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Journal articles on the topic 'Letter writing'
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Hong, In-sook. "Characteristics of Modern Chinese Letter Textbooks (Cheokdok) from a Viewpoint of Sentence Introduction: Focusing on 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho (Rhetorical Writing)」 in 『Shincheminun Contemporary Writings Letter Writing Style』." Research of the Korean Classic 60 (February 28, 2023): 129–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.20516/classic.2023.60.129.
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This thesis tries to examine aspects and characteristics of writings called 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho (Rhetorical Writing)」 in 『Shincheminun Contemporary Writings Letter Writing Style』 from a viewpoint of sentence introduction essays. 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho」 is a syntax text which includes basic composition methods, the composition theory, writing’s social roles and significance. This writing regards 『Shincheminun Contemporary Writings Letter Writing Style』 as playing an important role as the book with sentence introduction as well as the simple letter textbook. And the thesis tries to examine 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho」 as the text which was influenced by Jeong, Inbo’s sentence theory by analyzing his preface in 『Shincheminun Contemporary Writings Letter Writing Style』 in detail.
For this, the preface by Jeong, Inbo was first examined. The preface shows the sentence theory and letter theory’s directionality pursued by 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho」 like a completed example. Chapter 1 of 10 chapters of 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho」 is the general introduction like an independent essay about the origin of languages, letters, and writings. Chapter 2 to 4 describe the characteristics of the composition methods to present concrete writing techniques, Chapter 5 to 6 explain the characteristics of the concrete sentence theory, and Chapter 7 to 10 focus on writings’ styles. Like this, it treats the letter theory in earnest.
This 「Seohanmunganghwaryakcho」 is writing to make readers read Widang Joeng, Inbo’s efforts to establish the systematic composition theory and letter theory as the sentence theory made under his academic and cultural influence. Furthermore, it can be thought this text plays an important role in making the characteristics of 『Shincheminun Contemporary Writings Letter Writing Style』 which is the contemporary letter textbook the sentence introduction with the characteristics of strengthening sentences in earnest, not staying at the level of the simple teaching material for letters.
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Chernoglazov, Dmitrij. "From Letter Collections to Letter Writing Manuals." Frühmittelalterliche Studien 57, no. 1 (October 1, 2023): 193–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/fmst-2023-0010.
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Abstract It is well known that Byzantine and post-Byzantine manuscript letter collections had a didactic function serving as manuals on epistolary art. An important task is to examine how and to what extent this function influenced the structure of collections and the method of reworking epistolary material. The subject of the present paper is the letter collection surviving in cod. Heid. Pal. gr. 356 ( 13th c. ). The collection contains Pseudo-Libanios’ ‘Epistolary Styles’, letters of Phalaris, Libanios, Gregory of Nazianzos, Symeon Logothetes, Michael Psellos and other authors. The collection is analyzed in terms of its content and structure. Its following features are revealed: Firstly, from letters of different authors, those are selected that correspond to common epistolary situations. Most of the letters presented in the collection are recommending, reproaching for silence, accompanying the gift, etc. Secondly, letters belonging to the same type or epistolary situation are often grouped together. Thirdly, letters are reworked so that it is more convenient to use them as models. Gregory of Nazianzos’ letters are presented in short excerpts, many of them being transformed so that they serve as models for certain letter types – friendly, commendatory, etc.
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Reutzel, Pamela, Kathleen AJ Mohr, and Cindy D. Jones. "Exploring the relationship between letter recognition and handwriting in early literacy development." Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 19, no. 3 (September 11, 2017): 349–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468798417728099.
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Previous research has demonstrated correlation between letter-naming and letter-writing fluency, and a relationship between letter-naming fluency and successful reading development. Awareness of critical features of letters has received less attention as a part of handwriting development, but it is theorized to also play a role in letter-writing fluency. This study sought to delineate possible components of letter-writing fluency using four related tasks with kindergarten students. Results confirm the correlation between letter-naming and letter-writing fluency and indicate that recognition and manipulation of critical letter features correlate with letter-writing fluency. Findings suggest that awareness of critical features could be a part of early literacy instruction.
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Fauziah hindasah, Astri, Nazwa Azizah Genuita, Risqi Sri Mulyati, and Ichsan Fauzi Rachman. "Analisis Kesalahan Berbahasa Indonesia dalam Surat Dinas di Kecamatan Sindangkasih." Jurnal Pendidikan, Bahasa dan Budaya 2, no. 4 (November 22, 2023): 182–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.55606/jpbb.v2i4.2422.
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A letter is a means of conveying information in writing from one party to another. Then there are elements that fall into the category of Indonesian language errors in this letter, namely errors in using letters, errors in writing words, errors in writing punctuation marks, ineffective use of words. Errors in correspondence made by writers do not refer to letter writing standards, based on the letter writers' knowledge and skills regarding grammar and limited letter form. The location of this research is the Sindangkasih sub-district office, Ciamis Regency. The aim is to improve letter writing in agencies because there is a habit where writers only rely on samples without following new rules. The research method used in this research is descriptive analytical method. The sampling carried out was comparing three letters as material for research. The results obtained from the research and analysis on the effectiveness of sentences were six errors from the 3 letters, and in spelling errors there were nine errors from the 3 letters.
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ƏSƏDOVA, L. Ş. "MÜASİR İNGİLİS DİLİNDƏ RƏSMİ VƏ QEYRİ-RƏSMİ YAZIŞMALARIN LİNQVİSTİK XÜSUSİYYƏTLƏRİ." Actual Problems of study of humanities 2, no. 2024 (July 15, 2024): 23–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.62021/0026-0028.2024.2.023.
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Linguistic Features of Formal and Informal Letter Writing in Modern English Summary Letter writing is an important communication skill in both personal and professional settings. There are different types of letters, including informal letters to friends and family, and formal letters used in business and academic spheres. The article deals with understanding that the differences between informal and formal letters, the appropriate tone, language, and format are essential for effective letter writing. Formal and informal language serve different purposes. It`s important to know when formal or informal writing is expected as it helps a writer to connect with the reader or listener. Formal and informal English are two distinct styles of language usage that vary in their level of formality, vocabulary, sentence structure and tone. Key words: writing skills, formal letters, informal letters, abbrevations, jargons, audience
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Maulina Prastika, Tiara, Theodore Kristianto Gunawan, and Yanti Hidayati. "Writing Errors Hiragana and Katakana In PGSD, PTIK, and PBI IPB Cirebon Study Programs." Devotion Journal of Community Service 4, no. 2 (February 14, 2023): 525–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.36418/devotion.v4i2.405.
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The research aims to describe hiragana and katakana letter writing errors made by students of PGSD, PTIK, and PBI study programs of Invada Institute of Education and Language and describe the causes of letter writing errors made by these students. The sources of data used are essay writing or sakubun about students' daily activities based on the Marugoto A1 book and questionnaires. The method used is descriptive qualitative and uses a questionnaire to find out the causes of errors in writing the letters. The results of this study show that there are 35 data of correspondent name writing errors, both mixed writing and errors on several letters, 40 data of time writing errors, 73 data in the form of place writing errors, and 20 data of writing errors on activities or daily activities. The factors underlying the letter writing errors are the lack of memorization, writing, and not re-reading the material given and the difficulty when memorizing the letters hiragana and katakana
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Zemlock, Deborah Y. "Learning About Letters Through Handwriting Practice." IU Journal of Undergraduate Research 2, no. 1 (May 31, 2016): 56–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.14434/iujur.v2i1.20924.
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The influence of visual-motor experiences with written symbols on pre-reading abilities, such as letter knowledge, have been shown to be facilitatory in both correlational studies on very young children and in experimental studies on older children. However, it is not known whether any fine-motor practice will create this benefit, whether it is specific to writing letters, or whether certain ages would benefit most from handwriting practice. Here, we hypothesized that immature fine-motor skill that produces variable forms may be crucial to the beneficial effects of handwriting training – predicting the younger children would benefit more from the training than older children. Preschool-aged children, ages three to five years, were divided into two experimental groups (letter-writing, digit-writing) in a 2x2x2 design: TIME (pre, post), AGE (younger, older), and CONDITION (letter-writing, digit-writing). Each group received six weeks of training. The letter-writing and digit-writing groups practiced writing letters (A-Z) or single digits (0-9), respectively, four times per week. Before and after the training period, each group received assessments targeting letter knowledge directly. We predicted that the younger age group, compared to the older age group, in the letter-writing condition would score significantly higher on the letter knowledge tasks at post-test than at pre-test and that this effect would not occur in the digit-writing group. Results demonstrated that the younger children did show a significantly greater improvement in letter recognition skills than the older age group, but this effect held for both the letter-and digit- writing groups. These results suggest, therefore, that any fine-motor practice at a young age can facilitate letter knowledge.
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Nevala, Minna, and Minna Palander-Collin. "Letters and Letter Writing: Introduction." European Journal of English Studies 9, no. 1 (April 2005): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13825570500067903.
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Vinci-Booher, Sophia A., and Karin H. James. "Neural substrates of sensorimotor processes: letter writing and letter perception." Journal of Neurophysiology 115, no. 1 (January 1, 2016): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.01042.2014.
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Writing and perceiving letters are thought to share similar neural substrates; however, what constitutes a neural representation for letters is currently debated. One hypothesis is that letter representation develops from sensorimotor experience resulting in an integrated set of modality-specific regions, whereas an alternative account suggests that letter representations may be abstract, independent of modality. Studies reviewed suggest that letter representation consists of a network of modality-responsive brain regions that may include an abstract component.
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Fredericksen, Elaine. "Letter Writing in the College Classroom." Teaching English in the Two-Year College 27, no. 3 (March 1, 2000): 278–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.58680/tetyc20001886.
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Suggests that beginning writers can improve skills when they exchange letters with peers, teachers, and others. Offers a brief historical perspective on the use of letters as a pedagogical device. Outlines current applications of letter writing and exchanges in: English as a second language; technical and business writing; composition and literature classes; and portfolio reflection letters.
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SYAMSIA, SYAMSIA, and SUMIYATI SUDARMIN. "THE UTILIZATION OF IDENTIFICATION TABLE MEDIA TO IMPROVE THE STUDENTS OFFICIAL LETTER." LINGUISTICA 13, no. 2 (May 5, 2024): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.24114/jalu.v13i2.57909.
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The objectives of this research were to find out whether the identification table media in official letters to improve the students’ writing in formal letter and to know the difficulties of the students’ deals with in writing formal letter. Writing is an activity to express feelings, ideas, ideas, or opinions in writing aimed at others by paying attention to linguistic rules indirectly (Andira, Adnan, & Yamin, 2017). One of the important functions of writing skills is the ability to write formal letters ( (Sitiulwiah & Baisu, 2018)). Formal letter is a letter used for formal purposes by certain parties, be it individuals, institutions, organizations, or certain agencies to communicate with each other formally ( (Suprapto, 2018). The research used in this research is non-experimental quantitative research that uses descriptive methods. The populations in this research were the students of English Department; the sample of this research was 15 students in fifth semester. . To collect the data, the researcher used documentation and interview. The data is analyzed by using the thematic content analysis. The result of this research, It can be seen from the students’ scoring of post training test is higher than pre training test; there is an improvement of students’ writing formal letter by using identification table media. Beside the students’ score, the students also give the good responses in writing formal letters using identification table media. The students’ difficulties in writing formal letter can be help by using identification table media
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Tara, Firman, and Desri Karlinda. "KESALAHAN BERBAHASA PADA SURAT DINAS SMA NEGERI 9 KOTA JAMBI." Aksara: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia 4, no. 2 (February 13, 2021): 202. http://dx.doi.org/10.33087/aksara.v4i2.201.
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This research aims at describing language errors in writing letter numbers, mailing letter, opening paragraph, and closing paragraph of official letters of SMA Negeri 9 Jambi City year of 2019. This research is a qualitative descriptive. The technique used in collecting data are observation and documentation. The results of the analysis show that the errors in writing letter numbers are the use of colons and slashes which are preceded and followed by a space. Errors in writing mailing letter is indicated in the use of kepada which indicates language redundancy; the use of a colon (:) which should be replaced by a period (.); the use of punctuation marks (.) at the end of the mailing address; and the use of bold letters in the mailing address. Written errors in the opening paragraph of the letter are the writing of the opening greeting Dengan hormat in the beginning of the paragraph that should be included in the first sentence of the letter opening. Written errors in the closing paragraphs of letters are the incomplete closing sentences of the letter which should have been mentioned earlier, written behind the word demikianlah; and errors in the use of preposition di.
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Bo, Jin, Julia Barta, Hilary Ferencak, Sara Comstock, Vanessa Riley, and Joni Krueger. "Developmental Characteristics in Cursive and Printed Letter-Writing for School-Age Children." Journal of Motor Learning and Development 2, no. 1 (March 2014): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2012-0001.
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The current study evaluated the developmental characteristics of printed and cursive letter writing in early school-age children. We predicted fewer age-related changes on spatial and temporal measures in cursive letter writing due to lower explicit timing demands compared with printed letter writing. Thirty children wrote the letters e and l in cursive and printed forms repetitively. For printed letters, significant age effects were seen in temporal consistency, whereas cursive letters showed age-related improvement in spatial consistency. Children tended to have higher consistency for printed handwriting than they did for cursive writing. Because of an overall advantage for printed handwriting, the explicit timing hypothesis was not fully supported. We argue that experiential factors influence the development of handwriting.
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Oliver, Marvarene, Kaye W. Nelson, Rochelle Cade, and Catherine Cueva. "Therapeutic Letter Writing from School Counselors to Students, Parents, and Teachers." Professional School Counseling 10, no. 5 (June 2007): 2156759X0701000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2156759x0701000509.
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This article discusses therapeutic letter writing by school counselors as a way of enhancing effectiveness of direct services to students. Writing as an effective therapeutic tool has been well-documented, and therapeutic letter writing specifically has been shown to have positive effects. This article provides a brief literature review, along with sample letters that might be used in elementary, middle, and high school levels. Guidelines for constructing letters are included.
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Nahriyah, Ihda Tis’atun, and Lailatul Husna. "Analisis Kesalahan Penulisan Hiragana Pada Siswa Kelas XI IPS SMA Negeri 5 Kota Malang." Jurnal Cerdik: Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pengajaran 2, no. 2 (June 12, 2023): 159–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.21776/ub.jcerdik.2023.002.02.06.
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This study aims to describe the errors in writing hiragana letters made by students of class XI IPS SMA Negeri 5 Malang City and identify the types of these errors. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative with test instrument. The test is a written test, students write Japanese vocabulary with hiragana letters. The test results were then analyzed for errors using the methodology proposed by Ellis. The errors that have been identified will then be classified into several error categories. According to Imelda, Chandra, and Adimihardja, there are 3 categories of errors in writing hiragana letters, namely (1) Inaccurate writing, (2) Inappropriate letter shapes, (3) Errors in letter selection. The result of this study is from the results of data analysis conducted, there are errors included in 3 categories of hiragana letter writing errors. The most common category of error is the category of inaccurate writing
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Kamilah, Nur, Dilla Fadhillah, and Sumiyani. "Analysis of language errors in narrative essays of fifth grade elementary school students." Journal of Psychology and Instruction 6, no. 2 (January 19, 2023): 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jpai.v6i2.50498.
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This study describes the errors in capital letters, words, and punctuation marks. This research uses a descriptive qualitative research method. The subjects of this study were fifth-grade students of SDN Karet 1. Data collection techniques using tests, interviews, and documentation. The results of this study, namely (1) errors in writing capital letters in the first letter of the title name amounted to 21 errors, the first letter of the name of the nation totaled 11 errors, the first letter of the name of the month amounted to 24 errors, and the first letter of the name of geography amounted to 29 errors. (2) the error of writing the preposition at- totaled 28 errors, and the error of writing the preposition to- amounted to 4 errors. (3) writing errors of period punctuation totaling 37 and comma punctuation totaling 15 errors.
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Klaeger, Florian. "Sidereal Messages: Print Letters in Restoration Astronomical Writing." Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 47, no. 1 (March 2024): 59–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1754-0208.12926.
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AbstractAstronomy, a paradigmatic observational discipline of early modern ‘science’, relied on epistolary communication for coordinating practitioners across the world, publishing discoveries and theories, and seeking their confirmation from other virtuosi. Epistolary form ‘travelled’ from an individual exchange between scholars, via the print publication of such letters for the benefit of a wider readership, to the framing of bespoke isagogic textbooks. This article explores the affordances of Restoration printed astronomical letters, contrasting their performance of familiarity between sender and recipient with the public nature of the communication. By reference to letters published in the Philosophical Transactions, individual print letters, and letter‐books, including Christiaan Huygens's Cosmotheoros, the article shows how each type utilizes the familiar and the formal aspects of the letter form differently. The print letter emerges as a form uniquely suited for performing individual authority and fashioning an expert community, as well as communicating expert knowledge to non‐specialists.
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Zhanghong, Xu, and Wang Qian. "Pragmatic Empathy as a Grand Strategy in Business Letter Writing." English Language Teaching 11, no. 8 (July 8, 2018): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v11n8p14.
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This paper examines the employment of pragmatic empathy as a grand strategy in business letter writing. To account for the realization of pragmatic empathy in business letters, we make a corpus-based manual analysis of four types of business letters. It is found that (1) the choice of deixis is a major concern in most letters: while second person is often used in competitive letters, first or third person frequently appears in other three types of letters; (2) conventionalized indirectness strategy is often used in competitive business letters while mitigation strategy is preferred in conflictive business letters; (3) the employment of different strategies is an adaptation to various empathetic concerns in business letter writing. It is concluded that different types of business letters are characterized by different pragmatic strategies to achieve empathy. This paper, which is an attempt to investigate business letters from the empathy perspective, sheds light on business discourse research in general and business letter writing in particular.
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Amin, Mujid Farihul, and Suyanto Suyanto. "Analisis Kesalahan Berbahasa dalam Penulisan Surat Undangan Organisasi Kemahasiswaan di Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Diponegoro." Nusa: Jurnal Ilmu Bahasa dan Sastra 12, no. 2 (March 30, 2017): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/nusa.12.2.34-41.
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Letter writing is a means of communication used to convey information from one party to another party. In writing a letter of invitation made by the student organization at the Faculty of Humanities, Diponegoro University speaking there are errors. Language errors can be classified in terms of spelling mistakes and grammatica lerrors from the corner. From the point of spelling mistakes, such as errors in writing on the letter head, dated letters, numbers, attachment, respect, and the contents of the letter. Errors of grammar corner there are two, namely the use of pronouns in the paragraph cover letter and there are still fragmentary sentences.
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McPHERSON, SANDRA. "LETTER WRITING." Yale Review 100, no. 2 (2012): 30–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/tyr.2012.0052.
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Sharp, Ann Margaret. "Letter-Writing." Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines 14, no. 3 (1995): 54–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/inquiryctnews199514311.
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McPHERSON, SANDRA. "LETTER WRITING." Yale Review 100, no. 2 (March 3, 2012): 30–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9736.2012.00790.x.
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Xin, Zhiying. "Letter Writing." Journal of Pragmatics 40, no. 9 (September 2008): 1636–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.04.010.
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Rosalina, Utami, Yeni Noryatin, Veronika Simbolon, Ninik Hernika, and Salsabila Nuravianti. "Exploring Job Application Letters of EFL Learners." Journal on Education 5, no. 4 (April 8, 2023): 15089–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.31004/joe.v5i4.2599.
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The background to this analysis is that many companies require applicants to write their application letters in English. If a student wishes to get a job, a job application letter is required upon leaving school. The purpose of this study is to examine EFL learners’ application letters. This study uses a qualitative methodology and discourse analysis as its research design. The data used in qualitative research comes from a variety of application letters. Participants in this study were high school students at a vocational school. It consists of four students in grade 12—two boys and two girls. The research was conducted through an analytical process in which a student completed her application within one week. They are then collected and analyzed by researchers. The general structure of job application letters is analyzed, and formal and informal words in job application letters are recognized and noted. In general, the results of the above analyses show that two students met the criteria for writing a job application letter, while the other two students did not yet meet the criteria for writing a job application letter. Teachers should pay more attention to teaching writing subjects, especially in making sentences such as when writing a job application letter. If you find an error while writing, explain of the errors to avoid mistakes from happening again and reduce error at the start.
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Adhikari, Yam Nath. "Basic Level School Students' Letter Writing Proficiency." English Language Teaching Perspectives 7, no. 1-2 (August 10, 2022): 76–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/eltp.v7i1-2.47411.
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Letter writing is one of the most important aspect of teaching and learning activities. When the students become competent in letter writing, they can communicate with different firms and institutions. This study proves that the task of letter writing for basic school students in English is a challenging task. The study employed descriptive survey research design. It explores how basic school students perform their level of proficiency in writing letter of apology studying in four schools of Pokhara valley. This study found out that the students of basic school are not instructed well to follow the standard pattern of letters writing during teaching and learning process. The average mark of the sampled schools’ students was 10.48 which showed that the proficiency level of the basic school students’ was not found better. The majority of the students scored below average marks in this study which reveals that both students and teachers need to be trained well to develop the letter writing proficiency of basic school students.
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Stander, Hennie. "CHRYSOSTOM ON LETTERS AND LETTER-WRITING." Scrinium 6, no. 1 (March 22, 2010): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18177565-90000037.
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Kritzinger, Koos. "JEROME ON LETTERS AND LETTER-WRITING." Scrinium 6, no. 1 (March 22, 2010): 77–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18177565-90000039.
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Selvi, M. D. Thamarai. "Global language in the field of maritime – the backbone of global trade." Journal of Social Responsibility,Tourism and Hospitality, no. 21 (January 29, 2022): 18–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.55529/jsrth.21.18.25.
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The purpose of the study is to investigate the importance of English language in the field of maritime and the backbone of global trade. Participants of the study were 60 Diploma in Nautical Science (DNS) batch students from SAMS Kappal College, Panapakkam, Chennai. For collecting the data, the participants were asked to write two permission letters of 150 words. Problem Statement of the study is that marine students make lot errors in sentence coherence, connectives and grammar in letter writing. The objectives of the study are: 1. To enhance the letter writing skills of the students. 2. To identify the common errors done in their letter writing. Hypothesis of the study was to enhance the letter writing skills through self-correction and peer-correction techniques. Mixed approach was administered in the study. Research Questions of the study is 1. Will the students improve their letter writing skills through self-correction and peer-correction strategies? As a result of the study, self-correction and peer-correction strategies helped the students to build the right foundation for effective letter writing.
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Selvi, M. D. Thamarai. "Global language in the field of maritime – the backbone of global trade." Journal of Image Processing and Intelligent Remote Sensing, no. 21 (January 11, 2022): 6–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.55529/jipirs.21.6.13.
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The purpose of the study is to investigate the importance of English language in the field of maritime and the backbone of global trade. Participants of the study were 60 Diploma in Nautical Science (DNS) batch students from SAMS Kappal College, Panapakkam, Chennai. For collecting the data, the participants were asked to write two permission letters of 150 words. Problem Statement of the study is that marine students make lot errors in sentence coherence, connectives and grammar in letter writing. The objectives of the study are: 1. To enhance the letter writing skills of the students. 2. To identify the common errors done in their letter writing. Hypothesis of the study was to enhance the letter writing skills through self-correction and peer-correction techniques. Mixed approach was administered in the study. Research Questions of the study is 1. Will the students improve their letter writing skills through self-correction and peer-correction strategies? As a result of the study, self-correction and peer-correction strategies helped the students to build the right foundation for effective letter writing.
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Kumar, Arun. "Letters of the Labouring Poor: The Art of Letter Writing in Colonial India*." Past & Present 246, no. 1 (December 27, 2019): 149–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtz035.
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Abstract This article examines the emergence of mass letter-writing in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century colonial north India, a region marked by the growth of an unprecedented labour mobility, postal expansion, vernacular print, and workers' literacy. It narrates how workers' and their family members' abilities and failures to read and write letters shaped their experiences of the emerging transnational labour mobility and explains how the letter-writing by the subaltern produced new sociabilities and anxieties that both colonial and indigenous elites feared and attempted to discipline and control through letter-writing manuals. It argues that the letter-writing culture in India did not merely sustain new mobilities but also produced a dominant social world which ensured that the hierarchies of caste, gender, and class were clearly mapped onto the domain of letter-writing. Hitherto unexplored (Hindi) letter-writing manuals and educational, postal, and labour records are used to challenge the rigidities of labour, communication, and literary histories of modern South Asia where the illiteracy of the labouring poor is an assumed fact.
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Khalil, Humaira, and Dr Muhammad Ramzan Najam Barvi. "An Overview of the Method and Style of the Letters of the Prophet (S.A.W)." Al Khadim Research journal of Islamic culture and Civilization 2, no. 2 (September 30, 2021): 198–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.53575/arjicc.u13-v2.2(21)198-214.
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Humanity revolves around the grand cause of utility and benefits. Correspondence is one of the most important ways for the accomplishment of this task. All the messengers who had been chosen for the preaching, they adopted all possible means of preaching to fulfill this obligation sincerely. Holy Prophet PBUH had also adopted the technique of correspondence along with oral and practical approach for preaching Islam. He introduced it as an effective source of communication. Holy Prophet PBUH had sent various letters consisting codes of life to the kings and rulers of His time. He used this method to teach and guide them. This method is as effective in modern world as it was a hundred years ago. Hazrat Muhammad’s (SAW) letters are the special aspect of his personality. These are the masterpiece for training. His lettersplayed a great part in preaching Islam.He ameliorated people with best rules and practices.He introduced such ways,styles and rules of letter writing which were not there before.He bestowed Arabic letter writing with new multidimensionnals outlook.While determing new structures and shape of the skill of letter writing, He established such techniques and approaches of letter writing which revived this adroitness. This earned His letterwriting huge traditional significance. Along with being individual,simple and easily understandable, Hazrat Muhammad’s (SAW) letters and His style of oration are the best monument of comprehensiveness and conciseness.He has selected letter-writing as a way of introducing others to the message of Islam. The letters of inviting nature are the best representatives of briefness and conciseness. His personality is the best example with respect to invitation and training.This article presents the analysis of different techniques of Hazrat Muhammad’s letter.
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Mahmud, Moh, and Rohsita. "AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' ABILITY IN WRITING AN INVITATION LETTER." LUNAR 6, no. 1 (June 5, 2022): 271–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.36526/ln.v6i1.1940.
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Writing is one of the most important skills in the English language that students must master at school, while the eleventh grade students of Madrasah Aliyah Al Amiriyyah still had problems in writing, especially in writing invitation letters, most of them were not understand well about part of invitation letter and to design their sentences. Besides they were also less vocabulary in writing invitation letter. So the aim of research is to describe student's ability in writing an invitation letter at the eleventh grade students of Madrasah Aliyah Al Amiriyyah Blokagung Banyuwangi. The method in this research is descriptive qualitative. The data was taken from the results of the researcher's observations on the learning carried out in class, especially on the invitation letter material. The results of the analysis of students' writing skills on an invitation letter are that three students are included in the sufficient category with scores obtained 64, 66, 62 and one student is included in the good category with a score of 75. This indicates that the writing ability of the eleventh grade students of MA Al Amiriyyah on an invitation letter is still low and there is a need for improvement in better writing learning methods.
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Le Grand, Gaëla. "La lettre et son double : Écrire un moi en partance, ou l’injonction d’Artaud." Cahiers ERTA, no. 30 (June 30, 2022): 30–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/23538953ce.22.009.16078.
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The letter and its duality: writing a departing self or Artaud’s injunctio Artaud’s work includes a large volume of correspondence, which should be given a special status. Neither a work of art, nor an appendix to the work, the letter becomes an object and a body that makes it possible to read Artaud’s corpus, insofar as it provides us with interpretative keys and forces the reader to go back and forth between letters and other writings. It is a sign of the author’s real presence, and demonstrate the idea of a suffering, dispersed and fragmented body. Paradoxically, it symbolizes the very project of the author: collecting the traces of oneself, inscribing oneself in the pure duration, and supplanting the pain of the spatial environment. The letter is the very movement of writing, conceived then as sheer speed.
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Ab. Latif, Nur Afiqah, Noraziah Mohd Amin, Che Nooryohana Zulkifli, Mah Boon Yih, Raja Rosila Raja Berahim, and Melati Desa. "The Perceptions of Language Lecturers Regarding the Language Style of Formal Letters: To What Extent Writing Formal Letters is a Problem to Them?" International Journal of Modern Languages And Applied Linguistics 3, no. 3 (August 1, 2019): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.24191/ijmal.v3i3.7684.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of the lecturers of the Academy of Language Studies (APB), UiTM Cawangan Pulau Pinang (UiTMCPP) with regard to problems in writing formal letters concerning language style. Language style is a very important element in the writing of a formal letter because it can affect a recipient’s views of the sender of the letter. If the language style used is inaccurate, it may also result in misunderstandings between a sender and a recipient and may cause a program being delayed due to errors in the letter. The research method used was descriptive which involved the analysis of data from a questionnaire distributed to 30 respondents (APB UiTMCPP lecturers). The data collected was analyzed using SPSS software version 23. The findings showed that the lecturers were indeed confused about the language style of formal letter writing and that the highest percentage belonged to the item that indicated that the majority of the lecturers agreed that they were mistaken about the correct use of slogans / motto in formal letter writing. The study is expected to assist the researchers in providing a solution to facilitate the lecturers at the APB UiTMCPP in writing formal letters.
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Milburn, Trelani F., Kathleen Hipfner-Boucher, Elaine Weitzman, Janice Greenberg, Janette Pelletier, and Luigi Girolametto. "Cognitive, linguistic and print-related predictors of preschool children’s word spelling and name writing." Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 17, no. 1 (July 24, 2016): 111–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468798415624482.
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Preschool children begin to represent spoken language in print long before receiving formal instruction in spelling and writing. The current study sought to identify the component skills that contribute to preschool children’s ability to begin to spell words and write their name. Ninety-five preschool children (mean age = 57 months) completed a battery of cognitive, linguistic, as well as print-related measures, including spelling/writing tasks (i.e. letters, words and name). All writing samples were scored using scoring matrices and inter-rater reliability was 90% and above. Hierarchical linear regression was conducted for word spelling, indicating that after controlling for age and IQ, the model of best fit included expressive vocabulary, working memory, blending, letter naming and letter writing ability. Logistic regression was conducted for name writing, indicating that the model that included age, expressive vocabulary, letter naming and letter writing identified preschool children who wrote their name conventionally and those who could not. Letter writing explained unique variance in both word spelling and name writing, and phonological awareness explained unique variance in word spelling only. These findings suggest that different processes underlie word spelling and name writing, supporting the consideration of a dual-route model of children’s early spelling and writing ability.
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Irfan, Hanif. "ANALISIS FAKTOR-FAKTOR KESULITAN MENULIS HURUF ABJAD BAHASA ARAB." Lisanan Arabiya: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Arab 3, no. 02 (April 9, 2020): 129–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.32699/liar.v3i2.1054.
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The problem behind this research is that students’ difficulty in writing the letters ofthe Arabic alphabet and connecting letters to a word. The purpose of this researchis to find out the factors that cause students difficulties in writing Arabic alphabetletters. This research method uses descriptive qualitative research design with acase study approach.The results of the research has shows that students were stillvery difficult in writing Arabic alphabet. The student’s category of difficulty is thedifficulty in writing the letters of the Arabic alphabet either standing or straying,and the placement of the letters is still wrong. Then the letter writing which isconsidered difficult is the letters . د, ذ, س, ش, ص, ض, ط, ظ, ف, ق, م, و, هــ يAs for thecauses of students’ difficulty in writing the letter of the Arabic alphabet, it comesfrom both internal and external factors. Internal factors include students do notmemorize the letters of the Arabic alphabet, lack of talent, interest and motivation.External factors include means and less supportive learning infrastructure, and thelearning methods and media used by the teacher are less varied.
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Bell, Erin. "Happy objects and cruel optimism in Carson McCullers’ story ‘Correspondence’." Short Fiction in Theory & Practice 9, no. 2 (October 1, 2019): 117–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/fict_00005_1.
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This article discusses American author Carson McCullers’ 1942 short story titled ‘Correspondence’, in order to consider how the unique form of the epistolary short story amplifies themes of alienation and absence. Drawing upon contemporary affect theory as well as a close reading of the story, I consider how the letters in the text can be understood as what Sara Ahmed describes as ‘happy objects’, as well as how the process of letter writing becomes exemplary of Lauren Berlant’s theorization of cruel optimism. Based on her own disappointment with letters and letter writing, McCullers’ short text problematizes the act of writing letters and demonstrates the complexities of epistolary short fiction.
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Kurniawan, Prasetyo Yuli. "Writing Letters Training in Lumbung Baca Luwungragi Village." ASEAN Journal of Empowering Community 2, no. 1 (May 4, 2023): 40–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.24905/ajecom/vol2issue1.29.
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Community service activity is training in writing correspondence on contextual or real life. The team carried out the movement in the Lumbung Baca village of Luwungragi district of Bulakamba Brebes. The first part is the trainee's initial understanding of correspondence in a contextual approach, then the second part trainee's final experience and skills in writing the letter. This initial understanding is using questionnaires given to trainees. Then the trainees responded to the question to the questionnaire. The questionnaire contains about the knowledge of writing correspondence in contextual or real life. The understanding consists of definitions, objectives, functions, classifications, forms, and types of everyday letters. The student of Universitas Muhadi Setiabudi can show trainee in the following table. Thus, correspondence writing training in a real-life context can explain the trainees writing letters in Luwungragi village. In addition to learning, trainees also gain skills in writing letters for the results of writing a letter because of the devotion report attachment.
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S. Prtija, Slobodanka. "ANCIENT EPISTOLOGRAPHY: THE DEVELOPMENT OF LETTER-WRITING IN GREECE." Филолог – часопис за језик књижевност и културу 13, no. 25 (June 30, 2022): 189–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.21618/fil2225189p.
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The development of ancient epistolography could be associated with the very development of literacy in Greece. Apart from its original function, to transfer a notice to a distant person, the letter has expanded its realm over time. Trough an overview of the letters preserved in the Greek language area and in the works of Greek authors, we can see various functions the letter assumed – both in everyday life and in literature. Numerous accounts and fragments of letters, from short business notice on lead tablets to private letters written on papyrus, which served as a means for preserving familiar or friendly relationships, point to a great popularity of the letter in ancient times. Given the flexibility of its form and the possibility of its usage on a number of occasions, whether public or private, both by the educated and by the uneducated, we notice that the epistolary form, as a means of communication, soon became firmly rooted in the Greek cultural area. The paper aims at highlighting the very beginning of developing the form of letter in Greece, its basic elements and characteristics, as well as the terms used for it in the Greek language.
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Bray, Joe. "The Letter‐Writing Manual and the Epistolary Novel." Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 47, no. 1 (March 2024): 15–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1754-0208.12930.
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AbstractThe relationship between real and fictional letters in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries has been the source of much critical debate. Disagreement surrounds the extent to which the increasingly popular genre of the epistolary novel drew on the practices and techniques of actual correspondence. On the one hand are those who see epistolary fiction as developing out of real‐life letters, with some literary‐stylistic additions. On the other hand are those who reject this teleological approach in favour of one that emphasizes the functional versatility of the letter in the period, and the difficulty, if not impossibility, of drawing a distinction between its real and fictional incarnations. This relationship between real correspondence and epistolary fiction is brought into sharp focus by the genre of the letter‐writing manual, which rose sharply in popularity from the last two decades of the seventeenth century onwards. Concentrating on John Hill's The Young Secretary's Guide (1689), Thomas Goodman's The Experience's Secretary (1699), and G. F.'s The Secretary's Guide (1705), in particular, in this article, I suggest that the style of the letter‐writing manual from this period can, with caution, be compared with that of the epistolary novel. I pay particular attention to the ways in which letters in these manuals respond to and quote from each other and the often subtle ways in which they thus incorporate different voices. This polyvocality is taken further in Samuel Richardson's manual Familiar Letters (1741), which, as is well known, provided the raw material for his first novel Pamela; or Virtue Rewarded (1741). I demonstrate that some of the stylistic techniques which would prove crucial to the great epistolary novels of the later eighteenth century, including Richardson's, can be found, at least in embryonic form, in the letter‐writing manuals of the Restoration period.
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Irianti, Leni. "THE INFLUENCE OF SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS ON TEACHING FUNCTIONAL TEXTS IN A WRITING CLASS." ELTR Journal 3, no. 1 (February 17, 2020): 36–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.37147/eltr.v3i1.58.
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This article analyzed the functional text and register in Systemic-Functional theoretical framework. It explored how both register and genre realized in pedagogic models especially in English business writing course. In English as a foreign-language, writing for functional texts is considered important in teaching learning activities. The register and genre were considered in composing the application letter. It was used the teaching cycle of Genre Based Approach (henceforth GBA) to connect between register and genre in the writing functional text especially in writing application letter activities. There were the models of functional writing provided and the students followed the teaching cycle of GBA the students compose the letter of application. The most noticeable qualities of generic structures and tenor awareness tended to be emphasized by lecturer over less-evident lexico-grammatical patterns. It is also important of how the students’ recognize stages of formal letters. This was suggested that choice of genre and more systematic attention to details of register (especially tenor) awareness are truly important in writing formal letter for learners English for Business Writing class.
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Irianti, Leni. "THE INFLUENCE OF SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS ON TEACHING FUNCTIONAL TEXTS IN A WRITING CLASS." ELTR Journal 3, no. 1 (February 17, 2020): 36–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.37147/eltr.v3i1.58.
Full textAbstract:
This article analyzed the functional text and register in Systemic-Functional theoretical framework. It explored how both register and genre realized in pedagogic models especially in English business writing course. In English as a foreign-language, writing for functional texts is considered important in teaching learning activities. The register and genre were considered in composing the application letter. It was used the teaching cycle of Genre Based Approach (henceforth GBA) to connect between register and genre in the writing functional text especially in writing application letter activities. There were the models of functional writing provided and the students followed the teaching cycle of GBA the students compose the letter of application. The most noticeable qualities of generic structures and tenor awareness tended to be emphasized by lecturer over less-evident lexico-grammatical patterns. It is also important of how the students’ recognize stages of formal letters. This was suggested that choice of genre and more systematic attention to details of register (especially tenor) awareness are truly important in writing formal letter for learners English for Business Writing class.
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Nelfita, Yulia, and Yenni Hayati. "Pemahaman dan kemampuan siswa sekolah menengah pertama dalam menulis surat dinas berdasarkan struktur surat." JPPI (Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan Indonesia) 7, no. 1 (May 1, 2021): 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.29210/02021769.
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Teaching materials regarding an official letter of request for permission prepared by students have several mistakes, namely in determining the composition of the official letter. Weak skills in compiling official letters for junior high school (SMP) students are thought to be caused by their low understanding and ability to write official letters. So this study aims to analyze the understanding and ability of junior high school level students in writing official letters. This research method is a quantitative method. The number of samples in this study was 60 students. The research instrument used was the official letter writing test. The results showed that generally, the level of ability to write official letters of students was in the sufficient category. So that there needs to be more special attention from the teacher to improve the understanding and ability of junior high school students in compiling official letters based on the structure of the letter.
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Sambodi, Sri. "Pembelajaran dengan Teknik Pelatihan Untuk Meningkatkan Kemampuan Menulis Surat Pribadi pada Siswa Kelas VII C SMP Negeri 9 Kota Jambi Tahun Pelajaran 2014/2015." Jurnal Ilmiah Dikdaya 9, no. 1 (April 22, 2019): 156. http://dx.doi.org/10.33087/dikdaya.v9i1.136.
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The low interest of students in writing letters must be responded to by the teachers, efforts to increase the passion of writing students, teachers try to improve the techniques and abilities of students through letter writing. The objectives of this study include the first to describe the level of students' ability to write personal letters through student training techniques, second Improve the learning process of writing personal letters to students, and third Improve the ability to write personal letters through training techniques so students achieve grades above KKM. In this study, the research design used was classroom action research (CAR) by taking action through cycle I and cycle II. The scope of this research is classroom learning carried out by teachers and students to make improvements that have an impact on improving student learning outcomes. The results of this study show that in the first cycle the value of the ability to write a personal letter in the first cycle was 66.00 with sufficient categories. While the ability to write a personal letter in the second cycle obtained an average value of 77.83 with a good category experiencing an increase of 11.33 or 17.20%.
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Notomi, Noburu. "Plato, Isocrates and Epistolary Literature." PLATO JOURNAL 23 (March 29, 2022): 67–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/2183-4105_23_5.
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Working against the recent arguments against Plato’s authorship of the Seventh Letter in the Anglophone scholarship, this paper demonstrates the historical possibility that Plato wrote his letters for philosophical purposes, most likely in competition with Isocrates, who skilfully used the literary genre of letters for his rhetorical and philosophical purposes. Because Isocrates and Plato experimented with various writing styles in response to each other, letters and autobiographies may well have been their common devices. The paper concludes that we should respect the tradition that had included and respected the Seventh Letter as Plato’s own writing.
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Amri, Khairul, Rizkia Mauliza, and Syarfina Syarfina. "Letter's recognition in early literacy through snakes and ladder games." Aṭfāluna: Journal of Islamic Early Childhood Education 4, no. 2 (December 31, 2021): 46–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.32505/atfaluna.v4i2.3474.
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This study aims to determine the process of applying the game of snakes and ladders in increasing letter recognition in children aged 4-5 years at the Pembina State Kindergarten of Langsa City and to see the activities of children in learning to recognize letters using the game of snakes and ladders. This research is a type of Classroom Action Research (CAR). The subjects in this study were the 17 children of group B of the Pembina State Kindergarten in Langsa City. The method used in data collection, namely, observation and interviews. Data collection techniques using descriptive quantitative. The results of the study showed that the game of snakes and ladders can improve children's ability to recognize letters. At the time of pre-action observation, the percentage of ability to recognize letters was 43% with indicators recognizing letter symbols 15%, making meaningful scribbles 15%, writing and speaking letters (A-Z) 11.7%. In the first cycle the percentage of increase in children's letter recognition was 66.4% with a category of 15 children starting to develop 2 children developing according to expectations (BSH) with indicators recognizing letter symbols 20.5%, making meaningful scribbles 23.5%, writing and writing. pronounce the letters (AZ) 22%. Furthermore, in cycle II there was a very significant increase, namely 98% with the criteria of 13 children developing as expected (BSH) and 4 children developing very well (BSB) with indicators recognizing letter symbols 33%, making meaningful scribbles 32%, writing and speaking letters (AZ) 32%. Based on the description of the results of the research before the action, cycle I and cycle II, it can be concluded that the snake and ladder game is able to improve the ability to recognize children's letters in the Pembina State Kindergarten of Langsa City.
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Mulyani, Sri. "Spelling errors in official letters in the Ciracas area East Jakarta." Hortatori : Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia 2, no. 1 (July 25, 2019): 57–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.30998/jh.v2i1.64.
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The purpose of this research is to describe spelling errors in the official letter in ciracas area, East Jakarta written since February ---- November 2017 while the method used in this research, that is descriptive qualitative. Data collection techniques by collecting six letters of service. After research on six official letters from the "Suci" Islamic Foundation, Al-Hidayah educational institutions, Adhiluhur Mahadika Foundation, Madrasah High School Mahadika, Fathurahman Mosque prosperity Council, and PT PLN in Ciracas region, resulted in erroneous spelling of Indonesian ( EBI) in total amounted to 32 findings relating to the writing of abbreviations amounted to 8 findings or 25%, the composite word writing amounted to 5 findings or 15.62%, the use of punctuation marks 9 findings or 28.12%, writing absorption element 2 findings or 6 , 25%, letter writing amounted to 4 finding or 4.12%, and word writing gamounted to 4 finding or 12.5%. From this finding, it was concluded that the bigges spelling use error in the official letter on the use punctuation is 28, 12%.
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Cho, Sunam, and Sanghee Bae. "Facilitating Scientific Writing and Discussion in Undergraduate Scientific Writing Course: Cover Letters as a Classroom Communication Tool." Korean Association for Literacy 13, no. 5 (October 31, 2022): 307–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.37736/kjlr.2022.10.13.5.10.
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As the role of science in society becomes increasingly prominent, there is a rising recognition of the importance of scientific writing. However, in-class tools to teach scientific writing and effective communication to undergraduate science and engineering majors are still in need. It is not easy to clearly and effectively convey one’s argument on scientific issues based on technical knowledge through writing. It is even more difficult when you are teaching in an undergraduate scientific writing class setting where students of different science and engineering majors come together. To teach effective communication, we need to devise more specific methods to address various difficulties that students may encounter. In this study, we developed the “essay introduction letter” to facilitate scientific wrting and in-class discussions. Modelled on cover letters for academic journals, the essay introduction letter incorporates essential elements for effective science communication. In our study, students were required to write an essay introduction letter to present their argumentative essay assignment and read others’ essays before inclass discussions on each writing. We then analyzed the effects of using the letter by observation of in-class discussions and student surveys. Our findings suggest that students can more readily prepare their presentations and participate in meaningful discussions through writing and reading essay introduction letters. We hope that this study will contribute to devising specific methods to teach scientific writing and effective communication to undergraduate science and engineering majors.
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Oh, Seieun. "A Study on the Effectiveness of Self-exploring ‘Words’ and ‘Episodes’ in Job-seeking Writing." Korean Society of Culture and Convergence 44, no. 5 (May 31, 2022): 259–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.33645/cnc.2022.5.44.5.259.
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This study attempted to discuss the effects of finding ‘words’ and finding ‘episodes’ as a methodology for college students to write self-introduction letters. It is to effectively write a selfintroduction letter by recognizing the importance of organizing vocabulary, sentences, and paragraphs, which are the basics of writing. It will be a useful task to arrange the meaning of words to highlight self by exploring one’s own life, and episodes that will explain one's values and outlook on life in writing a self introduction letter. In this process, students most frequently mentioned words such as ‘laughter’ or ‘passion’ and challenge, persistence, revolution, change, patience, and cooperation. Through the writing of episodes, students searched for anecdotes that would explain their own growth and failure experiences, experience career in activities, motivation for applying, and vision and aspirations, and they paid attention to how these experiences changed and made themselves realize. Writing creative self introduction letters should start with practicing the basics as a composition of writing. When writing a self introduction letter, understanding the importance of ‘words’ and ‘episodes’, students will prepare a creative self for their own ‘I’.
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Meierhofer, Christian, and Björn Spiekermann. "Briefpublizistik der Frühen Neuzeit." Daphnis 50, no. 2-3 (July 21, 2022): 191–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18796583-12340064.
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Abstract This introductory article examines early modern letter-writing in its ambiguous state between private and public communication by providing a few historical and systematic perspectives. From a historical point of view, it can be shown how several humanists tried to outline some characteristics of the public letter with regard to the traditional distinction between public speech and private conversation. The new opportunities marked by the printing press also raised new potentials for writing and publishing letters in terms of a libertas epistolaris. From a systematic point of view, public letter-writing relates to other genres, media and practices. This article therefore aims to distinguish several categories, i. e. rhetoricity and literariness, authenticity and fictionality, exclusiveness and popularity, materiality and mediality. Lastly, the special focus on the public dimensions of letter-writing might help to reconsider general assumptions about its subjectivity and spontaneity since the middle of the eighteenth century.