Academic literature on the topic 'Latrines'

Shared latrines and other shared sanitation facilities are vital for communities that lack private latrines. However, the cleanliness of shared latrines continues to be a problem in sub-Saharan Africa, including slums of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Investigating the barriers to cleaning of shared latrines may inform the future strengthening of comprehensive sanitation programs in slums of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Thus, a community-based unmatched case–control study was conducted among 100 case and 200 control households that were users of shared latrines from September to November 2017 in a slum district in Addis Ababa. Cases were those who had not cleaned their shared latrines and controls were those who had cleaned their shared latrines at least once during the week prior to data collection. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and an on-the-spot-observational checklist and analyzed using bivariate (crude odds ratio [COD]) and multivariable (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]) unconditional logistic regression model. Variables having a p-value of less than 0.25 from the bivariate logistic regression analysis were retained into multivariable analysis. From the multivariable analysis, variables with p<0.05 were declared as factors significantly associated with barriers to cleaning of shared latrines. We found that about half 99 (49.5%) of shared latrines used by cases and almost one-third 32 (32.0%) of the shared latrines used by controls had visible cracks and spaces in the floor and slabs. The barriers to cleaning of shared latrines were found to be monthly household income of less than $55.60 USD (AOR = 1.80; 95%CI: 1.2–3.10), users feeling a lack of privacy during latrine use (AOR = 2.95; 95% CI: 1.60–5.43), no locking latch on the latrine door (AOR = 4.60; 95% CI: 2.43–8.79), inadequate ventilation of latrine (AOR: 4.88; 95% CI: 2.44–9.63), lack of regular monitoring of latrine by health extension workers (AOR = 2.86; 95%CI: 1.32–6.21) and a lack of enough water at home for cleaning the latrine (AOR = 4.91; 95% CI: 1.07–9.48). This study found several barriers to cleaning of shared latrines in slums of Addis Ababa. We recommend that stakeholders promote cleaning of shared latrines by designing programs to improve latrine privacy by adding or modifying the superstructure and including a door with locking latch, to make adjustments to the structure for better ventilation, to ensure regular monitoring of latrines by health extension workers and to make enough water consistently available for regular latrine cleaning.

Abstract Badgers (Meles meles) defecate, urinate and scent mark at latrines which seem to have a territorial function. The main aim of the present study was to compare defecation patterns at boundary and hinterland latrines, in order to test the hypothesis that these two types of latrine have a similar function. We investigated latrine use by means of a year-round survey of all the latrines in 7 badger territories, by bait-marking of 15 territories, and by monitoring latrine use in 6 radio-collared badgers belonging to three social groups. The spatial distribution of latrines within a territory was bimodal, with the greatest densities oflatrines close to the outside, and close to the centre, of the territory respectively. Boundary latrines were larger and more consistently used than hinterland latrines, but these differences could be accounted for by the fact that boundary latrines are visited by the members of more than one social group. Defecation at latrines was subject to seasonal variation, with a major peak in latrine use in spring and a minor peak in autumn. The spring peak was largely attributable to an increase in the use of hinterland latrines, the autumn peak to an increase in the use of boundary latrines. Males visited boundary latrines considerably more often than did females, but both sexes visited hinterland latrines equally often. Overmarking occurred equally often at both types of latrine and involved animals from the same as well as from different groups, but there was a significant tendency for more between-group than within-group overmarking. Overmarking occurred mainly on fresh, as opposed to old, faeces deposits. The sex and seasonal differences in use of boundary latrines suggest that these function at least partly as a form of mate-guarding, to deter neighbouring males from entering a territory for mating purposes. It is less clear why females mark at hinterland latrines. One possibility, consistent with the observed spatial distribution of hinterland latrines, is that they function to defend the main burrow system, which is used for breeding; another is that they carry information about social status. Overmarking probably serves to obliterate the marks of competitors, which are members of neighbouring social groups in the case of boundary latrines, but may be members of the same social group in the case of hinterland latrines. We conclude that previous ideas about the function of territoriality in badgers, and about the information conveyed by latrines, are oversimplified.

Unhealthy latrines and defecation behaviors are associated with a higher diarrhea and stunting incidence. The authors developed Healthy Latrine Building Program (GERAKAN BANGUN JAMBAN SEHAT), which is was abbreviated as Gerbang Jasa, to improve latrine problems and long-term effort to prevent stunting. This study aimed to describe the latrine problems and implementation of Gerbang Jasa in Murtajih Village, Pamekasan., Indonesia This research was a descriptive study and involved all families with unhealthy or sharing latrines in Telaga Sari and Pao Gading, Murtajih. We assessed the knowledge and family characteristics through a questionnaire and collected children’s height and age under five years. Thirty families were included in this study, 16 from Pao Gading and 14 from the Telaga Sari. Half of them used unhealthy latrine (cemplung) and the others shared latrines, 59% of farmer occupation and most of them had income under Rp.1.000.000,00. Meanwhile, 12 children under five years from their family was not stunted. During our movement, the authors got funds Rp 18.261.000,00 and successfully built 63,3% latrines with sept tank, 16,7% of latrines only and all the unhealthy latrines were closed by subject. Farmer occupation, family income under Rp 1.000.000,00 were the most cause of latrines problems. Meanwhile, Gerbang jasa could improve latrines problem in Murtajih Village, Pamekasan.

Pit latrines are the most common latrine technology in rural Bangladesh, and untreated effluent from pits can directly contaminate surrounding aquifers. Sand barriers installed around the latrine pit can help reduce contamination but can also alter the decomposition of the fecal sludge and accelerate pit fill-up, which can counteract their benefits. We aimed to evaluate whether there was a difference in decomposition of fecal sludge and survival of soil-transmitted helminth (STH) ova among latrines where a 50-cm sand barrier was installed surrounding and at the bottom of the pit, compared to latrines without a sand barrier, in coastal Bangladesh. We assessed decomposition in latrine pits by measuring the carbon-nitrogen (C/N) ratio of fecal sludge. We enumerated Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura ova in the pit following 18 and 24 months of latrine use. We compared these outcomes between latrines with and without sand barriers using generalized linear models with robust standard errors to adjust for clustering at the village level. The C/N ratio in latrines with and without a sand barrier was 13.47 vs. 22.64 (mean difference: 9.16, 95% CI: 0.15, 18.18). Pits with sand barriers filled more quickly and were reportedly emptied three times more frequently than pits without; 27/34 latrines with sand barriers vs. 9/34 latrines without barriers were emptied in the previous six months. Most reported disposal methods were unsafe. Compared to latrines without sand barriers, latrines with sand barriers had significantly higher log10 mean counts of non-larvated A. lumbricoides ova (log10 mean difference: 0.35, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.58) and T. trichiura ova (log10 mean difference: 0.47, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.73). Larvated ova counts were similar for the two types of latrines for both A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura. Our findings suggest that sand barriers help contain helminth ova within the pits but pits with barriers fill up more quickly, leading to more frequent emptying of insufficiently decomposed fecal sludge. Further research is required on latrine technologies that can both isolate pathogens from the environment and achieve rapid decomposition.

Abstract: Gempolklutuk is village with the lowest of access latrines achievement in Tarik, Sidoarjo. The low of access latrines achievements show that there are people who still defecate in the river.This research was to analyze the influence factors toward the low use of latrines in RW 02 Gempolklutuk, Tarik, Sidoarjo. This research was analytic with cross sectional design. The samples was taken from population by simple random sampling. Interviews was held to 57 household’s in RW 02, Desa Gempolklutuk. The instrument used questionnaire. The collected data was sorted and analyzed. The analysis showed that household’s attitude have infl uence toward the low use of latrines (p-value = 0.000). Good household’s attitude will be followed by good use of latrines. The moderate household’s attitude become barrier of using latrine. Education and income level, knowledge, house distance to river, family and community support factors had no effect in using latrine. It is concluded that household’s attitude was the most infl uence factor toward the low use of latrines. It is suggested to health worker or Sidoarjo’s Health Department to giving guidance for household’s who didn’t have latrines to increase using latrine.Keywords: attitude, household, latrine

A lack of sanitation infrastructure is a major contributor to the global burden of diarrheal disease, particularly in low-income countries. Access to basic sanitation was identified as part of the 2015 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. However, current definitions of “basic” sanitation infrastructure exclude community or shared sanitation, due to concerns around safety, equity, and cleanliness. The purpose of this study was to measure and compare bacterial contamination on community and household latrine surfaces in Kathmandu, Nepal. One hundred and nineteen swab samples were collected from two community and five household latrines sites. Community latrine samples were taken before and after daily cleaning, while household samples were collected at midday, to reflect normal conditions. Concentrations of total coliforms and Escherichia coli were measured using membrane filtration methods. Results found almost no differences between bacterial contamination on latrine surfaces in community and household latrines, with the exception of latrine slabs/seats that were more contaminated in the community latrines under dirty conditions. The study also identified surfaces with higher levels of contamination. Findings demonstrated that well-maintained community latrines may be as clean, or cleaner, than household latrines and support the use of community latrines for improving access to sanitation infrastructure in a low-income country setting.

Specific models for the rational design of pit latrines of different shapes and sizes are presently non-existent. What exist are general design models irrespective of the shape and size of latrine which may not give the actual design parameters needed. This research was limited to the derivation of models that will aid the design of the capacity of pit latrines of different shapes and dimensions for different population of users and under different soil formations and ground conditions. The objective of this research was to derive models for the rational design of pit latrines of different shapes using data collected from 500 different household pit latrines already filled up. Thus, models were derived for different latrine pit shapes and sizes using data collected through the administration of designed questionnaire on 500 households having pit latrines already filled up. Models were developed specifically for different latrine shapes whereas those of other researchers were generalized. These models were calibrated and verified for the rational design of pit latrines of different shapes and sizes. The regression coefficients for calibration were 0.75, 0.65, and 0.50 and for verification are 0.97, 0.98 and 0.99 for square, circular and rectangular pits respectively. The implication of this research is availability of design models for the construction of different pit latrine shapes.

Specific models for the rational design of pit latrines of different shapes and sizes are presently non-existent. What exist are general design models irrespective of the shape and size of latrine which may not give the actual design parameters needed. This research was limited to the derivation of models that will aid the design of the capacity of pit latrines of different shapes and dimensions for different population of users and under different soil formations and ground conditions. The objective of this research was to derive models for the rational design of pit latrines of different shapes using data collected from 500 different household pit latrines already filled up. Thus, models were derived for different latrine pit shapes and sizes using data collected through the administration of designed questionnaire on 500 households having pit latrines already filled up. Models were developed specifically for different latrine shapes whereas those of other researchers were generalized. These models were calibrated and verified for the rational design of pit latrines of different shapes and sizes. The regression coefficients for calibration were 0.75, 0.65, and 0.50 and for verification are 0.97, 0.98 and 0.99 for square, circular and rectangular pits respectively. The implication of this research is availability of design models for the construction of different pit latrine shapes.

The use of latrines by the community will affect the incidence of ducts, such as diarrhea. The Karanganyar Regency Government has built communal latrines to reduce open defecation, however is not yet optimal and there are still many open defecation communities (BABS). This study aims to examine the determinants of latrine utilization by the community. Observational research has been carried out with Cross-Sectional design. A total of 83 family heads from 578 populations were taken by proportional random sampling as research subjects. The variables examined in this study include knowledge, attitudes, latrine ownership, availability of clean water, support from community leaders and health workers, and latrine utilization. Data collection is done by interview and direct observation of research objects, with questionnaire instruments and observation sheets. Research data were analyzed by Chi-Square Test. As many as 18.1% of the people do not use latrines to defecate. Statistical analysis showed that there was a relationship between attitudes, latrine ownership, availability of clean water, and support from community leaders with the practice of using latrines in daily bowel movements with p-values of < 0.05, respectively. This research concludes that the attitude of the community, latrine ownership, availability of clean water, and community support greatly influenced the practice of using latrines for defecation.

<p><em><strong>Abstract </strong></em></p><p><em>A latrine is a building that is used to be called a place to dispose of and collect human waste or najis, usually a latrine/WC. So that the results will be stored in a certain place and not be the cause or spread of disease and pollute the residential environment (Depkes RI, 2003). This research was conducted to determine the description of community behavior regarding the use of family latrines in the Nelayan Indah Village, Medan Labuhan District. Data collection was done by interview and observation. The research instrument used an observation sheet in the form of a questionnaire. The results of the research on family latrine ownership of 120 respondents showed that 92.5% had a latrine and 7.5% did not. the results of the research on the use of family latrines from 120 respondents showed that 90.8% used latrines and 9.2% did not use latrines. The results of this study indicate that the knowledge, attitudes and actions of the community in the fishing village of Indah in the ownership and use of latrines are quite good. The community already knows the importance of using good healthy family latrines and completely avoiding diseases caused by dirt or feces</em></p>

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2005.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Many territorial carnivores deposit faeces and other scent-marks at specific latrine sites, and their role in territorial defence is often assumed. However, recent empirical and theoretical work suggests that ultimate explanations of territoriality differ between the sexes. In this thesis, I investigate patterns of latrine-use in cooperatively breeding meerkats, Suricata suricatta. Meerkats exhibit high reproductive skew, and in such societies an individual’s optimal investment in territory defence and intruder deterrence will depend not only on its sex, but also its breeding status within the group. The spatial and temporal distribution of meerkat latrines reflects the diversity in intruder type. Shared latrine sites between neighbouring groups facilitate costeffective monitoring of predictable intruders and surrounding land tenure. In contrast, intruding transient groups and prospecting males are effectively intercepted by latrines concentrated in the core of the territories, close to refuges. This represents the optimal strategy, as meerkat territories are too large to allow effective scent-marking around their entire peripheries, and these intruders travel between refuges during intrusions. Temporal patterns of latrine-use suggest their importance in mate-defence. Latrine-use was correlated with encounters with prospecting males and oestrous periods of resident females, and reached a peak coinciding with the season of elevated dispersal and take-over events. Additionally, rather than cooperatively contributing to territorial defence, individuals participated selfishly at latrines. Males preferentially over-marked female scent-marks and scent-marked at significantly greater rates than females, which resulted in male-biased latrines that were unrepresentative of group composition. Although all individuals investigated female scent-marks for significantly longer than male scent-marks, females invested most, suggesting that intra-group monitoring is an important aspect of latrine visits for females. The deleterious effects of close inbreeding are well known, but regular dispersal in both sexes, and long dominance tenure, result in unfamiliar siblings having a high probability of encountering one another post-dispersal. As latrines are implicated in mate-defence, olfactory assessment of factors affecting mating decisions might be expected, but although individuals do recognise foreign faeces, discrimination does not appear to occur on the basis of kinship. Together, these findings have broad implications for our understanding of individual variation and sex differences in scent-marking behaviour and territoriality.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Baie territoriale karnivore deponeer faeces en ander reukmerke by spesifieke latrines en die latrines se rol in gebiedsverdediging word dikwels aangeneem. Onlangse empiriese en teoretiese werk stel egter voor dat die uiteindelike verduidelikings van territorialiteit verskil tussen die geslagte. In hierdie tesis ondersoek ek patrone van latrine-gebruik in samewerkend-broeiende meerkaaie (Suricata suricatta). Meerkaaie toon ‘n hoë graad van voorkeuraanwas en in sulke gemeenskappe sal ‘n individu se optimale belegging in gebiedsverdediging en indringer-verjaging nie net van sy/haar geslag afhang nie, maar ook van sy/ haar teelstatus in die groep. Die ruimtelike en temporale verspreiding van meerkat latrines weerspieël die verskeidenheid van indringertipes. Gedeelde latrine areas tussen naburige groepe help die kosteeffektiewe bestekopname van voorspelbare indringers en omringende landsbesetting aan. In kontras hiermee word tydelike groepe en geleentheidsoekende mannetjies effektiewelik voorgekeer deur latrines wat gekonsentreer is in gebiedskerne, naby aan skuilplekke. Dit verteenwoordig die optimale strategie, aangesien meerkat territoriums te groot is om effektiewe reukmerking van die hele grens toe te laat, en synde hierdie indringers tussen skuilplekke reis tydens invalle. Tydspatrone van latrine-gebruik dui die belangrikheid hiervan in paarmaat-beskerming aan. Latrinegebruik korreleer met ontmoetings met geleentheidsoekende mannetjies en die oestrus tydperk van inwonende wyfies, en bereik ‘n toppunt tydens die seisoen van verhoogde verspreiding en oornames. Ook sal individue selfsugtig deelneem by latrines eerder as om samewerkend by te dra tot gebiedsverdediging. Mannetjies verkies om vroulike reukmerke oor te merk en reukmerk teen ‘n beduidend hoër koers as wyfies, wat lei tot mannetjie-geneigde latrines wat nie verteenwoordigend is van die groepsamestelling nie. Alhoewel alle individue vroulike reukmerke beduidend langer as manlike reukmerke ondersoek, belê wyfies die meeste, wat daarop dui dat intragroep monitering ‘n belangrike aspek van latrine-besoeke is vir wyfies. Die nadelige effekte van sterk inteling is goed bekend, maar gereelde verspreiding in beide geslagte en lang dominante posisiehouding lei daartoe dat daar ‘n groot kans is vir onbekende nabye familielede om mekaar te ontmoet na verspreiding. Aangesien latrines ‘n rol speel in paarmaat-verdediging kan dit verwag word dat daar olfaktoriese beoordeling sal wees van faktore wat paringsbesluite beïnvloed, maar hoewel individue wel vreemdelinge se faeces herken, toon hulle geen onderskeidingsvermoë gebaseer op verwantskap nie. Saamgevoeg, het hierdie bevindinge wye implikasies vir ons begrip van individuele variasie en geslagsverskille in reukmerk-gedrag en terriorialiteit.

The issue of standards for household latrines is complex because discussions related to standards for latrines in literature from the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector tend to focus on the negative aspects of standards and highlights cases where the miss-application of standards in the past has caused problems. However, despite concerns about the constraints that standards can seemingly impose, there is an acknowledgement that standards can play a more positive role in supporting efforts to increase access to household latrines. The World Health Organisation has long established and widely recognised standards for water supply quality and quantity but there are no equivalent standards for sanitation services and there is currently no guidance that deals with the topic of standards for household latrines. Household latrines are a small component of the wider sanitation system in a country and by considering how standards for household latrines operate within this wider sanitation system the aim of this research is to understand what influences standards can have on household latrines and explore how the negative perceptions about standards and latrine building can be overcome. The development of guidance on how to develop well written standards is the core focus of this research. This research explores the factors that can influence the development and use of a standard for household latrines in Rwanda using three data collection methods. Document analysis using 66 documents, including policies and strategies, design manuals and training guides from 17 countries throughout Sub-Saharan Africa was used in conjunction with the Delphi Method involving an expert panel of 27 from Rwanda and 38 semi-structured interviews. The research concludes that perceptions about standards for household latrines are fragmented and confused with little consensus in Rwanda on what need a standard should meet and what role it should play. The study has found that the need for a standard must be considered in the context of the wider sanitation system otherwise it can lead to duplication of efforts and increased confusion for all stakeholders. The study also found that there is an assumed link between standards and enforcement of standards through regulation and punishments which creates the negative perceptions about standards in Rwanda. However, despite this aversion to standards, there are still intentions to promote the standardisation of latrine technologies and designs, led by national government in Rwanda and in other Sub-Saharan African countries. The contribution to knowledge of this research includes a decision process presented at the end of the study which can be used by decision makers who are interested in developing a standard for household latrines. The decision process acts as a tool for outlining how a standard can operate within the national sanitation system. This understanding provides decision makers with the basis for continuing the debate on what a well written standard looks like in the national context and supports the development of a standard that is fit for purpose and provides a positive contribution to the sector.

L’assainissement autonome (non raccordés à un système d’égout) est largement répandu dans les pays à faible revenu. Selon les estimations, 2.7 milliards de personnes seraient desservies principalement par des technologies d'assainissement individuelles, dont près de la moitié seraient situées en zones urbaines des pays en voie de développement (WWAP 2017). Or, l’ampleur de la couverture des installations sanitaires autonomes commence à poser de nombreux problèmes et défis techniques aux municipalités des régions concernées. En effet, l’augmentation croissante des fosses devant être vidangées, couplé aux manques d’organisation et de ressources, et à l’absence de connaissances précises sur les caractéristiques et les quantités de boues fécales générées, ne permettent pas actuellement d’assurer une vidange sécuritaire et de planifier la gestion efficace des boues fécales dans ces endroits. On estime ainsi que 74 % des fosses des installations sanitaires autonomes seront vidangées de façon non sécuritaire par année, c’est-à-dire que les boues fécales retirées seront déversées dans les cours d’eau ou terrains environnants sans traitement. Ainsi, dans la perspective d’organiser la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en voie de développement, il conviendrait d’améliorer les connaissances sur les taux de remplissage des latrines à fosse, ainsi que sur les données de caractérisation des boues fécales. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’améliorer la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en développement. Pour ce faire, une série d’expérimentations a été réalisée, s’attardant à des problématiques précises de caractérisation ou de quantification des boues fécales. De façon plus précise, la première étude (CHAPITRE 4) visait la modélisation du taux d’accumulation des boues fécales en utilisant une régression linéaire multiple. Les résultats obtenus revoient un modèle impliquant les valeurs du volume des fosses et de l’âge des latrines comme principale variables indépendantes. La valeur du coefficient de détermination (r2) qui a été obtenue est de r2 = 0.41. Ceci qui est légèrement supérieure à la valeur obtenue à l’aide du modèle de bilan de masse développé par Brouckaert et al. (2013), pour lequel seulement 50% des latrines étaient à moins de 40% d’erreurs. Par la suite, des travaux visant la caractérisation de l’effet inhibitif de l’azote ammoniacal sur la digestion anaérobie des boues fécales au sein des fosses ont été réalisés (CHAPITRE 5). L’objectif était de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle les fortes concentrations en azote au sein des fosses (causées par la présence d’urine) influenceraient les mécanismes de biodégradation, et conséquemment les taux d’accumulation. La méthodologie développée à d’abords été testée et validée avec des boues de digesteur anaérobie (provenant d’un réacteur complètement mélangé). Par ailleurs, le protocole développé n’a pas mené à des résultats concluants en utilisant des boues fécales. Effectivement, bien que plusieurs tests d’activité méthanogène spécifique (specific methanogenic activity - SMA) aient été réalisées (en changeant le ratio inoculum (boues)/substrat (acétate), et la durée), aucun des tests exécutés n’a démontré une production de méthane. À la lumière des résultats précédents (CHAPITRE 5), des travaux supplémentaires ont été réalisés visant à caractériser l’activité microbienne des boues fécales et de la matière fécale fraîche en termes des populations spécifiques à la digestion anaérobie (e.g. bactéries hydrolytiques et fermentatives, et méthanogènes méthylotrophes, acétoclastiques ou hydrogénotrophes) (CHAPITRE 6). Pour ce faire, la méthodologie utilisée consistait à mesurer la production de gaz (comme indicateur de l’activité microbienne) des échantillons de boues mélangés avec différents substrats spécifiques (e.i. acétate, méthanol, formate, glucose). Les résultats issus de cette étude ont démontré que l’utilisation des substrats de formate et de glucose présente l’activité microbienne la plus élevée lorsque mélangés avec une solution de matière fécale fraîche (soit de 112.17 et de 76.41 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le formate et le glucose, respectivement). ...
L’assainissement autonome (non raccordés à un système d’égout) est largement répandu dans les pays à faible revenu. Selon les estimations, 2.7 milliards de personnes seraient desservies principalement par des technologies d'assainissement individuelles, dont près de la moitié seraient situées en zones urbaines des pays en voie de développement (WWAP 2017). Or, l’ampleur de la couverture des installations sanitaires autonomes commence à poser de nombreux problèmes et défis techniques aux municipalités des régions concernées. En effet, l’augmentation croissante des fosses devant être vidangées, couplé aux manques d’organisation et de ressources, et à l’absence de connaissances précises sur les caractéristiques et les quantités de boues fécales générées, ne permettent pas actuellement d’assurer une vidange sécuritaire et de planifier la gestion efficace des boues fécales dans ces endroits. On estime ainsi que 74 % des fosses des installations sanitaires autonomes seront vidangées de façon non sécuritaire par année, c’est-à-dire que les boues fécales retirées seront déversées dans les cours d’eau ou terrains environnants sans traitement. Ainsi, dans la perspective d’organiser la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en voie de développement, il conviendrait d’améliorer les connaissances sur les taux de remplissage des latrines à fosse, ainsi que sur les données de caractérisation des boues fécales. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’améliorer la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en développement. Pour ce faire, une série d’expérimentations a été réalisée, s’attardant à des problématiques précises de caractérisation ou de quantification des boues fécales. De façon plus précise, la première étude (CHAPITRE 4) visait la modélisation du taux d’accumulation des boues fécales en utilisant une régression linéaire multiple. Les résultats obtenus revoient un modèle impliquant les valeurs du volume des fosses et de l’âge des latrines comme principale variables indépendantes. La valeur du coefficient de détermination (r2) qui a été obtenue est de r2 = 0.41. Ceci qui est légèrement supérieure à la valeur obtenue à l’aide du modèle de bilan de masse développé par Brouckaert et al. (2013), pour lequel seulement 50% des latrines étaient à moins de 40% d’erreurs. Par la suite, des travaux visant la caractérisation de l’effet inhibitif de l’azote ammoniacal sur la digestion anaérobie des boues fécales au sein des fosses ont été réalisés (CHAPITRE 5). L’objectif était de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle les fortes concentrations en azote au sein des fosses (causées par la présence d’urine) influenceraient les mécanismes de biodégradation, et conséquemment les taux d’accumulation. La méthodologie développée à d’abords été testée et validée avec des boues de digesteur anaérobie (provenant d’un réacteur complètement mélangé). Par ailleurs, le protocole développé n’a pas mené à des résultats concluants en utilisant des boues fécales. Effectivement, bien que plusieurs tests d’activité méthanogène spécifique (specific methanogenic activity - SMA) aient été réalisées (en changeant le ratio inoculum (boues)/substrat (acétate), et la durée), aucun des tests exécutés n’a démontré une production de méthane. À la lumière des résultats précédents (CHAPITRE 5), des travaux supplémentaires ont été réalisés visant à caractériser l’activité microbienne des boues fécales et de la matière fécale fraîche en termes des populations spécifiques à la digestion anaérobie (e.g. bactéries hydrolytiques et fermentatives, et méthanogènes méthylotrophes, acétoclastiques ou hydrogénotrophes) (CHAPITRE 6). Pour ce faire, la méthodologie utilisée consistait à mesurer la production de gaz (comme indicateur de l’activité microbienne) des échantillons de boues mélangés avec différents substrats spécifiques (e.i. acétate, méthanol, formate, glucose). Les résultats issus de cette étude ont démontré que l’utilisation des substrats de formate et de glucose présente l’activité microbienne la plus élevée lorsque mélangés avec une solution de matière fécale fraîche (soit de 112.17 et de 76.41 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le formate et le glucose, respectivement). Alors que l’utilisation des substrats de glucose et de méthanol ont résulté à l’activité la plus élevée avec des solutions de boues fécales plus âgées (soit de 129.15 et de 85.42 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le méthanol et le glucose, respectivement). Par ailleurs, une absence de l’activité méthanogène a été observé en utilisant de l’acétate comme substrat pour les deux types de boues. Ces résultats concordent avec la littérature, où des tests de séquençages d’ADN n’ont pas mené à l’identification des archaea méthanogènes acétoclasitques au sein d’échantillons de boues fécales issues de latrines à fosses (Byrne 2016, Torondel 2017). Les résultats issus de cette étude remettent donc en perspective la présence d’une digestion anaérobie acétoclastique au sein des fosses, hypothèse qui est largement présumée dans de nombreux guides de conception des latrines à fosses conventionnelles. Finalement la dernière étude constituait une étude préliminaire sur la caractérisation des propriétés de séchage de la matière fécale fraîche (CHAPITRE 7). Plus particulièrement par la détermination et par la modélisation des isothermes de sorption. Cette étude s’inscrit dans le cadre actuel où les techniques de séchage pour le transport efficient des boues gagnent en popularité, alors qu’un manque de données sur les propriétés des boues persiste. Ainsi, les résultats obtenus démontrent que les isothermes de sorption tendent à suivre une forme sigmoïde, laquelle est caractérisée par deux points d’inflexion de surface et une augmentation rapide de la teneur en eau à des valeurs d'humidité relative supérieures à 75 % HR.
L’assainissement autonome (non raccordés à un système d’égout) est largement répandu dans les pays à faible revenu. Selon les estimations, 2.7 milliards de personnes seraient desservies principalement par des technologies d'assainissement individuelles, dont près de la moitié seraient situées en zones urbaines des pays en voie de développement (WWAP 2017). Or, l’ampleur de la couverture des installations sanitaires autonomes commence à poser de nombreux problèmes et défis techniques aux municipalités des régions concernées. En effet, l’augmentation croissante des fosses devant être vidangées, couplé aux manques d’organisation et de ressources, et à l’absence de connaissances précises sur les caractéristiques et les quantités de boues fécales générées, ne permettent pas actuellement d’assurer une vidange sécuritaire et de planifier la gestion efficace des boues fécales dans ces endroits. On estime ainsi que 74 % des fosses des installations sanitaires autonomes seront vidangées de façon non sécuritaire par année, c’est-à-dire que les boues fécales retirées seront déversées dans les cours d’eau ou terrains environnants sans traitement. Ainsi, dans la perspective d’organiser la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en voie de développement, il conviendrait d’améliorer les connaissances sur les taux de remplissage des latrines à fosse, ainsi que sur les données de caractérisation des boues fécales. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’améliorer la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en développement. Pour ce faire, une série d’expérimentations a été réalisée, s’attardant à des problématiques précises de caractérisation ou de quantification des boues fécales. De façon plus précise, la première étude (CHAPITRE 4) visait la modélisation du taux d’accumulation des boues fécales en utilisant une régression linéaire multiple. Les résultats obtenus revoient un modèle impliquant les valeurs du volume des fosses et de l’âge des latrines comme principale variables indépendantes. La valeur du coefficient de détermination (r2) qui a été obtenue est de r2 = 0.41. Ceci qui est légèrement supérieure à la valeur obtenue à l’aide du modèle de bilan de masse développé par Brouckaert et al. (2013), pour lequel seulement 50% des latrines étaient à moins de 40% d’erreurs. Par la suite, des travaux visant la caractérisation de l’effet inhibitif de l’azote ammoniacal sur la digestion anaérobie des boues fécales au sein des fosses ont été réalisés (CHAPITRE 5). L’objectif était de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle les fortes concentrations en azote au sein des fosses (causées par la présence d’urine) influenceraient les mécanismes de biodégradation, et conséquemment les taux d’accumulation. La méthodologie développée à d’abords été testée et validée avec des boues de digesteur anaérobie (provenant d’un réacteur complètement mélangé). Par ailleurs, le protocole développé n’a pas mené à des résultats concluants en utilisant des boues fécales. Effectivement, bien que plusieurs tests d’activité méthanogène spécifique (specific methanogenic activity - SMA) aient été réalisées (en changeant le ratio inoculum (boues)/substrat (acétate), et la durée), aucun des tests exécutés n’a démontré une production de méthane. À la lumière des résultats précédents (CHAPITRE 5), des travaux supplémentaires ont été réalisés visant à caractériser l’activité microbienne des boues fécales et de la matière fécale fraîche en termes des populations spécifiques à la digestion anaérobie (e.g. bactéries hydrolytiques et fermentatives, et méthanogènes méthylotrophes, acétoclastiques ou hydrogénotrophes) (CHAPITRE 6). Pour ce faire, la méthodologie utilisée consistait à mesurer la production de gaz (comme indicateur de l’activité microbienne) des échantillons de boues mélangés avec différents substrats spécifiques (e.i. acétate, méthanol, formate, glucose). Les résultats issus de cette étude ont démontré que l’utilisation des substrats de formate et de glucose présente l’activité microbienne la plus élevée lorsque mélangés avec une solution de matière fécale fraîche (soit de 112.17 et de 76.41 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le formate et le glucose, respectivement). Alors que l’utilisation des substrats de glucose et de méthanol ont résulté à l’activité la plus élevée avec des solutions de boues fécales plus âgées (soit de 129.15 et de 85.42 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le méthanol et le glucose, respectivement). Par ailleurs, une absence de l’activité méthanogène a été observé en utilisant de l’acétate comme substrat pour les deux types de boues. Ces résultats concordent avec la littérature, où des tests de séquençages d’ADN n’ont pas mené à l’identification des archaea méthanogènes acétoclasitques au sein d’échantillons de boues fécales issues de latrines à fosses (Byrne 2016, Torondel 2017). Les résultats issus de cette étude remettent donc en perspective la présence d’une digestion anaérobie acétoclastique au sein des fosses, hypothèse qui est largement présumée dans de nombreux guides de conception des latrines à fosses conventionnelles. Finalement la dernière étude constituait une étude préliminaire sur la caractérisation des propriétés de séchage de la matière fécale fraîche (CHAPITRE 7). Plus particulièrement par la détermination et par la modélisation des isothermes de sorption. Cette étude s’inscrit dans le cadre actuel où les techniques de séchage pour le transport efficient des boues gagnent en popularité, alors qu’un manque de données sur les propriétés des boues persiste. Ainsi, les résultats obtenus démontrent que les isothermes de sorption tendent à suivre une forme sigmoïde, laquelle est caractérisée par deux points d’inflexion de surface et une augmentation rapide de la teneur en eau à des valeurs d'humidité relative supérieures à 75 % HR. D’une première part, ceci signifie que la teneur en eau de la matière fécale semblerait être plus facile à extraire jusqu'à une valeur d’environ 1 à 1.5g H2O/g d’échantillon - base humide. D’autre part, le modèle de Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) sembleraient être le plus approprié pour décrire les courbes d’isothermes, avec une estimation acceptable (Pr (>
347661\u L’assainissement autonome (non raccordés à un système d’égout) est largement répandu dans les pays à faible revenu. Selon les estimations, 2.7 milliards de personnes seraient desservies principalement par des technologies d'assainissement individuelles, dont près de la moitié seraient situées en zones urbaines des pays en voie de développement (WWAP 2017). Or, l’ampleur de la couverture des installations sanitaires autonomes commence à poser de nombreux problèmes et défis techniques aux municipalités des régions concernées. En effet, l’augmentation croissante des fosses devant être vidangées, couplé aux manques d’organisation et de ressources, et à l’absence de connaissances précises sur les caractéristiques et les quantités de boues fécales générées, ne permettent pas actuellement d’assurer une vidange sécuritaire et de planifier la gestion efficace des boues fécales dans ces endroits. On estime ainsi que 74 % des fosses des installations sanitaires autonomes seront vidangées de façon non sécuritaire par année, c’est-à-dire que les boues fécales retirées seront déversées dans les cours d’eau ou terrains environnants sans traitement. Ainsi, dans la perspective d’organiser la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en voie de développement, il conviendrait d’améliorer les connaissances sur les taux de remplissage des latrines à fosse, ainsi que sur les données de caractérisation des boues fécales. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’améliorer la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en développement. Pour ce faire, une série d’expérimentations a été réalisée, s’attardant à des problématiques précises de caractérisation ou de quantification des boues fécales. De façon plus précise, la première étude (CHAPITRE 4) visait la modélisation du taux d’accumulation des boues fécales en utilisant une régression linéaire multiple. Les résultats obtenus revoient un modèle impliquant les valeurs du volume des fosses et de l’âge des latrines comme principale variables indépendantes. La valeur du coefficient de détermination (r2) qui a été obtenue est de r2 = 0.41. Ceci qui est légèrement supérieure à la valeur obtenue à l’aide du modèle de bilan de masse développé par Brouckaert et al. (2013), pour lequel seulement 50% des latrines étaient à moins de 40% d’erreurs. Par la suite, des travaux visant la caractérisation de l’effet inhibitif de l’azote ammoniacal sur la digestion anaérobie des boues fécales au sein des fosses ont été réalisés (CHAPITRE 5). L’objectif était de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle les fortes concentrations en azote au sein des fosses (causées par la présence d’urine) influenceraient les mécanismes de biodégradation, et conséquemment les taux d’accumulation. La méthodologie développée à d’abords été testée et validée avec des boues de digesteur anaérobie (provenant d’un réacteur complètement mélangé). Par ailleurs, le protocole développé n’a pas mené à des résultats concluants en utilisant des boues fécales. Effectivement, bien que plusieurs tests d’activité méthanogène spécifique (specific methanogenic activity - SMA) aient été réalisées (en changeant le ratio inoculum (boues)/substrat (acétate), et la durée), aucun des tests exécutés n’a démontré une production de méthane. À la lumière des résultats précédents (CHAPITRE 5), des travaux supplémentaires ont été réalisés visant à caractériser l’activité microbienne des boues fécales et de la matière fécale fraîche en termes des populations spécifiques à la digestion anaérobie (e.g. bactéries hydrolytiques et fermentatives, et méthanogènes méthylotrophes, acétoclastiques ou hydrogénotrophes) (CHAPITRE 6). Pour ce faire, la méthodologie utilisée consistait à mesurer la production de gaz (comme indicateur de l’activité microbienne) des échantillons de boues mélangés avec différents substrats spécifiques (e.i. acétate, méthanol, formate, glucose). Les résultats issus de cette étude ont démontré que l’utilisation des substrats de formate et de glucose présente l’activité microbienne la plus élevée lorsque mélangés avec une solution de matière fécale fraîche (soit de 112.17 et de 76.41 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le formate et le glucose, respectivement). Alors que l’utilisation des substrats de glucose et de méthanol ont résulté à l’activité la plus élevée avec des solutions de boues fécales plus âgées (soit de 129.15 et de 85.42 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le méthanol et le glucose, respectivement). Par ailleurs, une absence de l’activité méthanogène a été observé en utilisant de l’acétate comme substrat pour les deux types de boues. Ces résultats concordent avec la littérature, où des tests de séquençages d’ADN n’ont pas mené à l’identification des archaea méthanogènes acétoclasitques au sein d’échantillons de boues fécales issues de latrines à fosses (Byrne 2016, Torondel 2017). Les résultats issus de cette étude remettent donc en perspective la présence d’une digestion anaérobie acétoclastique au sein des fosses, hypothèse qui est largement présumée dans de nombreux guides de conception des latrines à fosses conventionnelles. Finalement la dernière étude constituait une étude préliminaire sur la caractérisation des propriétés de séchage de la matière fécale fraîche (CHAPITRE 7).
347661\u L’assainissement autonome (non raccordés à un système d’égout) est largement répandu dans les pays à faible revenu. Selon les estimations, 2.7 milliards de personnes seraient desservies principalement par des technologies d'assainissement individuelles, dont près de la moitié seraient situées en zones urbaines des pays en voie de développement (WWAP 2017). Or, l’ampleur de la couverture des installations sanitaires autonomes commence à poser de nombreux problèmes et défis techniques aux municipalités des régions concernées. En effet, l’augmentation croissante des fosses devant être vidangées, couplé aux manques d’organisation et de ressources, et à l’absence de connaissances précises sur les caractéristiques et les quantités de boues fécales générées, ne permettent pas actuellement d’assurer une vidange sécuritaire et de planifier la gestion efficace des boues fécales dans ces endroits. On estime ainsi que 74 % des fosses des installations sanitaires autonomes seront vidangées de façon non sécuritaire par année, c’est-à-dire que les boues fécales retirées seront déversées dans les cours d’eau ou terrains environnants sans traitement. Ainsi, dans la perspective d’organiser la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en voie de développement, il conviendrait d’améliorer les connaissances sur les taux de remplissage des latrines à fosse, ainsi que sur les données de caractérisation des boues fécales. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’améliorer la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en développement. Pour ce faire, une série d’expérimentations a été réalisée, s’attardant à des problématiques précises de caractérisation ou de quantification des boues fécales. De façon plus précise, la première étude (CHAPITRE 4) visait la modélisation du taux d’accumulation des boues fécales en utilisant une régression linéaire multiple. Les résultats obtenus revoient un modèle impliquant les valeurs du volume des fosses et de l’âge des latrines comme principale variables indépendantes. La valeur du coefficient de détermination (r2) qui a été obtenue est de r2 = 0.41. Ceci qui est légèrement supérieure à la valeur obtenue à l’aide du modèle de bilan de masse développé par Brouckaert et al. (2013), pour lequel seulement 50% des latrines étaient à moins de 40% d’erreurs. Par la suite, des travaux visant la caractérisation de l’effet inhibitif de l’azote ammoniacal sur la digestion anaérobie des boues fécales au sein des fosses ont été réalisés (CHAPITRE 5). L’objectif était de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle les fortes concentrations en azote au sein des fosses (causées par la présence d’urine) influenceraient les mécanismes de biodégradation, et conséquemment les taux d’accumulation. La méthodologie développée à d’abords été testée et validée avec des boues de digesteur anaérobie (provenant d’un réacteur complètement mélangé). Par ailleurs, le protocole développé n’a pas mené à des résultats concluants en utilisant des boues fécales. Effectivement, bien que plusieurs tests d’activité méthanogène spécifique (specific methanogenic activity - SMA) aient été réalisées (en changeant le ratio inoculum (boues)/substrat (acétate), et la durée), aucun des tests exécutés n’a démontré une production de méthane. À la lumière des résultats précédents (CHAPITRE 5), des travaux supplémentaires ont été réalisés visant à caractériser l’activité microbienne des boues fécales et de la matière fécale fraîche en termes des populations spécifiques à la digestion anaérobie (e.g. bactéries hydrolytiques et fermentatives, et méthanogènes méthylotrophes, acétoclastiques ou hydrogénotrophes) (CHAPITRE 6). Pour ce faire, la méthodologie utilisée consistait à mesurer la production de gaz (comme indicateur de l’activité microbienne) des échantillons de boues mélangés avec différents substrats spécifiques (e.i. acétate, méthanol, formate, glucose). Les résultats issus de cette étude ont démontré que l’utilisation des substrats de formate et de glucose présente l’activité microbienne la plus élevée lorsque mélangés avec une solution de matière fécale fraîche (soit de 112.17 et de 76.41 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le formate et le glucose, respectivement). Alors que l’utilisation des substrats de glucose et de méthanol ont résulté à l’activité la plus élevée avec des solutions de boues fécales plus âgées (soit de 129.15 et de 85.42 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le méthanol et le glucose, respectivement). Par ailleurs, une absence de l’activité méthanogène a été observé en utilisant de l’acétate comme substrat pour les deux types de boues. Ces résultats concordent avec la littérature, où des tests de séquençages d’ADN n’ont pas mené à l’identification des archaea méthanogènes acétoclasitques au sein d’échantillons de boues fécales issues de latrines à fosses (Byrne 2016, Torondel 2017). Les résultats issus de cette étude remettent donc en perspective la présence d’une digestion anaérobie acétoclastique au sein des fosses, hypothèse qui est largement présumée dans de nombreux guides de conception des latrines à fosses conventionnelles. Finalement la dernière étude constituait une étude préliminaire sur la caractérisation des propriétés de séchage de la matière fécale fraîche (CHAPITRE 7). Plus particulièrement par la détermination et par la modélisation des isothermes de sorption. Cette étude s’inscrit dans le cadre actuel où les techniques de séchage pour le transport efficient des boues gagnent en popularité, alors qu’un manque de données sur les propriétés des boues persiste. Ainsi, les résultats obtenus démontrent que les isothermes de sorption tendent à suivre une forme sigmoïde, laquelle est caractérisée par deux points d’inflexion de surface et une augmentation rapide de la teneur en eau à des valeurs d'humidité relative supérieures à 75 % HR. D’une première part, ceci signifie que la teneur en eau de la matière fécale semblerait être plus facile à extraire jusqu'à une valeur d’environ 1 à 1.5g H2O/g d’échantillon - base humide. D’autre part, le modèle de Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) sembleraient être le plus approprié pour décrire les courbes d’isothermes, avec une estimation acceptable (Pr (>

A large and growing proportion of the world’s population rely on shared sanitation facilities. These have historically been excluded from international sanitation targets due to concerns about acceptability, hygiene and access. With the development of new targets and indicators for the Sustainable Development Goals, it has been proposed to include shared facilities as ‘improved’ sanitation based on the number of users, if the facility is of an ‘improved’ technology and if the users are known to each other. The aim of this research was threefold: i) to provide an overview of the available evidence on shared sanitation and outcomes related to health, access, use, operation and maintenance, gender and cost, ii) to describe the geographic and demographic scope of shared sanitation globally, and iii) to develop and pilot methods exploring factors that may explain any increased risk of adverse health outcomes associated with shared sanitation. Results from a systematic literature review on shared sanitation and health showed that households accessing shared sanitation facilities were more likely to suffer from ill-health, specifically diarrhoea. However, the methodological quality of the available studies was limited. The global analysis of household survey data showed that households sharing sanitation facilities were poorer, less educated and more likely to live in urban areas. The majority of households accessing shared sanitation were found in Africa and South-East Asia. The results from the literature review and household survey data led to the development of a cross-sectional study in Orissa, India. This study aimed to assess differences in shared and private sanitation access in 30 slums—both in terms of the users and the actual facilities. Results from this study show that households accessing shared sanitation were poorer, less educated and less likely to have water access in or near their home. In addition, significant differences in terms of cleanliness and presence of water were observed between private and shared facilities. Users of shared sanitation were more likely to continue practicing open defecation and significantly more cases of diarrhoea were reported by individuals living in these households. The underlying reasons for this potential increased risk of disease for users of shared sanitation are not clear, but the type of users, cleanliness of facilities and opportunities to practice good hygiene are all expected to play a role. As such, these factors may also be of importance, in addition to the number of users and sanitation technology, if a shared sanitation facility is expected to be considered ‘improved’ sanitation in future monitoring targets.

Access to appropriate sanitation facilities as well as access to clean drinking water are considered fundamental human rights (Carr, 2001; Bjorklund & Sjodin, 2010), yet roughly 2.5 billion people on the planet lack access to an improved form of sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2014). Additionally, many entities responsible for emergency excreta management and sanitation management design guidelines, specifically solids accumulation rates in latrine pits, use rates that are 30-60 years old and may be established from dated knowledge on diet and lifestyle trends (Franceys et al., 1992; Harvey et al., 2002; Harvey, 2007). Using solids accumulation rates that are dated as well as non-local can lead to under design of latrine pits (latrine pits fill faster than expected and designed) or over design of latrine pits (resources and materials are over used in construction and design). Previous research showed that solids accumulation rates in pit latrines ranged from 18 L/person/year to 70 L/person/year though no accumulation rates have been reported for schools. The reported differences in solids accumulation rates were found to depend largely on local user rates and behaviors, the amount of material added to the latrine (both organic and inorganic matter), and the porosity of the soil surrounding the pit. Wood (2013) suggested that solid waste could compose 10-40% of waste accumulated in a pit. Furthermore, fecal generation rates of individuals were also found to differ by country, region and individual (Franceys et al., 1992). An assessment of several methods for measuring accumulation rates was also performed. It was determined that the laser distance meter technique, as well as the use of a graduated metal rod were the best two ways to determine slab to pit content depths in rural communities. Compared to other methods, such as the stereographic imaging technique, and the automated laser scanner technique, the laser distance meter technique and the use of a graduated rod require less expertise and do not require camera and computer resources. This study also developed a method to assess solids accumulation rates of latrines at three rural schools in Saclepea City, Nimba County, Liberia. Depth measurements were taken from the latrine slab to the surface of the pit contents from early May 2014 until mid-June 2014. The accumulation rates were found to be extremely similar for each latrine for all measurements taken, with differences in depth of only 1-3 cm observed over the six-week measurement period. Little research was identified on the effects of feminine waste on solids accumulation rates in latrines and no literature was found concerning the effects of feminine excretions on the degradation of pit contents. More research is thus needed to assess the possible effects the addition of menstrual blood and menstrual excretions can have on degradation rates as well as the lifespan of viruses and other infectious agents in pit contents and the surrounding soil. This is particularly important with the presence of contaminated wastes from victims of Ebola Virus Disease being disposed of in latrines and other sanitation infrastructure in rural areas of West Africa.

At the end of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) period in 2015, 2.3 billion people, 31% of the global population, still did not have access to even basic sanitation services. Of these people, 892 million still practice open defecation, and 856 million people use unimproved facilities such as pit latrines without a slab or platform or hanging latrines or bucket latrines (JMP 2017). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 6.2 now aims to achieve adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and sets the ambitious target of eradicating open defecation by 2030. While the number of people open defecating was reduced from 1229 million to 892 million between 2000 and 2015, that pace must accelerate to be achieved (JMP, 2017). In Panama, it is estimated that countrywide sanitation coverage is 71%, and rural coverage 54% (WHO/UNICEF, 2013). Even so, in indigenous areas like the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé, only 25% of the population has adequate access to basic sanitation (ANAM, 2006). This research builds upon the research presented in (Hurtado, 2005, Kaiser, 2006, Mehl, 2008, and Wilbur, 2014). These theses researched double vault urine diverting (DVUD) latrines, or composting latrines, in indigenous communities in the province of Bocas del Toro and the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé in Panama. Hurtado, Kaiser, and Mehl researched the design, construction, and pathogen destruction capabilities of composting latrines. Wilbur studied how human attitudes and perceptions serve as incentives or barriers to composting latrine use. In this research surveys, interviews, and observations were recorded in 6 indigenous Ngäbe communities in Bocas del Toro and the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé. The study quantifies usage of ventilated improved pit (VIP) and basic pit latrines in these communities, assesses positive and negative perceptions of composting latrines, and determines perceptions of feces and the reuse of composted human excrement. The results reveal that of n=103 latrines 88.3% were completed and in use, but only 35.2% were properly covered. To promote proper usage of latrines, continued education and trainings need to be carried out in these communities. Respondents were also favorable to the use of composting latrines, with 61.2% of respondents saying they would be interested in building a composting latrine for their households. The main perceived benefit of composting latrines is the compost, and the most identified barrier to use was lack of prior experience. Other main barriers included user disgust and the amount of work it takes to own and operate the latrine. There were more identified incentives (12) than barriers (11) to composting latrine adoption. Respondents also reported they would react more favorably to their neighbor implementing the technology and using compost than their neighbor would react should the respondent do the same thing. These results indicate the importance of pilot projects in communities, allowing people to see the benefits of the technology and how it works before implementing a larger scale project. These projects would also reduce the stigma associated with being a first adopter. Statistical analysis revealed that the demographics of community, sanitation classification, gender, and primary occupation were significantly linked to survey statements used to measure perceptions on composting latrine use and the use of composted human excrement as a fertilizer. Age, gender, and household size were not found to have a statistically significant link to user perceptions on the same survey statements. Logistic regression analysis was then performed using SPSS statistical analysis software (version 24). The results of this research indicate the importance of setting up follow up trainings as many respondents had forgotten how to properly maintain their latrines. It also suggests the setup of pilot projects for composting latrines, as many respondents were favorable to the technology but did not want to try to own and operate a composting latrine without seeing a successful composting latrine first.

Over seventy percent of the 2.5 billion people who still lack access to basic sanitation worldwide live in rural areas (WHO/UNICEF, 2012). Despite concerns of water scarcity, resource depletion, and climate change little research has been conducted on the environmental sustainability of household sanitation technologies common in rural areas of developing countries or the potential of resource recovery to mitigate the environmental impacts of these systems. The environmental sustainability, in terms of embodied energy and carbon footprint, was analyzed for four household sanitation systems: (1) Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine, (2) pour-flush latrine, (3) composting latrine, and (4) biodigester latrine. Variations in design and construction materials used change the embodied energy of the systems. It was found that systems that used clay brick in the construction of the superstructure had an average cumulative energy demand 4,307 MJ and a global warming potential 362 kilograms of greenhouse gas equivalent (kgCO2 eq) higher than systems that used adobe brick in the construction of the superstructure. It was also found that systems that incorporate resource recovery, such as a composting or biodigester latrine, can become net energy producers over their service life, recovering between 29,333 and 253,190 MJ over a 20-year period, compared to the 11,275 to 19,990 MJ required for their construction and maintenance. Recovering the resources from the waste also significantly lowered the global warming potential of these systems from 2,079-49,655 kgCO2 eq to 616-1,882 kgCO2 eq; significantly less than the global warming potential of VIP latrine or pour-flush latrines (8,642-15,789 kgCO2 eq). In addition, two community wastewater treatment systems that serve 420-1,039 individuals considered in a similar study had a higher cumulative energy demand per household (44,869 MJ and 38,403 MJ) than the household sanitation systems (11,275-19,990 MJ). The community wastewater treatment systems had a lower global warming potential (2019-2,092 kgCO2 eq) than household systems that did not recover resources (8,642-15,789 kg CO2 eq), but higher than household systems that incorporate resource recovery (616-1,882 kgCO2 eq). The goal of this study is to provide insight to policy makers in the development field to promote decision making based on environmental sustainability in the implementation of improved sanitation coverage in rural areas of developing countries.

On-site sanitation solutions are an economically feasible method of improving sanitation, and for reducing the burden of diarrhoeal diseases, in low- and middle-income countries. However, suitable faecal sludge management (FSM) solutions are severely lacking in these countries. Black solider fly larvae (BSFL) efficiently reduce food-waste and animal manure, and produce valuable prepupae, high in protein and fat, supporting investigation into a novel BSFL FSM method. The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility of using BSFL as a FSM method, by evaluating their faecal matter reduction (FMR), and prepupal production capacity, when reared on FS under different conditions. Black soldier fly larvae were found to develop successfully on fresh human faeces, effectively reducing waste and converting it to prepupal biomass. A survey of pit latrines in South Africa found physical and chemical characteristics of faecal sludge (FS) similar to previous studies in countries requiring novel FSM methods, with characteristics falling within a range suitable for BSFL development. Key rearing parameters, moisture content, feeding rate, and larval density, significantly influence FMR and prepupal production of BSFL reared on “top layer” homogenised FS. Black soldier fly larvae were found to effectively reduce FS from a variety of depths, each with a range of physical and chemical characteristics, and produce prepupae with nutritious values comparable to previous research, excepting crude fats. The study also demonstrated that reported cleaning chemicals in FS do not affect BSFL mortality at manufacturer recommended, or user reported concentrations. It is proposed that the use of a novel BSFL FSM method is an economically feasible method of improving sanitation in low- and middle-income countries, and may help reduce the burden of diarrhoeal diseases.

This thesis has three objectives as follows: 1) to investigate VIP latrine design and establish if the communal school VIP latrines located on the shared campus of Tubman Wilson Institute (TWI) Junior and Senior High School and J.C. Barlee Elementary School were properly designed and constructed, 2) to explore the user preferences and motivations impacting the adoption of these school latrines, and 3) to develop a framework for factors that influence latrine adoption. These goals were formed by the author in response to her Peace Corps experience working at a high school in Zwedru, Liberia from August 2012 to August 2014 and her personal background in appropriate sanitation and environmental engineering. To complete the first thesis objective, the author conducted a detailed literature review and then compared accepted guidelines for VIP latrines to the sanitation facilities located on the TWI campus. The literature review investigated proper design of ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines, school sanitation guidelines, and recommendations for sanitation in Liberia. The research focus latrines were two blocks of six stall multicompartment alternating twin-pit VIP latrines. The author conducted observations of the communal school latrines in order to compare the design and construction of these specific latrines to accepted criteria and recommendations from literature. It was found that the latrine vent pipes, cover slabs, drop holes, and pit design all appear to be designed and constructed per national Liberian and international recommendations. However, the TWI school latrines do not comply with standards for several other latrine design criteria. The latrine superstructures are built with privacy walls located in front of the boys’ and girls’ stalls and the entranceway doors do not have air gaps. These two features may impair critical odor-controlling air flow from the superstructure through the pit and out the vent pipe. The siting of the school latrines is also inconsistent with guidelines as the latrines are located too close to the classroom building and to the school’s water pump. Finally, the ratio of people to latrines on the shared TWI/J.C. Barlee campus is higher than the recommendation of 20-40 students per latrine, or when necessary 60 students per latrine. The second research objective was to investigate user perceptions of the communal latrines and identify factors that motivate latrine adoption on the Liberian school campus. The design deficiencies identified in the evaluation of thesis objective one were found to impact the user preferences regarding the school latrines. This is apparent from user comments in the surveys that were conducted with 709 participants (students from grades four to twelve, administrators, faculty, and staff) at the study site. User perceptions of the cleanliness, safety, and comfort of the school facilities were varied. For example, 51% of total respondents (n = 709) expressed that the school latrines were dirty or very dirty, while 48% claimed the latrines were clean or very clean. When asked about the safety of the communal latrines, 52% of survey participants said the sanitation facilities were not safe or very unsafe; 47% asserted that the latrines were safe or very safe. Survey participants also had mixed responses about the comfort of the communal sanitation technology: 51% of the 709 survey participants stated that the latrines were not comfortable or very uncomfortable, while 46% declared the facilities were comfortable or very comfortable. The open-ended survey questions allowed respondents to comment on positive and negative aspects of the communal school VIP latrines. Again answers included various responses, but several key themes arose, including smell and odor, latrine construction components, presence of feces in and around the latrines, the use of the facilities by outside community members, and health impacts of latrine use. The final thesis objective was to develop a framework of the factors that impact adoption of communal school latrines. The author originally assumed that user preferences and latrine adoption were directly correlated, but survey results suggest that the two factors may be independently influenced. This is based on the usage rates, 77% total survey participants stating that they use the latrines and 88% of these affirmative respondents explaining that they use the latrines daily, multiple times a week, or weekly. Although these adoption rates are quite high, satisfaction rates for latrine cleanliness, safety, and comfort are merely 50%, as previously described. VIP latrine design factors, like odor control and door construction, and communal sanitation facility characteristics, such as operation and maintenance, may prompt latrine adoption. Individual user traits, such as age, gender, and type and availability of household sanitation technology appear to have a lesser impact on latrine adoption. However, the grade level of the student respondents may have played a role in their responses because of the methods in which the survey was administered and the common practice of cheating. Additional research should be conducted to further understand the factors that impact the adoption of communal sanitation facilities on school campuses. This study accomplished its three main research objectives, yet further research and practical applications must be applied to improve school sanitation in Liberia and worldwide.

Engineers are exploring a new paradigm in wastewater treatment; focus is shifting to the recovery and reuse of energy, water, and nutrients. Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) technologies, which allow for this recovery and reuse, are an environmentally sound option for the future of sanitation. While the technology to achieve this goal of recovery and reuse exists, a limiting factor is user attitudes and perceptions. Social sciences, especially anthropology, can and should inform engineering projects to ensure socio-cultural sustainability. Since 2003, rural indigenous Ngäbe communities in Panama have been implementing ecological sanitation projects, mainly double vault urine diverting (DVUD) latrines known as composting latrines. With the help of governmental agencies and the Peace Corps, over 200 of these latrines have been built across the province of Bocas del Toro and the ñÖ Kribu region of the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé. To this point, little monitoring and evaluation has taken place in these communities. Interviews and observations in 23 communities throughout this coastal region revealed that 70.6% of composting latrines constructed (n = 201) were completed and 71.8 % of the completed composting latrines (n = 142) are still in use. Based on observations, 65% of the latrines in use were determined to be used properly, which translates to the proper use of 45.8% of the completed latrines. To promote composting latrine adoption, social marketing and pilot latrine projects can be employed, and to improve the percentage of properly used composting latrines, education campaigns can be deployed as follow up. Utilizing suggestions made in recent literature as guidelines for the proper application of compost, analysis showed that new training messages have not reached the communities with older composting latrines. Informal interviews in 18 communities identified compost production, the lack of mosquitoes and flies, and the lack of odor as the most frequently mentioned advantages. With respect to the disadvantages, the inability to use water for anal cleansing was the most frequently mentioned disadvantage. In three communities, informal interviews and 124 surveys were used to characterize the perceptions of Ngäbes regarding feces and their use of composted human excrement as a soil amendment in agriculture. In general, the responses reflected perceptions that show no strong barrier to the operation and maintenance of composting latrines. Utilizing the Fisher's exact test and Kruskal-Wallis test, the community, sanitation classification, gender, primary occupation, and age all showed some level of association with the perceptions expressed in the survey responses. Filo Verde was more likely to respond with perceptions accepting of composting latrine use, while San San Puente was more likely to respond with "don't know" or with perceptions objecting to composting latrine use. At times, up to 37.9% of the respondents responded with negative perceptions; thus, evaluations of perceptions prior to the implementation stage are still beneficial. One discrepancy existed between the overall majority and the composting latrine user majority; 56.5% of the 124 respondents perceived the handling of human excrement as a great health risk, whereas 59.1% of the 22 composting latrine users did not. As expected, the composting latrine users responses represent the positive perceptions of feces and their reuse, but pit latrine owners were most likely to respond with perceptions contrary to those indicative of proper composting latrine behavior. Overall, males were more likely to agree with the perceptions related to composting latrine use. Regarding primary occupations, farmers consistently replied with more favorable perceptions of feces and their use as a soil amendment, while banana company workers showed more dissidence. Additionally, older participants gave responses reflecting favorable perceptions of composting latrines more than younger participants. Finally, education and household size do not have any statistically significant associations with the perceptions reflected in the survey responses.

ABSTRACT Background: Little studies have examined biopsychosocial factors associated with Hepatitis A. The purpose of this study was to biopsychosocial determinants of hepatitis a outbreaks in Pacitan, East Java. Subjects and Method: A case-control study was conducted in Pacitan, East Java, from January to February 2020. A sample of 200 adults was selected by fixed disease sampling, including (1) 50 Hepatitis A patients (case), and (2) 150 non Hepatitis A patients (control). The dependent variable was Hepatitis A. The independent variables were age, education, income, history of Hepatitis A vaccination, hand wash behavior, eating behavior, clean water availability, and latrine availability. The data were collected by questionnaire and analyzed by a multiple logistic regression. Results: The risk of Hepatitis A decreased with age ≥40 years old (b= -2.89; 95% CI= -4.46 to -1.31; p<0.001), high education (b= -1.95; 95% CI= -3.56 to -0.33; p= 0.018), high income (b= -1.93; 95% CI= -3.60 to -0.26; p= 0.023), and had Hepatitis A immunization (b= -2.60; 95% CI= -5.03 to -0.17; p= 0.036). The risk of Hepatitis A increased with poor washing hands behavior (b= 1.66; 95% CI= 0.28 to 3.05; p= 0.019), unhygienic eating behavior (b= 2.27; 95% CI= 0.88 to 3.66; p= 0.001), poor sanitation water (b= 3.12; 95% CI= 1.70 to 4.54; p<0.001), and latrine availability (b= 1.56; 95% CI= 0.35 to 2.78; p= 0.012). Conclusion: The risk of Hepatitis A decreases with age ≥40 years old, high education, high income, and had Hepatitis A immunization. The risk of Hepatitis A increases with poor washing hands behavior, unhygienic eating behavior, poor sanitation water, and latrine availability. Keywords: biopsychosocial determinants, Hepatitis A Correspondence: Sugeng Retyono. Masters Program in Public Health, Universitas Sebelas Maret. Jl. Ir. Utami 36A, Surakarta 57126, Central Java. Email: sugengretyono@gmail.com. Mobile: +6287758732030. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26911/the7thicph.01.38