper is to provide measures to prevent the questioning of the patient-consumer for the health services used by it. Are brought to bear upon some criteria such as time, sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic method for identification of medical errors. The consent form is also shown as a measure capable of preventing the questions, eliminating or reducing some complications related to relationship conflict or miscommunication between doctor and patient. In the context of public institutions to private, is necessary a detailed analysis of the legal systems adopted. So rich, the issue is not limited to the material aspect, so deals some specific procedural rules, which directly influence the demand indemnification, as the burden of proof. Case law and doctrine and comparative national basis and reap the practical utility of each issue discussed
Em consonância com a idéia de Estado de direito e consequente incompatibilidade com a irresponsabilidade dos seus membros, a grande expansão da área da responsabilidade civil é acompanhada do crescente interesse da sociedade em buscar soluções que tornam efetiva a reparação do dano. Forma-se nova doutrina, preocupada com a proteção aos cidadãos mais frágeis e desamparados. Ocorre que o crescente número de queixas começa perturbar a sociedade em geral, por aumentar o custo financeiro para o profissional e para o paciente em razão especialmente do aumento no pedido de exames complementares mais sofisticados e recusa em procedimentos de maior risco, contribuindo para uma consolidação de uma medicina defensiva. O objetivo do presente trabalho é fornecer medidas capazes de prevenir os questionamentos do paciente-consumidor, relativos aos serviços de saúde utilizados por ele. São trazidos à baila alguns critérios como tempo, sensibilidade e especificidade do método de diagnóstico para a identificação do erro médico. O termo de consentimento esclarecido é também apontado como medida capaz de prevenir os questionamentos, eliminando ou reduzindo algumas causas ligadas a conflitos de relacionamento ou de falha de comunicação entre médico e paciente. No âmbito das instituições públicas a privadas, se faz necessária uma minuciosa análise sobre os regimes jurídicos adotados. De tão rico, o tema não se esgota no aspecto material, por isso pincela algumas particularidades processuais, que diretamente influenciam as demandas indenizatórias, tal como o ônus da prova. O estudo de mecanismos alternativos de recomposição dos acidentes médicos ajuda, também, a compreender melhor que a simples decisão de criar novas hipóteses de responsabilidade objetiva ou adotar um sistema alternativo de solidariedade nacional deve levar em conta a sua viabilidade em termos práticos, e não apenas teórico. Da jurisprudência e doutrina nacional comparada colhe-se o fundamento e a utilidade prática de cada questão discutida

C’est le droit des entreprises en difficulté qui a permis de mettre en évidence la complexité que pouvait revêtir la détermination de la date de naissance des créances. Or, celle-ci apparaît fondamentale en droit privé. Constituant le critère d’application de certains mécanismes juridiques, elle incarne l’existence de la créance et représente dès lors un enjeu pour toute règle de droit ayant celle-ci pour objet ou pour condition. Deux courants doctrinaux s’opposent, la thèse classique fixe la date de naissance au stade de la formation du contrat, tandis que des thèses modernes la fixent au stade de l’exécution du contrat. La thèse matérialiste, fondée sur le droit des entreprises en difficultés, fait naître la créance de prix au fur et à mesure de l’exécution de la contre-prestation. La thèse périodique, reposant sur une réflexion doctrinale quant aux contrats à exécution successive, fait renaître toutes les créances du contrat à chaque période contractuelle. L’examen des thèses moderne à l’aune des mécanismes juridique qui ne peuvent qu’incarner la véritable date de naissance de l’authentique créance aboutit à leur invalidité. La thèse classique se trouve donc à nouveau consacrée. Mais la résistance que lui oppose le droit des entreprises en difficulté ne peut reposer sur la technique d’une fiction juridique, car d’autres manifestations du même phénomène peuvent être mises en évidence en dehors de ce domaine. Un changement de paradigme s’impose donc pour résoudre le hiatus. Derrière ce phénomène persistant se cache en réalité une autre vision, une autre conception de la créance, la créance économique qui vient s’articuler avec la créance juridique dans le système de droit privé pour le compléter. La dualité des dates de naissance recèle donc en son sein une dualité du concept de créance lui-même, la créance juridique classique et la créance économique. La créance économique n’est pas un droit subjectif personnel. Elle n’est pas la créance juridique. Elle n’est pas autonome de la créance juridique et ne doit pas être confondue avec une créance née d’un cas d’enrichissement sans cause. La créance économique représente la valeur produite par le contrat au fur et à mesure de l’exécution de sa prestation caractéristique. Elle permet de corriger l’application ordinaire du concept de créance juridique par en assurant la fonction de corrélation des produits et des charges d’un bien ou d’une activité. Ses domaines d’application sont divers. Outre son utilisation dans les droits comptable et fiscal, la créance économique permet la détermination de la quotité cédée dans le cadre d’une cession de contrat, la détermination du gage constitué par un patrimoine d’affectation dans le cadre de la communauté légale, de l’EIRL ou encore de la fiducie, ainsi que la détermination du passif exempté de la discipline d’une procédure collective. Dans ces domaines, ce n’est donc pas la date de naissance de la créance juridique qui s’applique, mais la date de naissance de la créance économique. La cohérence du système de droit privé se trouve donc ainsi restaurée quant à la date de naissance de la créance
It is the laws governing companies experiencing difficulties which have revealed the complexity of determining the dates of the origination of the claims. And yet this appears to be fundamental in private law. As it constitutes the criterion for implementing certain legal mechanisms, it epitomizes the existence of the claim and hence represents a challenge for any rule of law in which the existence of this claim is a goal or condition. There are two conflicting doctrinal currents: the traditional approach sets the date of origination at the stage of the formation of the contract, while modern approaches situate it at the stage of the execution of the contract. The materialistic approach, based on the law governing companies experiencing difficulties, staggers the origination of the price debt over the period of the execution of the service. The periodical approach, which relies on a doctrinal reflection on successive execution contracts, is that of the re-origination of all the claims under the contract at each contractual period. An examination of the modern approaches, under the auspices of the legal mechanisms which can only epitomize the true date of origination of the authentic claim leads to the invalidity thereof. The traditional approach is therefore once again consecrated. But the resistance constituted by the laws governing companies in difficulty cannot rely on the technique of legal fiction, because other manifestations of the same phenomenon can be identified outside this domain. Therefore, a change of paradigm is in order if the hiatus is to be resolved. Behind this persistent phenomenon lies in fact another vision, another concept of the claim: the economic claim which, interwoven with the legal claim in the private law system, supplements it. The duality of the dates of origination therefore conceals in its bosom the duality of the very concept of a claim, the traditional legal claim and the economic claim. The economic claim is not a subjective personal right. It is not a legal claim. It is not autonomous of the legal claim and must not be confused with a claim originating in a case of unwarranted enrichment. The economic claim represents the value produced by the contract as the service which characterizes it is provided. It permits the rectification of the ordinary application of the concept of legal claim by ensuring the function of correlating the proceeds with the costs of a commodity or an activity. Its domains of application are varied. In addition to its use in accounting and fiscal law, the economic claim permits the determination of the portion transferred in the context of the transfer of a contract, the determination of the collateral consisting in a special-purpose fund in the context of a legal joint estate, a limited liability individual contractor or a trust, as well as the determination of the liabilities which escape the discipline of collective proceedings. In these domains, it is therefore not the date of origination of the legal claim which applies, but the date of origination of the economic claim. The coherence of the private law system is therefore restored as concerns the date of the origination of the claim

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
企業管理系碩士班
92
Since 1998,there have been cases involving listed and OTC companies diverting and emptying corporate assets in Taiwan. Two years go, there were even malicious frauds of such public companies such as Huahsiang Tech and J-J Electronics，in falsifying financial statements. In 2001, over dozens of companies in the USA, such as Enron were associated with falsifying financial information. A series of such frauds in Taiwan and abroad have not only made investors question the credibility of enterprise financial information, but also led to issues concerning the role and liability of certified public accountants. In view of this situation, governments of various countries have begun to reform the CPA system, formulate and revise relevant acts and regulations. For example, in 2002, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was passed in the USA, including the reform of management of CPAs as well as strict requirements and regulations. Taiwan is also starting to formulate and revise the Accountant Act, e.g. adding a corporate CPA firm system and emphasizing the certification liability of certified public accountants. In terms of corporate governance, the CPA plays an import role like a bridge between the internal supervision and outside supervision. The CPA is supposed to be independent both in fact and appearance in order to protect the interests of the general public. The legal liability of the CPA in handling auditing and certification consists of administrative, civil and criminal liabilities. For years, cases involving the liability of CPAs in Taiwan have been mostly dealt with by administrative punishment. Only a few of them have been subjected to civil and criminal verdicts. However, as investors have been paying more attention to protecting themselves, the CPAs in Taiwan will definitely face stricter liability involving civil compensations. This thesis first gives an introduction to the relationship between corporate governance and certified public accountants. It then explains the role and independence of the CPAs, and finally well as makes a profound exploration into the existing CPA Act, Securities－Exchange Act and Civil Act in Taiwan with regard to the liability of CPAs.

碩士
國立陽明大學
醫務管理研究所
91
As the economy develops, the privileges that patients enjoy rise. Their health care needs are being met and much emphasis is put on their rights of being protected. On January 11th 1994, the consumer protection law which aims at the improvement of safety and living standards was announced. Industrial managers cannot be remitted from damage liability even if they cam prove that there is nothing wrong in the products or services provided. This regulation assumes the equality of service and product. Service is a concept that is abstract and hard to define. The consumer protection law in Taiwan does not give a definition to this concept. As a result, there are not only debates in the researches but also diverse perspectives in the practical verdicts of the court. In addition, the intended neglect of law makers has caused argument on its legal propriety, and this effects the doctor-patient relationship tremendously. There is usually contract relation existing between the doctors and the patients as providers and receivers. Therefore the service responsibility has to be regulated by the contract obligation. Its counterparts in traditional civil science are such as contract of mandate, contract of work, and contract of employment. Breaking the law leads to failure of carrying the debt; doing harm to others may cause tort. According to the consumer protection law, from article seven to article ten, which defines the tort obligation, the attribution rule is prone to be strict. Due to the high risk and uncertainty, the most debatable issue is strict liability among such problems as whether the medical practice is subjected to the consumer protection law, whether it is a kind of service, whether doctor-patient relationship is one of consumer behaviors, and whether the doctors or the institutes are the industrial managers. Concerning the medical malpractice of shoulder dystocia at Mackey Memorial Hospital, both of the fact courts of civil judgment in Taiwan Taipei District Court and Taiwan high court applied the consumer protection law article seven. They both included the medical practice in the category of service responsibility and required the hospital to take strict liability. This judge caused panic, strong reactions, and broad discussions and debates in the medical field. The legal judgment of the Supreme Court, however, disposed the original verdict given that reasons are not setforth, i.e. the original verdict was illegal without appropriate reasons and not because of improper applications of the law. This research gives analysis and explanation according to the district, appeal, and supreme judgment about the following issue：the ambiguity of legal propriety between the specificity of medical practice and strict liability. It concludes with the suggestions concerning the question that medical practice is supposedly regulated by the consumer protection law or the traditional civil code.

The capital maintenance rules stem from the English company law and were primarily aimed at protecting the rights of a company’s creditors. Before the introduction of the Companies Amendment Act 37 of 1998, a company was prohibited from purchasing its own shares. After this legislation was passed, a company was able to do so, provided that it satisfied the solvency and liquidity test and also complied with the new statutory provisions set out by sections 85 to 89 of the Companies Act 61 of 1973. Section 48 of the Companies Act 71 of 2008 now regulates the acquisition by a company of its own shares, as well as the acquisition of shares in its holding company by a subsidiary company. The above actions also fall under the ambit of a “distribution” as defined in the Act and therefore need to satisfy the requirements of section 46 of the Act as well. Unlike its predecessor, the provisions in the new Act are very broad and devoid of guidelines. The emphasis is placed on companies satisfying the principles of solvency and liquidity. Non-adherence to these provisions gives rise to the personal liability of the company’s directors. The provisions of section 48 do not apply where a dissenting shareholder exercises his appraisal rights in terms of section 164 of the new Act, or where a company redeems redeemable securities. These exceptions do, however, still amount to “distributions” and will accordingly need to satisfy the requirements contained in section 46 of the Act. Redeemable securities were initially not exempted from the provisions of section 48. This would potentially have given rise to a situation where a company could approach a court in terms of section 48(6) to reverse a redemption of its securities. It would have had dire consequences for financing by way of redeemable securities. In terms of the Companies Amendment Act 3 of 2011 redeemable securities are now specifically exempted from the provisions of section 48. In terms of the new Act a subsidiary company is allowed to purchase shares in its holding company to a maximum of 10% in the aggregate of the issued shares of any share class, provided that no voting rights attached to such shares may be exercised. The new Act fails to properly address some of the issues regarding the “round-tripping” of dividends and the declaration of a dividend in specie that were already identified as far back as 2001. Where the consideration for a repurchase constitutes a “dividend” as defined in the Income Tax Act 58 of 1962, the company will be liable to pay secondary tax on companies in respect thereof. If a distribution does not constitute a dividend, capital gains tax is payable with regard to it. Share repurchases are allowed in terms of Canadian corporate law after the legislative reform which occurred in that country during the 1970’s. The Canadian Business Corporations Act contains provisions that bear a striking resemblance to the provisions of the new Act adopted in South Africa. Whilst the basis and rationale behind the new corporate legislation cannot be faulted, a host of issues and concerns still remain. The unfortunate consequence is that the new Act lacks transparency and is fraught with clumsy errors. Copyright
Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Mercantile Law
unrestricted

碩士
東吳大學
法律學系
97
Abstract Taiwan is becoming an aging society, therefore; institutions of long term medical care and daily care for the elderly have been established. There are some problems of legal norms concerning our country’s long term care because the system has been established by different government sectors. This research is based on the Senior Citizen’s Welfare Law, to explore the civil liabilities of senior citizen’s long term care institutions and to discuss contract disputes of long-term care and how to apply the law in our country. According to Articles 16 and 34 of the Senior Citizen’s Welfare Law, the long-term service model consisted of family care, community care, and institution care ; and various types of institutions required for the welfare for elderly health care or nursing services, medical care should be in accordance with Medical Service Act, Nurses Act, or other medical professions regulations. Therefore; this article elaborates the characteristics of institutional long term care, types, and the composition of staff; and compared with medical .institutions. In Chapter 3, a thorough elaboration is based on the Consumer Protection Commission, Executive Yuan by the adoption of the resolution of long term care contract types to explores the nature of long term care contracts, by caring for the elderly how to make a valid contract, as well as bound by contract with the effectiveness of the use of binding tie. Chapter 4 of this article described the rights and obligations of the long term care contract and how to distribute the burden of proof equitably. Chapter 5 covers actions for damages against institutions for injuries induced by long term care services caring for elders under the general laws of contracts or torts according to Articles 16 and 34 of the Senior Citizen’s welfare Law, nursing services, medical care should be in accordance with Medical Service Act. This article is by the theories and based on the courts discussions of the medical contracts, in order to clarify the relevant issues to make recommendations. Finally, conclusions are collated and make recommendations on related issues.

This work deals with consumer protection within travel agencies. A part of the work is a literary research of the current situation of the CK and CA market, an analysis of selected travel agencies, and a questionnaire survey, which aimed to determine how aware consumers are of their rights when purchasing a trip. Consumer protection is still a relevant topic that is necessary to pay attention to.

碩士
嶺東科技大學
財經法律研究所
102
According to the Global Age Watch Index, it shows that aging population had increased annually. The ratio of caring the aging population has also increased. Therefore, the problem of the aging population has become a concern in the future, and long-term care has become the tendency. We should create long-term care policies and regulations to meet the needs of the old people, so that they can benefit from our economy, safety concern, health care and social welfare. This article discusses the rights, obligations and legal responsibilities of the interested parties in Taiwan, Mainland China and United States. The resolutions submitted by the Consumer Protection Committee, Executive Yuan of sample contracts for long-term care and long-term care training are documented. They are recorded as the main body to explore long-term care contractual rights, obligations and liabilities of the parties. Furthermore, if either one of the parties has failed to fulfill the obligation, we look into how their legal right is being protected. Based on the case studies, the caring behavior of the caring party is discussed. Finally, we compare the long-term care consent, the difference of legal responsibilities, and the pros and cons of the legal system of long-term care in Taiwan, Mainland China and United States.

by Mok Man-fai, Mansfield.
Thesis (M.B.A.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1990.
Bibliography: leaves 49-50.
ABSTRACT --- p.i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.iii
Chapter
Chapter I. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1
Chapter II. --- EURODOLLAR FUTURES AND OPTIONS --- p.3
Eurodollar Futures --- p.3
Hedging With Eurodollar Futures --- p.4
Options On Eurodollar Futures --- p.5
Contract Type --- p.5
Contract Style --- p.6
Contract Lifespan --- p.6
Contract Value --- p.6
Hedging With Eurodollar Options --- p.7
Naked Positions --- p.7
Chapter III. --- ASSET/LIABILITY MANAGEMENT --- p.9
Gap Concept --- p.10
Gap Analysis --- p.11
Types of Gaps --- p.12
Positive And Negative Gaps --- p.13
Voluntary And Involuntary Gaps --- p.13
Chapter IV. --- HEDGING THE GAP --- p.14
Macro Hedge --- p.14
Micro Hedge --- p.17
Macro Hedge vs Micro Hedge --- p.17
Chapter V. --- HEDGING METHODOLOGY --- p.19
Cross Hedge Basis Risk --- p.20
Hedge Ratio --- p.20
Time Basis Risk . . --- p.21
Basic Hedge With No Time Basis Risk --- p.23
Example 1: Single 90-Day Gap --- p.24
Example 2: Single 30-Day Gap --- p.24
Example 3: Single 180-Day Gap --- p.25
Example 4: Series of 90-day gaps --- p.25
Example 5: Series of 30-Day Gaps --- p.26
Basic Hedge With Time Basis Risk --- p.27
Hedging Of A Series Of Liability Issues --- p.32
Strip hedge --- p.32
Stack hedge --- p.33
Chapter VI. --- OPTIONS AND FUTURES --- p.35
Similarities and Differences --- p.35
Merits And Demerits --- p.37
Chapter VII. --- REASONS FOR HEDGING --- p.39
Merits --- p.39
Demerits --- p.40
Chapter VIII. --- THE SITUATION IN HONG KONG --- p.42
Chapter IX. --- CONCLUSION --- p.45
APPENDIX --- p.47
BIBLIOGRAPHY --- p.49

碩士
中原大學
財經法律研究所
101
Abstract Cloud computing is a kind of new trend in information technology industry. Cloud computing has become the latest in a series of popular industry terms and is used in many spheres. According to the trend, most government and international business companies try to plan standard and do a large number of investment in cloud computing. Cloud computing is different from traditional network model. Cloud computing has three characteristics that are virtualization、aggregation、service oriented architecture. Through three characteristics as above, cloud computing can increase capacity but without investing in new infrastructure, training new personnel, and licensing new software by service provider. So the users could be do well arrangement in financial saving、computer efficiency arising. We usually call cloud computing service when cloud computing is be used as a service. Cloud computing service could be set three kind as below：Infrastructure as a Service(IaaS)、Platform as a Service(PaaS)、Software as a Service(SaaS). IaaS is a provision model in which an organization outsources the equipment used to support operations, including storage, hardware, servers and networking components. PaaS is an outgrowth of software as a service , a software distribution model in which hosted software applications are made available to customers over the Internet. SaaS is a type of cloud computing delivers a single application through the browser to thousands of customers using a multitenant architecture. Cloud computing service creates new legal issue in the relationship between users、service provider、presence of third party and the law made by government. This creates new challenges in understanding how laws apply to a various of cloud computing. One of the legal issue of cloud computing service is the contract issue. The contractual issue involves the contract structures, terms, and compensation. Service Level Agreement(SLA) is a part of cloud computing service contract. SLA is between the cloud computing service provider and the users, usually in measurable terms and what services the service provider will offer. The contractors could be measured, justified, and perhaps compared with those of cloud computing providers by SLA. So the SLA is a very important document in cloud computing service. For the users benefit and well customer relationship, the loud computing service providers should indemnify, defend, and hold the customer harmless against any and all losses resulting from any security breach. But on the contrary, the service providers made term of limitations of liability within standard contract of service to protect its own benefit but also harm the users’ right. The service providers typically approach the liability issue with a pure avoidance strategy: provider disclaims liability for failure to comply with applicable laws or data loss. This strategy is not fair and unacceptable by users. So the writer try to study on contractual liability of cloud service agreement and focus on the term of limitative compensation. The writer hope to find standards to examine the term of limitative compensation made by service provider is fair or not. It also effects to the development of cloud computing industry. Instead of avoidance strategy in cloud computing service agreement, the users could protect liabilities risk and the providers could use insurance policies to transfer and balance the risk to an insurance carrier.

This thesis examines the validity of exclusionary clauses in medical contracts, more especially, hospital contracts in which the healthcare provider exonerates itself against edictal liability arising from the negligent conduct of its staff, resulting in the patient suffering damages. In assessing whether these types of clauses should be outlawed by our courts, this thesis attempts to synthesize six major traditional areas of law, namely, the law of delict, the law of contract, medical law and ethics, international and foreign law, statutory law and constitutional law into a legal conceptual framework relating specifically to exclusionary clauses in medical contracts in South Africa. This thesis highlights systemic inconsistencies with regard to the central issue, namely, whether these types of clauses are valid or not, especially, given the fact that the practice of exclusionary clauses or waivers in hospital contracts has hitherto traditionally been assessed within the framework of the law of contract. The alignment of the various pre-existing areas of statutory and common law with the Constitution highlights that an inter-disciplinary and purposive approach under the value-driven Constitution, brings about a less fragmented picture in assessing the validity of these types of clauses. This approach accords with the new solicitude of the executive, the judiciary, the legislature and academia to transform the South African legal system not only in terms of procedural law but also substantive law. This has resulted in the alignment with constitutional principles and the underlying values to test the validity of these types of clauses, alternatively, contracts. Whereas pre-constitutionally the assessment of disclaimers in hospital contracts was done against the stratum of antiquated principles, namely, freedom of contract and the sanctity of contract, ignoring values such as reasonableness, fairness and conscionability, post-constitutionally, because the values that underlie the Bill of Rights and which affects all spheres of law, including the law of contract, concepts such as fairness, equity, reasonableness should weigh heavily with the decision-maker. In this regard, broader medico-legal considerations, normative medical ethics and the common law principles of good faith, fairness and reasonableness play a fundamental role in the assessment of contractual provisions, including the practice of disclaimers or exclusionary clauses in hospital contracts. This thesis critically examines how these types of clauses or contracts ought to be adjudicated eventually against the background of such alignment. It concludes that the entering into a hospital contract, in which the patient exonerates a hospital and its staff from liability flowing from the hospital or its staff's negligence causing damages to the patient, would be inconsistent with the Constitution and invalid. In the old order in which traditional divisions of law have been encouraged, a fragmented approach resulted in legal in congruencies which, in turn, created turbulence and a lot of uncertainty. This approach is apposite to that which the new constitutionally based legal system, aims to achieve. The rights in the Bill of Rights which are interconnected and which influences all spheres of law, including contract law, offers a fairer basis upon which, the validity of contracts, or contractual provisions, can be measured than, the pure contract approach. In this regard, although contracts or contractual provisions in the past may have been unfair and unreasonable, the courts, however, refused to strike them down purely on this basis. The law of contract, as a legal vehicle for adjudicating the validity of exclusionary clauses or waivers in hospital contracts, is therefore not ideal. This is primarily due to the antiquated approach the South African courts have always taken in this area of law. The law of delict, statutory law and medical law, standing alone, also does not provide a satisfactory answer. What is needed is an integrated approach in which the traditional areas of law are united and wherein constitutional principles and values, give much guidance and direction. Alternatively, should the unification of the traditional areas of law not be possible in bringing about fair and equitable results, the introduction of legislative measures may very well be indicated.
Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2009.
Public Law
unrestricted

1.Summary - review in English The above-mentioned work comprises of two basic issues that are connected together, namely commentary on Insurance Policy Act as general introduction into the field of insurance policies and consequent and special issue of legal expenses insurance interpretation. The basic meaning of it was to introduce not only the provisons concerning insurance policies, but also to show one of the insurance policies type in details, what could be hardly possible or satisfactory without preceding description of the Insurance Policy Act. Thus, complete summary of this work will be divided into two parts; first would be the part concerning Insurance Policy Act and second would be the part concerning legal expenses insurance. 1.1.Insurance Policy Act - Summary The first part of this work concerned, as mentioned above, the Insurance Policy Act, whereas my primary aim was to interpret provisions of this act that were worth it and point out namely on imperfections of the existing legislature. It wasn't and wouldn't be of any significant value just to copy and paste individual provisions of the act, therefore, this work aimed primarily on introduction of new ideas and as a basis for that served a confrontation with the actual wording and its interpretation, whereas plain consent with what was...

Dissertação de Mestrado em Ciências Jurídico-Forenses apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
A facilidade de acesso ao crédito por parte das famílias contribui de forma inegável para o endividamento das pessoas singulares, levando a um exponencial aumento dos processos de insolvência em geral e das pessoas singulares muito em particular. Em 2004 entrou em vigor na nossa ordem jurídica o instituto jurídico da exoneração do passivo restante com o objetivo de permitir a reabilitação económica dos devedores pessoas singulares através da extinção dos créditos. Sucede, porém, que, não se trata de uma extinção total, existindo créditos que se encontram excluídos da eventual concessão da exoneração do passivo restante. Razão pela qual, em muitos casos se verifica que a exoneração do passivo restante não cumpre o seu papel designadamente quando pensamos nos devedores que apenas possuem dívidas que se encontram excluídas do âmbito deste benefício, colocando-os em verdadeiras situações difíceis, tal como sucede no caso dos créditos relativos a indemnizações devidas por factos ilícitos dolosos praticados pelo devedor pois os mesmos encontram-se expressamente excluídos da exoneração conforme determinado por lei. Relativamente ao presente trabalho iniciaremos a nossa explanação por uma breve alusão à insolvência enquanto processo de execução universal cuja finalidade é a satisfação dos credores e à exoneração do passivo restante enquanto consequência desse processo sempre que o mesmo se reporte a devedores pessoas singulares. Deter-nos-emos no estudo mais aprofundado da concessão da exoneração do passivo restante, caracterização, benefícios, procedimento da exoneração e a temática da exclusão de certos créditos da exoneração do passivo restante, onde se consagra a exclusão dos créditos indemnizatórios devidos por factos ilícitos dolosos praticados pelo devedor, que hajam sido reclamadas nessa qualidade. Dedicaremos um capítulo autónomo do nosso trabalho às alterações trazidas pela Lei n.º 9/2022, de 11 de janeiro, publicada em Diário da República no dia 11/01/2022, e que entrará em vigor 90 dias após a sua publicação (11/04/2022), a qual estabelece medidas de apoio e agilização dos processos de reestruturação das empresas e dos acordos de pagamento, transpõe a Diretiva (UE) 2019/1023, do Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho, de 20 de junho de 2019, e altera o Código da Insolvência e da Recuperação de Empresas, o Código das Sociedades Comerciais, o Código do Registo Comercial e legislação conexa. Importa alertar, no que à temática em discussão neste trabalho diz respeito, que na referida lei pode ler-se que “Se o devedor for uma pessoa singular pode ser-lhe concedida a exoneração dos créditos sobre a insolvência que não forem integralmente pagos no processo de insolvência ou nos três anos posteriores ao encerramento deste”. Vale por dizer que o prazo de 5 anos é agora reduzido para três anos, findo o qual termina o período de cessão de rendimento disponível, libertando-se o devedor das dívidas restantes. Razão pela qual, salientamos desde já que, não obstante ao longo do presente trabalho fazermos referência ao prazo atualmente em vigor de 5 anos – alertando que optamos por sustentar a presente dissertação ao abrigo da lei vigente por ser a que ainda é aplicável aos processos em curso -, com a entrada em vigor da aludida lei, o mesmo será reduzido para três anos. Pretendemos que esta dissertação sirva de guia para futuras alterações e para chamar à atenção relativamente a questões de relevância, designadamente quer quanto à temática da exclusão de certos créditos da exoneração do passivo restante, onde se consagra a exclusão dos créditos indemnizatórios devidos por factos ilícitos dolosos praticados pelo devedor, que hajam sido reclamadas nessa qualidade, quer relativamente à Lei n.º 9/2022, de 11 de janeiro.
The ease of access to credit by households undeniably contributes to the indebtedness of natural persons, leading to an exponential increase in insolvency proceedings in general and of individuals very much in particular. In 2004, the legal institute for the exemption of remaining liabilities entered into force in our legal order with the aim of enabling the economic rehabilitation of debtors by extinguishing the claims.It follows, however, that this is not a total extinction, and there are claims which are excluded from the possible grant of the exemption from the remaining liabilities.That is why, in many cases it is found that the exemption from the remaining liabilities does not fulfil its role, in particular when we think of debtors who only have debts which are excluded from the scope of that benefit, putting them in real difficult situations, as in the case of claims relating to damages due to unlawful acts committed by the debtor because they are expressly excluded from the exoneration.Regarding the present work, we will begin our explanation with a brief allusion to insolvency as a universal execution process whose purpose is the satisfaction of creditors and the exoneration of the remaining liabilities, as a consequence of this process whenever it refers to natural debtors persons.We will focus on a more in-depth study of how in granted of the exemption of the remaining liabilities, characterization, benefits, the procedure of the exemption and the theme of the exclusion of certain credits from the exemption of the remaining liabilities, where the exclusion of indemnity credits due for unlawful acts is established. intentional acts committed by the debtor, which have been claimed in that capacity.We will dedicate a separate chapter of our work to the changes brought by the Law n.º 9/2022, of 11 January, published in Diário da República on 11/01/2022, and which will enter into force 90 days after its publication (11 /04/2022), which establishes measures to support and streamline the processes of restructuring companies and payment agreements, transposes Directive (EU) 2019/1023, of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 20 June 2019, and amends the Insolvency and Corporate Recovery Code, the Commercial Companies Code, the Commercial Registry Code and related legislation.It is important to point out, with regard to the theme under discussion in this work, that in the aforementioned law can read that "If the debtor is a natural person, he may be granted the exemption of claims on insolvency that are not fully paid in the process. of insolvency or in the three years following its closure”. It is worth mentioning that the period of 5 years is now reduced to three years, at the end of which the period of transfer of disposable income ends, releasing the debtor of the remaining debts.For this reason, we emphasize right away that, despite the fact that throughout the present work we make reference to the term currently in force of 5 years - alerting that we chose to support this dissertation under the current law as it is still applicable to the processes in course - with the entry into force of the aforementioned law, it will be reduced to three years.We intend that this dissertation will serve as a guide for future changes and to draw attention to relevant issues, namely regarding the issue of the exclusion of certain credits from the exoneration of the remaining liabilities, which enshrines the exclusion of indemnity credits due for intentional unlawful acts. committed by the debtor, who have been claimed in that capacity, or in relation to Law No. 9/2022, of 11 January.