Academic literature on the topic 'Lankford'

Accurate prediction of springback is increasingly required during deep-drawing formation of anisotropic stainless steel sheets. The anisotropy of sheet thickness direction is very important for predicting the springback and final shape of a workpiece. The effect of Lankford coefficients (r00, r45, r90) with different angles on springback was investigated using numerical simulation and experiments. The results show that the Lankford coefficients with different angles each have a different influence on springback. The diameter of the straight wall of the cylinder along the 45-degree direction decreased after springback, and showed a concave valley shape. The Lankford coefficient r90 had the greatest effect on the bottom ground springback, followed by r45 and then r00. A correlation was established between the springback of workpiece and Lankford coefficients. The experimental springback values were obtained by using a coordinate-measuring machine and showed good agreement with the numerical simulation results.

It is known that metallic materials are characterized by anisotropy of their mechanical properties, with this being attributed to the conditions during the manufacturing process. For sheet metals, this anisotropy occurs symmetrically to the three orthogonal axes of the rolling, transverse and normal direction. This characteristic is referred to as orthotropic behaviour and manifests itself, for example, in earing during cupping tests. Therefore, orthotropic yield criteria are highly relevant for the numerical simulation of sheet metal forming processes. The Lankford coefficient, also known as the r-value, is a good experimental measure for characterizing orthotropic ductile behaviour of sheets, and can easily aid in parameter identification for yield criteria such as the Hill approaches. In the present investigations, Lankford coefficients were determined as a function of local strain in uniaxial tensile tests through high-resolution digital image correlation. The sample direction was varied between 0°, 45° and 90° to the rolling direction and the test temperature varied from RT to 350 °C at three different strain rates (0.01-1 s-1). By means of a novel backward analysis, the measuring range for the Lankford coefficients was positioned exactly in the necking area. An increase in temperatures showed a decrease in the initial Lankford coefficient. The results showed non-constant Lankford coefficients and commence the course of a natural exponential function depending on the local strain. Regardless of strain rate, the results revealed that the Lankford coefficients (r-values) at 150 °C, 250 °C and 350 °C approaches a steady-state of r = 1.14 with strains greater than 50 %.

Numerical process design leads to cost and time savings in sheet metal forming processes. Therefore, a modeling of the material behavior is required to map the flow properties of sheet metal. For the identification of current yield criteria, the yield strength and the hardening behavior as well as the Lankford coefficients are taken into account. By considering the anisotropy as a function of rolling direction and stress state, the prediction quality of anisotropic materials is improved by a more accurate modeling of the yield locus curve. According to the current state of the art, the layer compression test is used to determine the corresponding Lankford coefficient for the biaxial tensile stress state. However, the test setup and the test procedure is quite challenging compared to other tests for the material characterization. Due to this, the test is only of limited suitability if only the Lankford coefficient has to be determined. In this contribution, a simplified test is presented. It is a reduction of the layer compression test to one single sheet layer. So the Lankford coefficient for the biaxial tensile stress state can be analyzed with a significantly lower test effort. The results prove the applicability of the proposed test for an easy and time efficient characterization of the biaxial Lankford coefficient.

The nexus of human rights (HR) and finance has gained increased attention in recent years, particularly since the UN Human Rights Council's adoption of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in 2011. This article argues that human rights can and should be integrated in financing (“an integrative approach”), and proposes an approach based on five elements: (1) defining human rights considerations in explicit terms; (2) explaining the challenge we are confronted with in attempting to integrate human rights into financing; (3) articulating a justification for such integration; (4) identifying the nature and source of the applicable norms and human rights obligation to be integrated; and (5) outlining an applicable methodology and a practical operational approach.

Dependendo da direÃÃo em que sÃo medidas, algumas propriedades dos materiais policristalinos se apresentam diferenciadas. Isso se deve a existÃncia de textura, ou seja, direÃÃes preferenciais dos cristais no material. Esta caracterÃstica pode ser decorrente da solidificaÃÃo de um processo de deformaÃÃo plÃstica ou de um tratamento tÃrmico. A textura em materiais metÃlicos influencia nas propriedades dos mesmos tanto de uma maneira benÃfica quanto malÃfica. Na estampagem de um disco para fabricaÃÃo de um copo usado em armazenagem de refrigerantes tanto pode se destacar o efeito malÃfico, que seria a formaÃÃo de orelhas e o afinamento das regiÃes laterais adjacentes ao fundo do copo, como o efeito benÃfico, que seria o aumento da resistÃncia na direÃÃo perpendicular ao plano da chapa minimizando a possibilidade de ruptura pela reduÃÃo da espessura causada pelo processo de estampagem. Neste trabalho foi feito um estudo da relaÃÃo entre a textura cristalogrÃfica, os coeficientes de anisotropia e o grau de estampabilidade para o caso de um aÃo baixo-carbono, cuja principal aplicaÃÃo à na fabricaÃÃo de botijÃes para gÃs de cozinha, nas condiÃÃes de laminaÃÃo em temperaturas entre 600ÂC e 900ÂC. Os resultados foram comparados com os de um aÃo com baixÃssimo teor de carbono utilizado na estampagem profunda de latas para armazenagem de refrigerantes. A textura cristalogrÃfica foi determinada a partir das funÃÃes de distribuiÃÃo de orientaÃÃo cristalogrÃfica calculadas a partir de 3 figuras de pÃlos obtidas por difraÃÃo de raios-x. Os coeficientes de anisotropia mÃdia (rm) e planar (r) foram determinados a partir dos coeficientes de Lankford na direÃÃo de laminaÃÃo, a 45o desta e na direÃÃo transversal a mesma. O grau de estampabilidade foi obtido por meio de ensaios de embutimento Erichsen modificado, que relaciona a profundidade de estampagem com a espessura da chapa. As anÃlises de textura nos aÃos laminados em temperaturas entre 600ÂC e 900ÂC, apresentaram resultados compatÃveis com os de um aÃo usado na estampagem profunda de latas para armazenagem de refrigerantes. Os coeficientes de anisotropia mÃdia (rm) e planar (r), apresentaram valores satisfatÃrios de acordo com a exigÃncia para a mesma aplicaÃÃo. O grau de estampabilidade da maioria das amostras de chapas de aÃo laminadas em temperaturas entre 600ÂC e 900ÂC, mostrou-se adequado para a fabricaÃÃo das latas que servem como recipiente de armazenamento de refrigerantes.
Dependendo da direÃÃo em que sÃo medidas, algumas propriedades dos materiais policristalinos se apresentam diferenciadas. Isso se deve a existÃncia de textura, ou seja, direÃÃes preferenciais dos cristais no material. Esta caracterÃstica pode ser decorrente da solidificaÃÃo de um processo de deformaÃÃo plÃstica ou de um tratamento tÃrmico. A textura em materiais metÃlicos influencia nas propriedades dos mesmos tanto de uma maneira benÃfica quanto malÃfica. Na estampagem de um disco para fabricaÃÃo de um copo usado em armazenagem de refrigerantes tanto pode se destacar o efeito malÃfico, que seria a formaÃÃo de orelhas e o afinamento das regiÃes laterais adjacentes ao fundo do copo, como o efeito benÃfico, que seria o aumento da resistÃncia na direÃÃo perpendicular ao plano da chapa minimizando a possibilidade de ruptura pela reduÃÃo da espessura causada pelo processo de estampagem. Neste trabalho foi feito um estudo da relaÃÃo entre a textura cristalogrÃfica, os coeficientes de anisotropia e o grau de estampabilidade para o caso de um aÃo baixo-carbono, cuja principal aplicaÃÃo à na fabricaÃÃo de botijÃes para gÃs de cozinha, nas condiÃÃes de laminaÃÃo em temperaturas entre 600ÂC e 900ÂC. Os resultados foram comparados com os de um aÃo com baixÃssimo teor de carbono utilizado na estampagem profunda de latas para armazenagem de refrigerantes. A textura cristalogrÃfica foi determinada a partir das funÃÃes de distribuiÃÃo de orientaÃÃo cristalogrÃfica calculadas a partir de 3 figuras de pÃlos obtidas por difraÃÃo de raios-x. Os coeficientes de anisotropia mÃdia (rm) e planar (r) foram determinados a partir dos coeficientes de Lankford na direÃÃo de laminaÃÃo, a 45o desta e na direÃÃo transversal a mesma. O grau de estampabilidade foi obtido por meio de ensaios de embutimento Erichsen modificado, que relaciona a profundidade de estampagem com a espessura da chapa. As anÃlises de textura nos aÃos laminados em temperaturas entre 600ÂC e 900ÂC, apresentaram resultados compatÃveis com os de um aÃo usado na estampagem profunda de latas para armazenagem de refrigerantes. Os coeficientes de anisotropia mÃdia (rm) e planar (r), apresentaram valores satisfatÃrios de acordo com a exigÃncia para a mesma aplicaÃÃo. O grau de estampabilidade da maioria das amostras de chapas de aÃo laminadas em temperaturas entre 600ÂC e 900ÂC, mostrou-se adequado para a fabricaÃÃo das latas que servem como recipiente de armazenamento de refrigerantes.
Depending on which direction are measured, some properties of polycrystalline materials are presented differentiated. This is due to the existence of texture, or preferential directions of the crystals in the material. This feature may be due to solidification of a process of plastic deformation and heat treatment. The texture of metallic materials influences the properties of them both in a beneficial way as evil. In the printing of a hard to manufacture a glass of soda used in storage can either highlight the harmful effect, which would be the formation of ears and thinning of the lateral regions adjacent to the bottom of the glass, as the beneficial effect, which would be increased resistance in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the plate while minimizing the possibility of rupture by the thickness reduction caused by the embossing process. This work was used to study the relationship between the crystallographic texture, and anisotropy coefficients degree of drawability to the case of a low carbon steel, which is mainly used in the manufacture of bottles for cooking gas under the conditions of lamination temperatures between 600 Â C and 900 Â C. The results were compared with those of a steel with ultra low carbon used in deep drawing cans for storing soft drinks. The crystal texture was determined from the distribution functions of the crystallographic orientation calculated from the three figures obtained by poles x-ray diffraction. The average coefficients of anisotropy (rm) and planar ( r) were determined from the Lankford coefficients in the rolling direction, and the 45th of the same in the transverse direction. The degree of drawability was obtained by testing Erichsen cupping modified relating the depth of embossing to the thickness of the plate. The analysis of texture in rolled steels at temperatures between 600 Â C and 900 Â C showed results consistent with those of steel used in deep drawing of cans for storage of refrigerants. The average coefficients of anisotropy (rm) and planar ( r) values ​​were satisfactory according to the requirement for the same application. The degree of drawability of most samples rolled steel sheet at temperatures between 600 Â C and 900 Â C, was suitable for the manufacture of cans which serve as storage container for soft drinks.
Depending on which direction are measured, some properties of polycrystalline materials are presented differentiated. This is due to the existence of texture, or preferential directions of the crystals in the material. This feature may be due to solidification of a process of plastic deformation and heat treatment. The texture of metallic materials influences the properties of them both in a beneficial way as evil. In the printing of a hard to manufacture a glass of soda used in storage can either highlight the harmful effect, which would be the formation of ears and thinning of the lateral regions adjacent to the bottom of the glass, as the beneficial effect, which would be increased resistance in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the plate while minimizing the possibility of rupture by the thickness reduction caused by the embossing process. This work was used to study the relationship between the crystallographic texture, and anisotropy coefficients degree of drawability to the case of a low carbon steel, which is mainly used in the manufacture of bottles for cooking gas under the conditions of lamination temperatures between 600 Â C and 900 Â C. The results were compared with those of a steel with ultra low carbon used in deep drawing cans for storing soft drinks. The crystal texture was determined from the distribution functions of the crystallographic orientation calculated from the three figures obtained by poles x-ray diffraction. The average coefficients of anisotropy (rm) and planar ( r) were determined from the Lankford coefficients in the rolling direction, and the 45th of the same in the transverse direction. The degree of drawability was obtained by testing Erichsen cupping modified relating the depth of embossing to the thickness of the plate. The analysis of texture in rolled steels at temperatures between 600 Â C and 900 Â C showed results consistent with those of steel used in deep drawing of cans for storage of refrigerants. The average coefficients of anisotropy (rm) and planar ( r) values ​​were satisfactory according to the requirement for the same application. The degree of drawability of most samples rolled steel sheet at temperatures between 600 Â C and 900 Â C, was suitable for the manufacture of cans which serve as storage container for soft drinks.

Information systems that link businesses for the purpose of inter-organizational transfer of business transaction information (inter-organizational information systems, or IOIS) have been in use since the 1970s (Lankford & Riggs, 1996). Early systems relied on private networks, using electronic data interchange (EDI) or United Nations EDIFACT standards for format and content of transaction messages. Due to their cost and complexity, the use of these systems was confined primarily to large companies, but low-cost Internet commercialization has led to much more widespread adoption of IOIS. Systems using the Internet and the World Wide Web are commonly referred to as B2B (business-to-business) systems, supporting B2B electronic commerce.

Information systems that link businesses for the purpose of inter-organizational transfer of business transaction information (inter-organizational information systems, or IOIS) have been in use since the 1970s (Lankford & Riggs, 1996). Early systems relied on private networks, using electronic data interchange (EDI) or United Nations EDIFACT standards for format and content of transaction messages. Due to their cost and complexity, the use of these systems was confined primarily to large companies, but low-cost Internet commercialization has led to much more widespread adoption of IOIS. Systems using the Internet and the World Wide Web are commonly referred to as B2B (business-to-business) systems, supporting B2B electronic commerce. Technological innovations have led to several forms of B2B Internet implementations, often in the form of online exchanges. These are virtual marketplaces where buyers and sellers exchange information about prices, products, and service offerings, and negotiate business transactions. In addition to substituting proprietary lines of communication, emerging technologies and public networks have also facilitated new business models and new forms of interaction and collaboration, in areas such as collaborative product engineering or joint offerings of complex, modularized products. During the years 1999-2001 a number of online exchanges were introduced, but many of these failed (Gallaugher & Ramanathan, 2002), due mainly to an inability to attract participating business partners. Those that have survived are often owned by companies or consortia that are also exchange customers or suppliers. The objective of this overview is to describe the evolution and the characteristics of B2B Internet implementations, and to discuss management considerations, the evaluation and adoption of B2B applications, and the technical infrastructure supporting these systems. We also indicate some of the open issues that remain as the technology and its adoption continues to evolve.

Information systems that link businesses for the purpose of inter-organizational transfer of business transaction information (inter-organizational information systems or IOIS) have been in use since the 1970s (Lankford & Riggs, 1996). Early systems relied on private networks using electronic data interchange (EDI) or United Nations EDIFACT standards for format and content of transaction messages. Due to their cost and complexity, the use of these systems was confined primarily to large companies, but low cost Internet commercialization has led to much more widespread adoption of IOIS. Systems using the Internet and the World Wide Web are commonly referred to as B2B (business to business) systems, supporting B2B electronic commerce. Technological innovations have led to several forms of B2B Internet implementations, often in the form of online exchanges or electronic marketplaces (Wang et al., 2005). These are virtual marketplaces where buyers and sellers exchange information about prices, products, and service offerings, and negotiate business transactions. They are major components of the supply chains that they support. In addition to substituting proprietary lines of communication, emerging technologies and public networks have also facilitated new business models and new forms of interaction and collaboration in areas such as collaborative product engineering or joint offerings of complex, modularized products. During the years 1999-2001, a number of online exchanges were introduced, but many of these failed (Gallaugher & Ramanathan, 2002) due mainly to an inability to attract participating business partners, but also because potential participants and their business partners did not perceive enough value added through the significant investment they required. Those that have survived are often owned by companies or consortia that are also exchange customers or suppliers. The objective of this overview is to describe the evolution and the characteristics of B2B Internet implementations, and to discuss management considerations, the evaluation, and adoption of B2B applications, and the technical infrastructure supporting these systems. We also indicate some of the open issues that remain as the technology and its adoption continues to evolve.

Generally isotropic behavior is assumed and demanded in line pipe specifications. Especially in strain based design, compressive and tensile strain capacity models rely on iso-tropic assumptions. On the other hand every pipe has got an anisotropic material characteristic which effects the performance in strain based design. In this contribution HFI-welded steel tubes are investigated due to their underlying material anisotropy. Depending on their basic strip weld material and production process the anisotropy differs from UOE or spiral welded pipes. Especially, in radial direction of steel pipe mechanical properties are challenging to gain. Thus two methods are suggested to characterize the anisotropic parameters in all three pipe directions. A small scale approach evaluating Lankford values and a full scale method evaluating Hill factors are applied. While Lankford method relies on strains, Hills method relies on stresses. Both methods are explained and validated by internal pressure and full scale bending tests. Using the anisotropy parameters, their effect on strain based design is analyzed — both experimentally and numerically. In the end it is shown that distinct anisotropies can provide a benefit for HFI-welded steel tubes concerning strain capacity in strain based design applications.

Abstract. Despite the experimental evidence of the effect of loading direction on the inclination of necking bands in uniaxial tension, theoretical and numerical studies are mainly devoted to isotropic materials. Recently, theoretical, numerical, and experimental works have put into evidence the key role of the material anisotropy on the formation of localized necking bands. In particular, Cazacu and Rodriguez (2019) [1] provided analytical expressions for the orientations of the necking bands that develop under uniaxial tension in flat specimens . It was shown that there is a switch in the orientation of main necking band from acute to obtuse, which is correlated with the anisotropy in yield stresses. In this paper, we conduct a FE study on virtual materials with the same anisotropy in Lankford coefficients but different anisotropy in yield stresses. We show that, although both materials have a very slight anisotropy in yield stresses, it strongly affects the localization behavior.

Abstract. Among processes involving plastic deformation, sheet metal forming requires a most accurate description of plastic anisotropy. One of the main sources of mechanical anisotropy is crystallographic texture, which induces directionality in the macroscopic plastic properties of the polycrystalline metallic alloy sheets (e.g. anisotropy in yield stresses, Lankford coefficients). Recently, we develop a single-crystal yield criterion that satisfies the intrinsic symmetries of the constituent crystals and the condition of insensitivity to hydrostatic pressure [1]. Moreover, this single-crystal criterion is defined for any 3-D stress state. It was shown that the use of this single-crystal criterion for the description of the plastic behavior of the constituent crystals in conjunction with appropriate homogenization procedures leads to an improved prediction of the plastic anisotropy in macroscopic properties under uniaxial loading for polycrystalline aluminum alloys. In this paper, using this polycrystalline model, we simulate the deformation response of sheets of various crystallographic textures. Examples demonstrate the predictive capabilities of the model to describe the influence of the crystallographic texture on the macroscopic behavior and on the final shape of parts obtained using deep-drawing.

Abstract. Magnesium (Mg) alloy sheets have low density and high specific strength; thus, they are expected to facilitate weight reduction of structural components. However, because of the strong crystal anisotropy of the hexagonal structure and the strong basal texture observed in typical rolled Mg alloy sheets, their press formability at room temperature is low. To improve the room-temperature press formability, ZX series Mg alloy sheets that weakened the basal texture have recently been developed. The plastic deformation behavior of a rolled Mg-1.5mass%Zn-0.1mass%Ca (ZX10Mg) alloy sheet was studied in a previous study [7], and it was reported that the plastic deformation behavior showed strong in-plane anisotropy and differed notably from that of AZ series rolled Mg alloy sheets. In the present study, cylindrical cup drawing of a ZX10Mg alloy sheet was performed at room temperature and the drawability was examined in terms of cup height distributions, strain evolution, and texture evolution. The cup height differed significantly between the rolling and transverse directions. The thickness at the cup edge was the largest in the rolling direction and the smallest in the transverse direction. The magnitude relationship of the thickness correlated with the Lankford values under compression. The mechanism that yielded the difference in texture evolution was also discussed.

Abstract. Crystallographic texture of sheet metal influences formability significantly. Lankford coefficient or the so-called r-value, a texture related property, is a property often specified as a customer requirement and therefore a property that requires close monitoring and control during the production process. Through systematic experiments, it is demonstrated how hot rolling, especially hot tandem rolling influences r-values of wrought aluminium alloys. A tandem rolling model has been developed that enables control of final r-value for a given 6016 alloy with a given downstream process. The model clearly shows how entry temperature and exit speed of tandem mill can be used to control the final product’s r-value. The model that provides a metallurgical explanation for the effect, can be used to steer the tandem mill in such a manner that a minimum r-value is guaranteed and at the same time, variations of r-value along the length of the strip are minimized or suppressed. The model also provides a better alternative to the existing and conventional tandem mill steering methodology based on constant exit temperature. The proposed methodology is based on keeping a (nearly) constant Zener-Hollomon parameter along the length of the strip during tandem rolling.

In recent years anisotropic pipe material properties have gained more interest due to offshore; strain based design and fracture arrest topics. The effect of anisotropic UOE pipe material characteristic is analyzed in this contribution. Both, anisotropic strain dependent values (Lankford) and anisotropic strength dependent factors (Hill) are compared, and their impact on load bearing and plastic strain capacity is investigated. Several common load cases as internal and external pressure as well as bending are investigated. An analysis of the structural behavior concerning burst pressure and transverse strain capacity, collapse pressure, maximum bending moment and critical buckling strain is performed depending on yield strength variation. Therefore the above load and strain capacities are investigated based on present material anisotropy as well as numerical parametric studies. For the internal pressure as dominating load case, it was found that a higher yield strength in the longitudinal direction decreases burst pressure and increases transverse strain capacity. An increase of radial yield strength increases burst pressure as well as transverse strain capacity. For collapse applications, higher radial and transverse yield strength is beneficial as well as a lower longitudinal yield strength. Increasing longitudinal and radial yield strength leads to beneficial structural responses in terms of bending. Increase of transversal yield strength is thus not recommended as the maximum bending moment is not affected and critical buckling strain is decreased. Further it becomes clear from the above various parametric studies that the structural behavior is prone to differ for every set of distinct anisotropic parameters and the load cases. On the other hand selection of distinct anisotropic material can promote the desired structural behavior.

The effect of strain-rate on plastic anisotropy of an HSLA340 steel sheet is investigated in the present paper. Uniaxial tension tests in seven different directions are performed under three strain-rates (one in quasi-static range and two in intermediate range). Flow stress and Lankford r-value are obtained from the test data to describe the plastic anisotropy of the material. Results show that the anisotropy varies with the increase in strain-rate. To model this rate-dependent anisotropic behavior, three associated flow rule based yield functions, Hill48, Yld96, and Yld2000_2d, are employed first for each strain-rate. Though the result cannot match the test data perfectly, it still seems acceptable considering the complexity of the trend of anisotropy. Accordingly, the coefficients of these models are studied, and it turns out that all of them change with the stain-rate in a similar trend. Based on this result, a rate-effect term is introduced to the coefficients of the models to characterize the rate-effect on plastic anisotropy. Finally, two issues about the modeling work are discussed. One is calibrating the Yld96 and Yld200_2d model with the non-associated flow rule, which means the coefficients of the functions are determined by flow stress only or r-value only separately. It is found that the accuracy of the characterization is largely improved because of the increase in model coefficients. The other issue that is discussed is the modeling of strain-rate effect on the plastic anisotropy. A new strategy is considered, in which the strain-rate effects in different directions are characterized first, followed by the anisotropy description. The results of the two strategies are compared and good agreement is achieved.

Abstract. Accurate characterization of material models is essential to ensure a higher prediction quality in Finite Element Analysis (FEA) under general loading conditions in sheet metal forming. Achieving accurate material model data frequently involves intricate inverse analysis techniques and numerous experimental tests. To overcome the complexities associated with calibration processes, the adoption of optical measuring systems like Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is widespread in material model calibration. The rich information obtained from DIC measurements is often used by material model calibration strategies to calibrate the values of material or model parameters, such as extrapolation of stress-strain curves or Lankford parameters that are not necessarily constant over the entire range of plastic deformation. This study presents the Experimental Full-Field Method (EFFM) as an innovative iterative approach for the calibration of material properties. As a special implementation of Finite Element Model Update (FEMU) [1], the EFFM uses the whole deformation field gained from DIC as boundary conditions [2]. This is then used in an inverse optimization procedure to determine parameters of complex material models. In this research, the EFFM is applied to an anisotropic constitutive model [3] to optimize three flow curves in 0°, 45° and 90° directions w.r.t. the rolling direction and the yield surface exponent, which reflects the polycrystal structure of the sheet material, to define the shape of the evolving yield locus in stress space. This is achieved by a modified tensile test specimen with L-shaped cut-outs which allows a distribution of higher strain values over a wider range of triaxiality values. With the direct use of the experimental deformation field in the FE simulation, displacements and strains are not any more objects of the optimization but only stresses. This also eliminates the step of mapping between experiments and simulations. Moreover, by using implicit time integration the inversion of the stiffness matrix becomes redundant, as positions of all nodes are already predetermined at each time step. These aspects make EFFM faster and more accurate than conventional FEMU.