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Journal articles on the topic 'Lead-bismuth alloys Corrosion'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Aerts, A., S. Gavrilov, G. Manfredi, A. Marino, K. Rosseel, and J. Lim. "Oxygen–iron interaction in liquid lead–bismuth eutectic alloy." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 18, no. 29 (2016): 19526–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6cp01561a.

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2

Deloffre, Ph, A. Terlain, and F. Barbier. "Corrosion and deposition of ferrous alloys in molten lead–bismuth." Journal of Nuclear Materials 301, no. 1 (February 2002): 35–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3115(01)00724-3.

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3

Konys, J., C. Schroer, and O. Wedemeyer. "Electrochemical Oxygen Sensors for Corrosion Control in Lead-Cooled Nuclear Reactors." Corrosion 65, no. 12 (December 1, 2009): 798–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.5006/1.3319106.

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Abstract Liquid metals have been used in various applications in nuclear systems. Lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) is foreseen as a coolant and target for neutron generation in accelerator-driven systems (ADS), whereas pure lead will be used as coolant in Gen IV-type lead-cooled fast reactors (LFR). The advantage of heavy liquid metal alloys is their high thermal conductivity and their relative safety in case of an accident. A major problem in non-isothermal systems is the corrosion of their structural components, consisting mainly of ferritic/martensitic and austenitic stainless steels, since the solubility of dissolved elements depends strongly on temperature. The formation of oxide scales on structural components is considered a viable approach to limiting the corrosion rates. To maintain a specific oxygen content in lead or LBE, an oxygen control system (OCS) is crucial. This requires continuous measurement of the oxygen activity in the liquid metal by means of electrochemical sensors. It must be assured that no oxides of the liquid metal itself are formed; otherwise, the system can be blocked. Therefore, this paper addresses the development of oxygen sensors for corrosion control of martensitic and austenitic steels in a lead-bismuth eutectic system at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FZK, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany).

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4

Lee, Seung Gi, Yong-Hoon Shin, Jaeyeong Park, and Il Soon Hwang. "High-Temperature Corrosion Behaviors of Structural Materials for Lead-Alloy-Cooled Fast Reactor Application." Applied Sciences 11, no. 5 (March 6, 2021): 2349. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11052349.

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The corrosion of nuclear-grade steels in lead–bismuth eutectic (LBE) complicates the realization of high coolant temperatures. Corrosion tests of T91, HT9, and SS316L were performed in static cells at 600 °C for 2000 h at an oxygen level of 10−6 wt.%. The obtained corrosion surfaces of post-processed samples were characterized by several microscopy methods. Up to 1000 h, all the alloys exhibited an evolution of duplex oxide layers, which were spalled until 2000 h due to their increased thickness and decreased integrity. Following the spallation, a thin internal Cr-rich oxide layer was formed above the Cr-depleted zone for T91 and HT9. SS316L was penetrated by LBE down to 300 μm in severe cases. A comparison on the corrosion depths of the materials with regard to the parabolic oxidation law with abundant literature data suggests that it may lose its validity once the duplex layer is destroyed as it allows LBE to penetrate the metal substrate.

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5

Samui, Pradeep, and Renu Agarwal. "Thermodynamic Assessment and Solubility of Ni in LBE Coolants." Thermo 2, no. 4 (October 20, 2022): 371–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/thermo2040025.

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Lead–Bismuth Eutectic (LBE) is a heavy metal liquid alloy used as a coolant for compact high temperature reactors (CHTRs), fast breeder reactor (FBRs) and as a spallation target for ADS. In spite of many advantages due to its thermophysical properties, corrosion towards structural materials remains one of the major issues of LBE. In absence of any oxygen impurity, corrosion in LBE is driven by dissolution processes and the solubility of the main elements of the structural material alloys. Using the CALPHAD method, Thermo-Calc software, a thermodynamic database was developed to assess the interaction between Ni and LBE coolant. The solubilities of Ni in LBE, Bi and Pb liquids have been calculated at different temperatures.

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6

Lim, Jun, Hyo On Nam, Il Soon Hwang, and Ji Hyun Kim. "A study of early corrosion behaviors of FeCrAl alloys in liquid lead–bismuth eutectic environments." Journal of Nuclear Materials 407, no. 3 (December 2010): 205–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2010.10.018.

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7

Li, Bingsheng, Yanbin Sheng, Huiping Liu, Xirui Lu, Xiaoyan Shu, Anli Xiong, and Xu Wang. "Dissolution corrosion of 4H‐SiC in lead‐bismuth eutectic at 550°C." Materials and Corrosion 70, no. 10 (May 24, 2019): 1878–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/maco.201910777.

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8

Lam, L. T., T. D. Huynh, N. P. Haigh, J. D. Douglas, D. A. J. Rand, C. S. Lakshmi, P. A. Hollingsworth, J. B. See, J. Manders, and D. M. Rice. "Influence of bismuth on the age-hardening and corrosion behaviour of low-antimony lead alloys in lead/acid battery systems." Journal of Power Sources 53, no. 1 (January 1995): 63–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(94)02159-z.

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9

Short, M. P., R. G. Ballinger, and H. E. Hänninen. "Corrosion resistance of alloys F91 and Fe–12Cr–2Si in lead–bismuth eutectic up to 715°C." Journal of Nuclear Materials 434, no. 1-3 (March 2013): 259–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2012.11.010.

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10

Ryabov, A. V. "Mastering of production of lead-free ecologically clean free-machining steels." Ferrous Metallurgy. Bulletin of Scientific , Technical and Economic Information 75, no. 3 (June 27, 2019): 337–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.32339/0135-5910-2019-3-337-343.

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Both in the domestic and world steel industry alternative ecologically clean free-cutting steels, having cutting machinability characteristics and mechanicalproperties, comparable with lead-containing steels, but voided of their drawbacks,are actively searched. First ofall the alternative steels should not be not so ecologically harmful. Scientific and technological aspects of lead-free free-machining steels production, alloyed by bismuth, calcium, tin, boron and nitrogen presented. Solubility of bismuth in iron and iron alloys with chromium, manganese, nickel, tungsten, vanadium, cobalt,phosphor, sulphur, aluminum, carbon and other elements at the temperature of 1550–1650 ºСdetermined. Parameters of interaction of the first and second order calculated. Study of bismuth behavior and tin spherical samples in 40X steel melt accomplished. The study done at the high temperature facility with controlled atmosphere and X-ray TV observation system. Simulation of phase compositions multicomponent alloys of steel АВЦ40ХГНМaccomplished by application of a program package FactSage. Within the study,a production technology of lead-free, ecologically clean free-machining, steels elaborated and masteredat OJSC “Zlatoust electro-metallurgical works”. Free-machining corrosion-resistant steels (АВЦ19ХГН, АВЦ40Х, АВЦ40ХГНМ, АВЦ12Х18Н10, АВЦ40Х13, АВЦ14Х17Н2) alloyed by bismuth and calcium, steels (АО40Х, АО30ХМ) alloyed by tin, and steels (А38ХГМАРand А30ХМАР) containing BN were the objects of the study. The steels samples were in the form of forged billet of 10, 20 and 80 mm diameter and ingots of 18 and 500 kg (round 345 mm). Steel quality characteristics determined such as mechanicalproperties in longitudinal and cross directions of ingots, uniformity of distribution of fusible elements, carbon and Sulphur along the axis zone and in billet transverse sections. Pictures of ingots macrostructure by height and section obtained. Estimation of hardenability and steel contamination by non-metallic inclusions, austenitic grain size, steel machinability by cutting, surfacequality of re-worked billet and steel macrostructure accomplished. Comparable ecological studies of atmosphere contamination during the steel alloying also accomplished.

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11

Rosalbino, F., R. Carlini, G. Zanicchi, and G. Scavino. "Microstructural characterization and corrosion behavior of lead, bismuth and antimony tellurides prepared by melting." Journal of Alloys and Compounds 567 (August 2013): 26–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.03.071.

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12

Delhaise, André, Stephan Meschter, Polina Snugovsky, Jeff Kennedy, and Zohreh Bagheri. "Tin Whisker Formation on Small Outline Transistors Assembled Using Bismuth-Containing Lead-Free Solder Alloys After Long-Term Ambient Temperature, High Humidity Storage Part 2: Statistical Analysis." Journal of Surface Mount Technology 33, no. 1 (July 14, 2020): 7–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.37665/smt.v33i1.14.

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With the introduction of environmental legislation such as the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), lead (Pb)-free materials have made their way into the electronics manufacturing industry. One issue that has emerged is that Pb-free solder alloys can initiate and grow tin whiskers under specific conditions. These whiskers are thin, highly conductive filaments which have the potential to grow and can cause field failures in many applications. Most concerning with respect to tin whiskering are high reliability applications such as aerospace, automotive, and medical. Bismuth (Bi) is being considered for inclusion in solder alloys to replace the current industry standard (SAC 305) and provide improved thermomechanical and vibration reliability. In this paper, we discuss whisker formation of several Bi-bearing alloys after long-term (12,000 hours), ambient high humidity (25°C/85% RH) storage. Three alloys containing Bi, in addition to SAC 305 (Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu), were considered. These alloys were Violet (Sn-2.25Ag-0.5Cu-6.0Bi), Sunflower (Sn-0.7Cu-7.0Bi), and Senju (Sn-2.0Ag-0.7Cu-3.0Bi). The boards were fabricated with electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG) and immersion tin (ImmSn) finishes and populated with parts having Cu and Fe42Ni alloy leads and chip parts, with half of assemblies cleaned and half cleaned and contaminated with low levels of NaCl. This paper is the second in a series of three in which we share quantitative statistical analysis from the whisker inspection of the small outline transistor (SOT) components. It was found that on ImmSn surface finishes, the longest whiskers were found on SAC, however the longest whiskers were found on Bi-bearing alloys for ENIG. In addition, whiskers were found to generally grow in regions where the tin coverage is thin, and, on ENIG-finished assemblies, near the PCB, likely due to galvanic corrosion between the solder and the finish chemistry.

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13

Lo, Kai-Chien, and Hsin-Yi Lai. "Corrosion Enhancement for FGM Coolant Pipes Subjected to High-Temperature and Hydrostatic Pressure." Coatings 12, no. 5 (May 13, 2022): 666. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings12050666.

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The objective of this paper is to enhance the corrosion resistance of coolant pipes in high temperature and lateral hydrostatic pressure in critical engineering environment, especially for circular coolant pipes under hydrostatic pressure of LBE (lead-bismuth eutectic) applications in nuclear power plants. The resistance against corrosion caused by LBE liquid is mainly formed by Fe-12Cr-2Si solid solutions coatings on the pipe. The silicon concentration in Fe-12Cr-2Si can interact with LBE as an effective oxidized compound such as SiO2 and Fe2SiO4 when the silicon concentration is higher than 1.25 wt.%. The oxide film formed on the coating can resist the LBE corroding in the Fe-12Cr-2Si structure. The primary material of a constructing coolant pipe is T91 ferritic-martensitic alloys, and the surface anti-corrosion coating is Fe-12Cr-2Si solid solution. With a high strength structure, FGC (functionally graded composite material), ensures that the pipe resists the corrosion from LBE liquid. In this study, both the steady-state stress values and silicon concentration are evaluated at 700, 1000, and 1200 °C to know the fatigue problems. The research result indicates the FGM (functionally graded material) structure performs better in promoting the margin of safety on stress distribution and reserving the silicon concentration on the inner surface higher than 1.25 wt.% over 60 years as compared to the FGC structure with 34 μm thickness of Fe-12Cr-2Si coating in a high temperature environment.

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14

Peng, Xiangyang, Yuhai Tang, Xiangbin Ding, Zhichao Lu, Shuo Hou, Jianming Zhou, Shuyin Han, Zhaoping Lü, Guangyao Lu, and Yuan Wu. "Fe-based amorphous coating prepared using high-velocity oxygen fuel and its corrosion behavior in static lead-bismuth eutectic alloy." International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials 29, no. 11 (October 6, 2022): 2032–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12613-022-2420-9.

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15

Chen, Guang, Jun Wang, Hongtao Zhang, Longyi Li, and Hongyuan Fan. "Low-temperature oxy-nitriding of 316 L austenitic stainless steel for improved corrosion resistance in liquid lead-bismuth eutectic." Scripta Materialia 202 (September 2021): 114014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2021.114014.

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16

Yang, Jian, Mingyang Zhou, Liangliang Lv, Yi Zhou, Quan Li, Ning Liu, and Jijun Yang. "Influence of Si addition on the microstructure, mechanical and lead-bismuth eutectic corrosion properties of an amorphous AlCrFeMoTiSix high-entropy alloy coating." Intermetallics 148 (September 2022): 107649. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intermet.2022.107649.

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17

Alekseev, V., and E. Orlova. "THE EFFECT OF GAS BUBBLES ON THE EROSION OF STEEL IN LEAD." PROBLEMS OF ATOMIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. SERIES: NUCLEAR AND REACTOR CONSTANTS 2019, no. 1 (March 26, 2019): 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.55176/2414-1038-2019-1-5-14.

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The erosion of the steel surface in lead-based coolants is a powerful factor that initiates corrosion of the structural material. In the conditions of cavitation effect of gas bubbles on the oxide coating, breaches of its integrity can be created, as a result of which an intensive influence of lead on steel occurs on the "bare" areas. This leads to a multiple increase in the rate of corrosion. The regularities of erosive action of lead or its alloys on structural materials have not been sufficiently studied. In the experiments of different authors, differing data of flow rates of lead or lead-bismuth, to cause the erosion of steel, were obtained. In general, this phenomenon is a combination of a number of simultane-ously occurring thermohydraulic and physicochemical processes. Erosion failure of structural materials in a heavy coolant is rapidly developing and occurs in places with increased coolant velocities, in the field of hydrodynamic disturbances, and so on. Protective coatings formed on steels based on oxide technology are vulnerable from the point of view of erosion wear. The erosion of protective coatings on steels can in turn cause peeling of fuel rod cladding with end-to-end sheath breaking, which can proceed more intensively than the front dissolution of unprotected shells.The most significant factor leading to the erosion of steel in lead is the hydrodynamic effect of the coolant flow. In the presence of gas bubbles in the coolant, erosion occurs at the lowest flow rates, and the erosive effect itself has a cavitation character. The present report presents the results of studies of erosion of steel in lead under gas cavitation. A methodology for appropriate erosion testing was developed. Experiments were carried out on the installation with a rotating cylinder at different cylinder speeds and at various temperatures. A numerical solution of the differential equation of motion of the bubble wall is performed for the different hydrodynamic parameters of the lead flow. The experimental and calculated data obtained make it possible to estimate the process parameters under which a cavitation damage of the oxide coating occurs on the steel surface in the flowing lead.

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18

Chen, Yong, Changjun Qiu, Liangbin Hu, Yi Nong, Zan Liu, and Bin He. "The Corrosion Behavior of Multiphase Ceramic Protective Coatings on China Low Activation Martensitic Steel Surface in Flowing Liquid Lead-Bismuth Eutectic." steel research international 88, no. 8 (March 2, 2017): 1600413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/srin.201600413.

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19

Kalinina, Nataliya, Vasiliy Kalinin, and Ivannа Serzhenko. "Studying the effect of heat treatment modes on corrosion resistance of welded joints." Bulletin of Kharkov National Automobile and Highway University, no. 94 (December 16, 2021): 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.30977/bul.2219-5548.2021.94.0.23.

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Welded joints with corrosion-resistant steels and heat-resistant alloys, which require different modes of heat treatment to achieve the level of mechanical properties specified in the design documentation, are used for the manufacture of parts and components of the turbo-pumping unit (TPU) and liquid rocket engine. Heat-resistant alloys are a large group of alloys on iron, nickel and cobalt bases with the addition of chromium and other alloying elements (C, V, Mo, Nb, W, Ti, Al, B, etc.), whose main feature is to maintain high strength at high and cryogenic temperatures. Heat-resistant alloys are used in the manufacture of many parts of gas turbines in rocketry and jet aircraft, stationary gas turbines, the pumping of oil and gas, hydrogenation of fuel in metallurgical furnaces and many other installations. For the doping of nickel chromium γ-solid solution, several elements are used, which differently influence the increase of heat resistance and processability. Along with the main reinforcing elements (Ti, Al), refractory elements (W, Mo, Nb) are introduced into the alloy, which increase the thermal stability of the solid solution. Heat resistant alloys are based on cobalt. Cobalt has a positive effect on the heat-resistant properties of alloys. The introduction of chromium in cobalt increases its heat resistance and hardness. In addition to chromium, alloys containing cobalt include additives of other alloying elements that improve their various properties at high temperatures. A characteristic feature of these alloys is that they have relatively low heat resistance characteristics at moderate temperatures, which, however, change a little with the temperature up to 900 ° C and therefore become quite high compared to the characteristics of other heat-resistant alloys. A significant drawback of these alloys is their high cost due to the costly cobalt. Nickel-based heat-resistant alloys typically have a complex chemical composition. It includes 12–13 components, carefully balanced to obtain the required properties. The content of impurities such as silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) is also controlled. The content of elements such as selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), lead (Pb) and bismuth (Bi) should be negligible, which is provided by the selection of charge materials with low content of these elements, because it is not possible to get rid of them during melting. These alloys typically contain 10–12 % chromium (Cr), up to 8% aluminum (Al) and titanium (Ti), 5–10 % cobalt (Co), as well as small amounts of boron (B), zirconium (Zr) and carbon (C). Molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and hafnium (Hf) are sometimes added. Heat-resistant alloys are used for the production of many parts of gas turbines in rocketry and jet aircrafts, stationary gas turbines, for pumping oil and gas products, for hydrogenation of fuel in metallurgical furnaces and in many other installations. Nickel-based heat-resistant alloys are also cryogenic, i.e., they are capable of operating and retaining mechanical properties at very low temperatures (–100 °C to –269 °C). Such alloys are chromium-nickel alloys having an austenitic structure. Not only do they have good mechanical properties that do not change over a large temperature range (–200 °C to 900 °C), they can also work in corrosive environments. Nickel-based heat-resistant alloys typically have a complex chemical composition. It includes 12–13 components, carefully balanced to obtain the required properties. Welded and combined workpieces are made of separate components that are interconnected by various welding methods. Welded and combined blanks greatly simplify the creation of complex configuration designs. Improper workpiece design or incorrect welding technology can cause defects (grooves, porosity, internal stresses) that are difficult to correct by machining. Given that finding replacements with multiple materials, working them out in production, and investigating interconnectivity during thermal forces in a product can take considerable time and money, it would be best to replace one alloy. Unifying the material used would allow the structure to work as a whole, which would increase the manufacturability of the products. After examining the different replacement options, inconel 718 was selected for the study. Studies of welded specimens of inconel 718 alloy-stainless steel for resistance to the ICC have shown that it is not appropriate to use welded inconel 718 for the impeller, it is advisable to use material that would ensure uninterrupted operation in a corrosive environment at cryogenic temperatures. Based on the working conditions of the parts, it is most expedient to make it from heat-resistant chromium-nickel alloys, namely, from float inconel 718 which meets the necessary strength characteristics. The recommended soldering mode is heating up to 950 ± 10 oC, holding for 30 minutes from the moment of loading into the oven, cooling to 3000C with the oven, further in the air, since it has less influence on the corrosion resistance of steels in stainless steel joints. Quality control of inconel 718 alloy by GOST methods similar to that used for the control of X67MBHT type alloys showed the results similar to those obtained by the ASTM and AMS control methods.

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20

Alchagirov, B., and A. Khibiev. "SURFACE TENSION OF Pb44,6Bi55,4 EUTECTIC MELT IN AIR ATMOSPHERE." PROBLEMS OF ATOMIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. SERIES: NUCLEAR AND REACTOR CONSTANTS 2021, no. 3 (September 26, 2021): 123–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.55176/2414-1038-2021-3-123-135.

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In the 1950s liquid lead and the lead-bismuth eutectic alloy (Pb45Bi55) were considered candidates for their use as coolants for nuclear power systems in the USSR and the USA. At the same time, the alloy (Pb45Bi55), first proposed by A.I. Leypunsky, was chosen as a coolant for the nuclear submarine “Alpha”, which was ahead of its time in terms of its tactical and technical data. However, in 1968, one of them suffered a severe radiation accident caused by the melting of fuel elements in the core of an onboard nuclear reactor due to the precipitation of oxides from the coolant and their accumulation, which blocked the pipeline cross-section and sharply worsened the cooling of the reactor, which led to its failure. In fact, the primary cause of the accident was a lack of knowledge about the physicochemical and technological properties of the lead-bismuth coolant. Thus, the main disadvantage of the Pb45Bi55 coolant is its corrosiveness to structural materials used in the nuclear power plant. But it has been found that corrosion by liquid lead alloys can be reduced by adjusting the oxygen level in the coolant. For example, the corrosion rate of martensitic steel at 770 K in a Pb45Bi55 flowing coolant without oxygen is about 1 mm per year, but it can be reduced to 0.01 mm per year, i.e. 100 times, if oxygen is dissolved in Pb45Bi55 coolant and its mass concentration is maintained at the level of 0.01 ppm. The observed effect is explained by the protection provided by the oxide layer formed on the steel surface of the pipeline. Thus, for a deeper understanding of the phenomena occurring at the boundaries of the liquid metal “coolants - gases” section, it remains relevant to study the processes of formation and destruction of the protective oxide layer and its behavior in coolant fluids, especially from the point of view of long-term operation of nuclear power plants. In this regard, data on the surface tension of the “coolant - gas” interphase boundaries are of great scientific and practical importance. In this connection, the present work sets the task of experimentally studying the influence of atmospheric air on the surface tension of Pb45Bi55 eutectic melt. Measurements of the surface tension of the eutectic melt Pb44,6Bi55,4 prepared by the authors were carried out in a non-stop mode sequentially, under static vacuum and atmospheric air, on the same surface. About three hundred experimental points obtained in this work made it possible to describe the dynamics of the surface tension changing process depending on the time of exposure of the coolant surface in vacuum and atmospheric air. It is shown that in comparison with the results obtained by the authors by the large lying drop method in a static vacuum, in the first 10 minutes from the beginning of the exposure of the eutectic melt in atmospheric air at a pressure of about 300 mmHg), the surface tension of the eutectic Pb44.6Bi55.4 decreases by 55 mN/m and more, which is an order of magnitude higher than the total error (2 %) of our measurements.

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21

Wang, Hao, Jun Xiao, Hui Wang, Yong Chen, Xing Yin, and Ning Guo. "Corrosion Behavior and Surface Treatment of Cladding Materials Used in High-Temperature Lead-Bismuth Eutectic Alloy: A Review." Coatings 11, no. 3 (March 23, 2021): 364. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings11030364.

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Liquid metal fast reactors were considered to be the most promising solution to meet the enormous energy demand in the future. However, corrosion phenomenon caused by the liquid metal, especially in high-temperature lead-bismuth coolant, has greatly hindered the commercialization of the advanced Generation-IV nuclear system. This review discussed current research on the corrosion resistance of structural materials (such as EP823, T91, ODS, and authentic steels) in high-temperature liquid metal served as reactor coolants. The current corrosion resistance evaluation has proved that even for the excellent performance of EP823, the structural material selected in pressurized water reactor is not the ideal material for operation in the high-temperature lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE). Furthermore, the latest coating technologies that are expected to be applied to cladding materials for coolant system were extensively discussed, including Al-containing coatings, ceramic coatings, oxide coatings, amorphous coatings and high-entropy alloy coatings. The detailed comparison summarized the corrosion morphology and corrosion products of various coatings in LBE. This review not only provided a systematic understanding of the corrosion phenomena, but also demonstrated that coating technology is an effective method to solve the corrosion issues of the advanced next-generation reactors.

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22

Allen, T. R., and D. C. Crawford. "Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor Systems and the Fuels and Materials Challenges." Science and Technology of Nuclear Installations 2007 (2007): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2007/97486.

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Anticipated developments in the consumer energy market have led developers of nuclear energy concepts to consider how innovations in energy technology can be adapted to meet consumer needs. Properties of molten lead or lead-bismuth alloy coolants in lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) systems offer potential advantages for reactors with passive safety characteristics, modular deployment, and fuel cycle flexibility. In addition to realizing those engineering objectives, the feasibility of such systems will rest on development or selection of fuels and materials suitable for use with corrosive lead or lead-bismuth. Three proposed LFR systems, with varying levels of concept maturity, are described to illustrate their associated fuels and materials challenges. Nitride fuels are generally favored for LFR use over metal or oxide fuels due to their compatibility with molten lead and lead-bismuth, in addition to their high atomic density and thermal conductivity. Ferritic/martensitic stainless steels, perhaps with silicon and/or oxide-dispersion additions for enhanced coolant compatibility and improved high-temperature strength, might prove sufficient for low-to-moderate-temperature LFRs, but it appears that ceramics or refractory metal alloys will be necessary for higher-temperature LFR systems intended for production of hydrogen energy carriers.

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23

Orlov, Sergey, Nikita Bogachev, Andrey Mereshchenko, Alexandr Zmitrodan, and Mikhail Skripkin. "Electrochemical Sensors for Controlling Oxygen Content and Corrosion Processes in Lead-Bismuth Eutectic Coolant—State of the Art." Sensors 23, no. 2 (January 10, 2023): 812. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23020812.

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Controlling oxygen content in the primary circuit of nuclear reactors is one of the key tasks needed to ensure the safe operation of nuclear power plants where lead-bismuth eutectic alloy (LBE) is used as a coolant. If the oxygen concentration is low, active corrosion of structural materials takes place; upon increase in oxygen content, slag accumulates due to the formation of lead oxide. The generally accepted method of measuring the oxygen content in LBE is currently potentiometry. The sensors for measuring oxygen activity (electrochemical oxygen sensors) are galvanic cells with two electrodes (lead-bismuth coolant serves as working electrode) separated by a solid electrolyte. Control of corrosion and slag accumulation processes in circuits exploring LBE as a coolant is also based on data obtained by electrochemical oxygen sensors. The disadvantages of this approach are the low efficiency and low sensitivity of control. The alternative, Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) Sensors, are proposed for Real-Time Corrosion Monitoring in LBE system. Currently their applicability in static LBE at temperatures up to 600 °C is shown.

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24

Tian, Shujian, Jianwu Zhang, Yuying Wang, Yiyi Ma, and Weishu Wang. "Influence of High-Density electropulsing treatment on the interface corrosion characteristics of 316L steel in Lead-Bismuth eutectic at 823 K." E3S Web of Conferences 136 (2019): 06022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201913606022.

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In order to find an effective method to improve the corrosion resistance properties of the candidate structural materials for lead-alloy cooled fast reactors, the 316L steel was treated by high density single elec-tropulsing. And then the interface corrosion characteristics in stagnant lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) at 823 K for 1000 h were examined. The results show that electropulsing treatment (EPT) has a significant influence on microcosmic appearance and corrosion depth of the corroded specimens. All the specimens were subjected to dissolution corrosion, but EPT with a current density of 1828 A mm-2 can improve obviously the corrosion resistance and reduce the extent of local corrosion of 316L in LBE. In addition, the corrosion depth of the 1828 A mm-2 EPT specimen decreases by 38%, compared with that of the non-EPT specimens.

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Kaede, K., A. Jäger, V. Gärtnerová, C. Takushima, T. Yamamuro, and S. Tsurekawa. "Measurement of Local Mechanical Properties of T91 Steel Corroded by Molten Lead-Bismuth Eutectic Alloy via Micropillar Compression Test." MRS Advances 3, no. 8-9 (2018): 419–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/adv.2018.36.

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ABSTRACTT91 ferritic/martensitic (F/M) steel is an expected structural material candidate for Gen IV liquid lead-bismuth cooled nuclear reactors. However, molten lead-bismuth eutectic alloy (mLBE) often causes liquid-metal embrittlement (LME) of F/M steels. Although prior austenite grain boundaries and martensite block boundaries were reported to be preferential sites for LME, the mechanism of LME in a T91/LBE couple is yet to be comprehensively understood. In this paper, the effect of mLBE on T91 steel was investigated using micropillar compression tests. mLBE corrosion was found to cause a significant decrease in yield stress. The micropillar made from mLBE-corroded specimen was significantly sheared along high angle boundaries. In addition, EDS analysis demonstrated the presence of Pb/Bi at these high angle boundaries.

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Troyanov, Vladimir M., Georgy I. Toshinsky, Vladimir S. Stepanov, and Vladimir V. Petrochenko. "Lead-bismuth cooled reactors: history and the potential of development. Part 1. History of development." Nuclear Energy and Technology 8, no. 3 (September 27, 2022): 187–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/nucet.8.93908.

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The article is devoted to the history of the creation of lead-bismuth-cooled reactor units (RUs) for nuclear-powered submarines (NPSs), which were developed in the absence of the necessary knowledge and experience, as well as under strict deadlines for completing work, which practically excluded the possibility of carrying out related full-scale scientific research. This led to a number of failures at the stage of developing this unique technology, the causes of which were later identified and eliminated. The authors explain the reasons for choosing a lead-bismuth eutectic alloy as a coolant, outline the main scientific and technical problems solved in the course of developing a lead-bismuth-cooled reactor unit, including those related to the coolant and corrosion resistance of steels, consider issues of ensuring radiation safety during work related to the release of polonium, ensuring the reliability of steam generators, incidents and accidents that occurred during the period of operation and ways to eliminate their causes.

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Wei, X. S., J. L. Jin, Z. Z. Jiang, D. D. Liang, and J. Shen. "FeCrMoWCBY metallic glass with high corrosion resistance in molten lead–bismuth eutectic alloy." Corrosion Science 190 (September 2021): 109688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109688.

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Subri, Nor Wahida Binti, Masoud Sarraf, Bahman Nasiri-Tabrizi, Bakhtiar Ali, Mohd Faizul Mohd Sabri, Wan Jeffrey Basirun, and Nazatul Liana Sukiman. "Corrosion insight of iron and bismuth added Sn–1Ag–0.5Cu lead-free solder alloy." Corrosion Engineering, Science and Technology 55, no. 1 (September 30, 2019): 35–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1478422x.2019.1666458.

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Heinitz, S., D. Schumann, J. Neuhausen, S. Köchli, K. Thomsen, E. Platacis, O. Lielausis, et al. "A comparison between the chemical behaviour of lead-gold and lead-bismuth eutectics towards 316L stainless steel." Radiochimica Acta 101, no. 10 (October 2013): 637–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1524/ract.2013.2063.

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Summary Lead-gold eutectic (LGE) has been recently proposed as an alternative target material for high power spallation sources. In order to compare the corrosive properties of LGE to the better-studied eutectic of lead-bismuth (LBE), an isothermal twin-loop made of SS 316L was built and operated at the Institute of Physics of the University of Latvia. We have measured the concentration of steel alloying elements dissolved in both alloys at the end of two test campaigns via ICP-OES. In case of LGE, a pronounced concentration increase of Fe, Ni, Mn and Cr is found in the liquid metal, which is significantly higher compared to LBE. Similar results were obtained during complementary investigations on material samples exposed to both alloys in this twin-loop at 400 ◦C and 450 ◦C. These findings indicate that in contact with LGE, SS 316L steel suffers from substantial chemical attack. Detailed investigations using structure materials other than SS 316L have to be undertaken before qualifying LGE as a serious alternative to LBE.

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Yang, Jian, Ke Shi, Wei Zhang, Qingsong Chen, Zhien Ning, Changda Zhu, Jiali Liao, et al. "A novel AlCrFeMoTi high-entropy alloy coating with a high corrosion-resistance in lead-bismuth eutectic alloy." Corrosion Science 187 (July 2021): 109524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109524.

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Chen, Gang, Na Ju, Yucheng Lei, Dan Wang, Qiang Zhu, and Tianqing Li. "Corrosion behavior of 410 stainless steel in flowing lead-bismuth eutectic alloy at 550 °C." Journal of Nuclear Materials 522 (August 2019): 168–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2019.05.029.

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Chen, Yong, Liangbin Hu, Changjun Qiu, Bin He, Lihua Zhou, Jing Zhao, and Yanxi Li. "Influence of LBE Temperatures on the Microstructure and Properties of Crystalline and Amorphous Multiphase Ceramic Coatings." Coatings 9, no. 9 (August 24, 2019): 543. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings9090543.

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An Al2O3–TiO2 amorphous composite coating with a thickness of 100–120 μm was fabricated on China low activation martensitic steel (CLAM steel) by oxygen acetylene flame spraying technology and the laser in-situ reaction method. We investigated the microstructures and mechanical properties of the coating after liquid lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) alloy corrosion under different temperatures for 300 h and found that the corrosion temperature of the LBE had no observable effect on the microstructure and chemical phase of the Al2O3–TiO2 amorphous composite coatings. However, the mechanical properties (micro-hardness and shear strength) of the Al2O3–TiO2 multiphase coating deteriorated slightly with the increase in the immersion temperature of the LBE. As a result of oxygen acetylene flame spraying and laser in-situ reaction technology, it was found that the Al2O3–TiO2 amorphous composite coating exhibits an excellent LBE corrosion resistance, which is a candidate structural material for the accelerator-driven subcritical system (ADS) to handle nuclear waste under extreme conditions.

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Kurata, Yuji, Hidetomo Sato, Hitoshi Yokota, and Tetsuya Suzuki. "Applicability of Al-Powder-Alloy Coating to Corrosion Barriers of 316SS in Liquid Lead-Bismuth Eutectic." MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS 52, no. 5 (2011): 1033–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.m2010337.

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Chen, Xiang, Rick Haasch, and James F. Stubbins. "Impedance spectroscopy and microstructural characterization of the corrosion behavior of FeCrAl alloy in lead–bismuth eutectic." Journal of Nuclear Materials 431, no. 1-3 (December 2012): 125–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.11.016.

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Lavrova, Olga V., and Aleksandr Yu Legkikh. "Thermodynamics of equilibrium states and approaches to analyzing the mass transport in metal-oxide systems." Nuclear Energy and Technology 6, no. 4 (November 20, 2020): 261–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/nucet.6.60300.

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Analysis of corrosion processes has a major role in justifying the reliability and safety of developed nuclear reactors of a new generation with heavy liquid metal coolants. An approach has been developed which allows practical conclusions to be made with respect to the processes in the given metal-oxide system based on analyzing state diagrams for these systems in the "oxidation potential – temperature" coordinates. The proposed approach relies on a long-term experience of experimental and computational studies concerned with the interaction of various steel grades with molten lead and lead-bismuth, as well as with the transport of metal impurities within these molten metals. The oxidation potential of a metal-oxide system is measured in experimental studies using oxygen activity sensors developed and manufactured at IPPE. The applicability of the proposed approach to analyzing the processes of mass transport in iron-oxygen, lead-oxygen, sodium-oxygen, and iron-water vapor systems has been demonstrated.

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Toshinsky, G. "THE FIRST IN THE WORLD REACTOR WITH LEAD-BISMUTH COOLANT (FACILITY 27/VT). HOW THAT STARTED." PROBLEMS OF ATOMIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. SERIES: NUCLEAR AND REACTOR CONSTANTS 2019, no. 2 (June 26, 2019): 136–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.55176/2414-1038-2019-2-136-150.

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Development of reactor facilities (RF) with lead-bismuth coolant (LBC) was carried out in conditions of lack of necessary knowledge and experience. Moreover, there were fixed directive terms of work completion, which practically eliminated the opportunity for performance of related scientific and research works that was a reason of multiple failures at the stage of mastering of that technology. In the presented report the following issues are considered: the reasons for option of eutectic lead-bismuth alloy as coolant, principal scientific and technical problems solved in the process of mastering of LBC cooled RFs including the problem of coolant technology and corrosion resistance of steels, providing of radiation safety when realizing works related to release of polonium, providing of reliability of steam generators, incidents and accidents happened in the process of operating and ways for elimination of their reasons, experience of fuel unloading performance. On the whole, in the process of performing tests at Facility 27/VT the invaluable experience was obtained that made possible elimination of the reasons of happened accidents and provide reliable operation at RFs of serial nuclear submarines (NS) of Project 705 (705K). On the basis of critically analyzed operating experience, the civilian RF project, namely SVBR-100 that is meeting the Generation IV requirements is being developed.

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Sun, Yulin, Ganfeng Yuan, Da Wang, Xianfeng Ma, Yuqiang Liang, Jun Zeng, Huanmin Ye, Sirui Liu, Changquan Xiao, and Yanying Hu. "Study on the corrosion behavior of austenitic stainless 15-15Ti for nuclear fuel cladding in lead-bismuth eutectic alloy with oxygen control." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2393, no. 1 (December 1, 2022): 012018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2393/1/012018.

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Abstract The austenitic stainless steel 15-15Ti is one of the main candidate materials for the fuel cladding of the Lead-cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) due to its outstanding irradiation resistance and mechanical properties at high temperatures. The study of the corrosion behavior of 15-15Ti in LBE can help further investigate the service performance in a reactor. In this study, the static LBE corrosion of 15−15Ti was carried out for 1000 h at the temperature of 550°C and the oxygen concentration of 5×10−7 wt%. The samples were analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). The results showed that 15-15Ti was oxidized and formed a duplex oxide film. The inner oxide film is continuous and the main component is FeCr2O4. The outer oxide film is composed of Fe3O4. The Fe3O4 oxides are loose and they could fall off from the surface.

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YAMAKI, Eriko, and Minoru TAKAHASHI. "Corrosion Resistance of Fe-Al-Alloy-Coated Ferritic/Martensitic Steel under Bending Stress in High-Temperature Lead-Bismuth Eutectic." Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 48, no. 5 (May 2011): 797–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18811248.2011.9711762.

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Chen, Xujie, Xiyong Chen, Xian Zeng, Yuan Zhao, Xiaoping Li, Xi Huang, Toyohisa Fujita, and Xinpeng Wang. "Removal of the Homolog Tellurium of Polonium by SiO2 Nanofiber Filter for Lead Alloy-Cooled Reactors." Toxics 10, no. 6 (May 24, 2022): 275. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060275.

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The lead–bismuth eutectic (LBE) can be easily activated by neutron radiation to produce the radionuclide 210Po. It is therefore necessary to establish an effective method to remove vaporized polonium in the cover gas to prevent its release into the air in scenarios of reactor maintenance and coolant leakage accidents. This paper presents a SiO2 nanofiber membrane prepared based on the electrostatic spinning and calcination process. The SiO2 nanofiber membrane had the advantages of good flexibility, high-temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance. In the trapping experiments, the SiO2 nanofiber membrane filters showed excellent filtration performance at 300~400 °C, and the filtration efficiencies for Te, Pb, and Bi could reach 99%, 99%, and 98%, respectively. Proper filtration temperature and gas flow rate are important to maintain high filtration efficiency. After five cycles, the SiO2 nanofiber membrane filter still exhibited excellent cycle-use performance. In the density functional theory (DFT) calculations, PbPo and PbTe had strong interactions with amorphous SiO2, having adhesion energies of −2.96 to −2.83 eV/molecule.

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Koury, D., A. L. Johnson, J. Welch, and J. W. Farley. "Study of the corrosion of austenitic stainless steel D9 in Lead–Bismuth Eutectic (LBE): Extension of the Available Space Model to a ternary alloy." Journal of Nuclear Materials 429, no. 1-3 (October 2012): 210–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2012.05.041.

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Balbaud-Célérier, F., and L. Martinelli. "Modeling of Fe–Cr Martensitic Steels Corrosion in Liquid Lead Alloys." Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 132, no. 10 (July 7, 2010). http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.4000865.

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Among the Generation IV systems, sodium fast reactors (SFRs) are promising and benefits of considerable technological experience. However, the availability and acceptability of the SFR are affected by the problems linked with the sodium-water reaction. One innovative solution to this problem is the replacement of the sodium in the secondary loops by an alternative liquid fluid. Among the fluids considered, lead-bismuth is at the moment being evaluated. Liquid lead-bismuth has been considerably studied in the frame of the research program on accelerator driven systems for transmutation applications. However, lead alloys are corrosive toward structural materials. The main parameters impacting the corrosion rate of Fe–Cr martensitic steels (considered as structural materials) are the nature of the steel (material side), temperature, liquid alloy velocity, and dissolved oxygen concentration (liquid alloy side). In this study, attention is focused on the behavior of Fe-9Cr steels, and more particularly, T91 martensitic steel. It has been shown that in the case of Fe–Cr martensitic steels, the corrosion process depends on the concentration of oxygen dissolved in Pb–Bi. For an oxygen concentration lower than the one necessary for magnetite formation (approximately <10−8 wt % at T≈500°C for Fe-9Cr steels), corrosion proceeds by dissolution of the steel. For a higher oxygen content dissolved in Pb–Bi, corrosion proceeds by oxidation of the steel. These two corrosion processes have been experimentally and theoretically studied in CEA Saclay and also by other partners, leading to some corrosion modeling in order to predict the life duration of these materials as well as their limits of utilization. This study takes into account the two kinds of corrosion processes: dissolution and oxidation. In these two different processes, the lead alloy physico-chemical parameters are considered: the temperature and the liquid alloy velocity for both processes and the oxygen concentration for oxidation.

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Kurata, Yuji, Hitoshi Yokota, and Tetsuya Suzuki. "Development of Al-Alloy Coating for Advanced Nuclear Systems Using Lead Alloys." Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 134, no. 6 (April 12, 2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.4005989.

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Small and medium reactors using lead alloys as coolants are one of the promising reactor concepts with improved safety because of their thermal-physical and chemical properties. This paper focuses on the development of Al-alloy coating for nuclear systems using liquid lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE). Since corrosion attack becomes severe against structural steels at high temperatures in liquid LBE, it is necessary to improve the corrosion resistance of steels. An Al-alloy coating method using Al, Ti, and Fe powders, and laser beam heating has been developed. The main defects formed in the Al-powder-alloy coating process are surface defects and cracks. The conditions required to avoid these defects are the employment of the laser beam scanning rate of 20 mm/min and the adjustment of the Al concentration in the coating layer. According to the results of the corrosion tests at 550ÃÂ °C in liquid LBE, the Al-alloy coating layers on 316SS prevent severe corrosion attack such as grain boundary corrosion and LBE penetration observed in the 316SS without coating. The good corrosion resistance of the Al-alloy coating is based on the thin Al-oxide film, which can be regenerated in liquid LBE. From the viewpoint of the soundness of the produced Al-powder-alloy coating layers and the preservation of their corrosion resistance, it is estimated that the range of adequate Al concentration in the coating layer is from 4 to 12 wt. %.

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43

Zhu, Zhaoguang, Jibo Tan, Xinqiang Wu, Ziyu Zhang, En-Hou Han, and Xiang Wang. "Corrosion behaviors of FeCrAl alloys exposed to oxygen-saturated static lead bismuth eutectic at 550 °C." Corrosion Science, October 2022, 110767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2022.110767.

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Li, Jing, Xiaochen Zhang, Haibin Ma, Liangyin Xiong, Shi Liu, Qisen Ren, and Zhengzheng Pang. "Effect of Silicon and Aluminum Addition on Corrosion Behavior of ODS Iron-Based Alloys in Liquid Lead–Bismuth Eutectic." Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters), December 15, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40195-022-01504-5.

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45

Chen, Li‐Ming, Shuai Xu, Xiao‐Xun He, Qi‐Long Cao, and Bing‐Sheng Li. "Molecular dynamics study of corrosion behavior of iron with vacancies exposed to lead‐bismuth eutectic." Materials and Corrosion, December 26, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/maco.202213375.

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46

Tian, Shujian, Yongqiang Pang, Zhizhong Jiang, Lin Luo, and Zunqi Xiao. "Corrosion characteristics of T91 steel in lead–bismuth eutectic with different oxygen concentrations at 500°C." Materials and Corrosion, September 14, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/maco.202112505.

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47

Ma, Zhiwei, Tielong Shen, Ting Zhou, and Zhiguang Wang. "Performance of the new ferritic/martensitic steel SIMP against liquid lead‐bismuth eutectic corrosion: Comparison with T91 and 316L steels." Materials and Corrosion, October 11, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/maco.202213372.

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48

Zhu, Huiping, Xudong Liu, Baochen Chang, Xiaobo Li, Muran Qi, Yifeng Wang, Fenglei Niu, Yan Ma, and Liangliang Lyu. "Corrosion properties of Ti 3 SiC 2 and Ti 3 AlC 2 in static liquid lead–bismuth eutectic at 500°C." Materials and Corrosion, September 20, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/maco.202112586.

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"ATLAS 2011." Alloy Digest 70, no. 1 (January 1, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.ad.al0472.

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Abstract Atlas 2011 is a wrought, heat-treatable, aluminum-copper alloy (2xxx series) that also contains small amounts of bismuth and lead. Both bismuth and lead promote high-speed machining by causing the chips to fracture during machining and breaking away from the cutting tool. Atlas 2011 is used in applications where good machinability and high strength are required. This datasheet provides information on composition, physical properties, hardness, elasticity, and tensile properties. It also includes information on corrosion resistance as well as forming, heat treating, machining, and joining. Filing Code: Al-472. Producer or source: Atlas Steels.

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"FEDERALLOY I-844." Alloy Digest 46, no. 3 (March 1, 1997). http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.ad.cu0611.

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Abstract Federalloy I-844 (C89831) is a lead-free bronze casting alloy that is machinable by alloying additions of bismuth. Applications include bearings (high speed and heavy pressure), pumps, impellers, and corrosion-resistant and pressure-tight castings. This datasheet provides information on composition, physical properties, hardness, elasticity, tensile properties, and compressive strength as well as fracture toughness. It also includes information on corrosion resistance as well as casting and joining. Filing Code: CU-611. Producer or source: Federal Metal Company.

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