Books on the topic 'Language processing tasks'

Anomia is a term that describes the inability to retrieve a desired word, and is the most common deficit present across different aphasia syndromes. Anomic aphasia is a specific aphasia syndrome characterized by a primary deficit of word retrieval with relatively spared performance in other language domains, such as auditory comprehension and sentence production. Damage to a number of cognitive and motor systems can produce errors in word retrieval tasks, only subsets of which are language deficits. In the cognitive and neuropsychological underpinnings section, we discuss the major processing steps that occur in lexical retrieval and outline how deficits at each of the stages may produce anomia. The neuroanatomical correlates section will include a review of lesion and neuroimaging studies of language processing to examine anomia and anomia recovery in the acute and chronic stages. The assessment section will highlight how discrepancies in performance between tasks contrasting output modes and input modalities may provide insight into the locus of impairment in anomia. Finally, the treatment section will outline some of the rehabilitation techniques for forms of anomia, and take a closer look at the evidence base for different aspects of treatment.

Word-sense disambiguation (WSD) is the process of identifying the meanings of words in context. This article begins with discussing the origins of the problem in the earliest machine translation systems. Early attempts to solve the WSD problem suffered from a lack of coverage. The main approaches to tackle the problem were dictionary-based, connectionist, and statistical strategies. This article concludes with a review of evaluation strategies for WSD and possible applications of the technology. WSD is an ‘intermediate’ task in language processing: like part-of-speech tagging or syntactic analysis, it is unlikely that anyone other than linguists would be interested in its results for their own sake. ‘Final’ tasks produce results of use to those without a specific interest in language and often make use of ‘intermediate’ tasks. WSD is a long-standing and important problem in the field of language processing.

This article discusses electronic text as essentially just a sequence of characters. Text needs to be segmented at least into linguistic units such as words, punctuation, numbers, alphanumerics, etc. This process is called tokenization. The article mentions that most natural language processing techniques require text to be segmented into sentences as well. It briefly reviews some evaluation metrics and standard resources commonly used for text segmentation tasks. This article presents substantial challenges for computational analysis since tokens are directly attached to each other using pictogram characters or other native writing systems and outlines various computational approaches to tackle them in different languages. It focuses on the low-level tasks such as tokenization and sentence segmentation.

The Oxford Handbook of Computational Linguistics features thirty-eight articles commissioned from experts all over the world. The book describes major concepts, methods, and applications in computational linguistics. Part I looks at linguistic fundamentals and provides an overview of the field suitable for senior undergraduates and non-specialists from other fields of linguistics and related disciplines. Part II describes current tasks, techniques, and tools in natural language processing and aims to meet the needs of post-doctoral workers and others embarking on computational language research. Part III surveys current applications.

Statistical methods now belong to mainstream natural language processing. They have been successfully applied to virtually all tasks within language processing and neighbouring fields, including part-of-speech tagging, syntactic parsing, semantic interpretation, lexical acquisition, machine translation, information retrieval, and information extraction and language learning. This article reviews mathematical statistics and applies it to language modelling problems, leading up to the hidden Markov model and maximum entropy model. The real strength of maximum-entropy modelling lies in combining evidence from several rules, each one of which alone might not be conclusive, but which taken together dramatically affect the probability. Maximum-entropy modelling allows combining heterogeneous information sources to produce a uniform probabilistic model where each piece of information is formulated as a feature. The key ideas of mathematical statistics are simple and intuitive, but tend to be buried in a sea of mathematical technicalities. Finally, the article provides mathematical detail related to the topic of discussion.

Terms are pervasive in scientific and technical documents and their identification is a crucial issue for any application dealing with the analysis, understanding, generation, or translation of such documents. In particular, the ever-growing mass of specialized documentation available on-line, in industrial and governmental archives or in digital libraries, calls for advances in terminology processing for tasks such as information retrieval, cross-language querying, indexing of multimedia documents, translation aids, document routing and summarization, etc. This article presents a new domain of research and development in natural language processing (NLP) that is concerned with the representation, acquisition, and recognition of terms. It begins with presenting the basic notions about the concept of ‘terms’, ranging from the classical view, to the recent concepts. There are two main areas of research involving terminology in NLP, which are, term acquisition and term recognition. Finally, this article presents the recent advances and prospects in term acquisition and automatic indexing.

As spoken natural language dialog systems technology continues to make great strides, numerous issues regarding dialog processing still need to be resolved. This book presents an exciting new dialog processing architecture that allows for a number of behaviors required for effective human-machine interactions, including: problem-solving to help the user carry out a task, coherent subdialog movement during the problem-solving process, user model usage, expectation usage for contextual interpretation and error correction, and variable initiative behavior for interacting with users of differing expertise. The book also details how different dialog problems in processing can be handled simultaneously, and provides instructions and in-depth result from pertinent experiments. Researchers and professionals in natural language systems will find this important new book an invaluable addition to their libraries.

This article discusses in detail computational morphology with examples from various languages. It deals with the processing of words in both their graphemic, i.e. written, and their phonemic, i.e. spoken form. It has a wide range of practical applications such as spelling correction or automated hyphenation. It further seeks the fact that these tasks may seem simple to a human but they pose hard problems to a computer program. This article provides insights into why this is so and what techniques are available to tackle these tasks. It discusses the sort of information that is expressed by morphology and differs widely between languages and looks at the constraints involved in morphotactics. It is responsible for governing the rules for the combination of morphs into larger entities. It concludes with an outline of finite-state morphology and alternative formalisms.

This article introduces the concepts and techniques for natural language (NL) parsing, which signifies, using a grammar to assign a syntactic analysis to a string of words, a lattice of word hypotheses output by a speech recognizer or similar. The level of detail required depends on the language processing task being performed and the particular approach to the task that is being pursued. This article further describes approaches that produce ‘shallow’ analyses. It also outlines approaches to parsing that analyse the input in terms of labelled dependencies between words. Producing hierarchical phrase structure requires grammars that have at least context-free (CF) power. CF algorithms that are widely used in parsing of NL are described in this article. To support detailed semantic interpretation more powerful grammar formalisms are required, but these are usually parsed using extensions of CF parsing algorithms. Furthermore, this article describes unification-based parsing. Finally, it discusses three important issues that have to be tackled in real-world applications of parsing: evaluation of parser accuracy, parser efficiency, and measurement of grammar/parser coverage.

Computational linguistics is the scientific study of language from a computational perspective. It aims is to provide computational models of natural language processing (NLP) and incorporate them into practical applications such as speech synthesis, speech recognition, automatic translation and many others where automatic processing of language is required. The use of good linguistic resources is crucial for the development of computational linguistics systems. Real world applications need resources which systematize the way linguistic information is structured in a certain language. There is a continuous effort to increase the number of linguistic resources available for the linguistic and NLP Community. Most of the existing linguistic resources have been created for English, mainly because most modern approaches to computational lexical semantics emerged in the United States. This situation is changing over time and some of these projects have been subsequently extended to other languages; however, in all cases, much time and effort need to be invested in creating such resources. Because of this, one of the main purposes of this work is to investigate the possibility of extending these resources to other languages such as Spanish. In this work, we introduce some of the most important resources devoted to lexical semantics, such as WordNet or FrameNet, and those focusing on Spanish such as 3LB-LEX or Adesse. Of these, this project focuses on FrameNet. The project aims to document the range of semantic and syntactic combinatory possibilities of words in English. Words are grouped according to the different frames or situations evoked by their meaning. If we focus on a particular topic domain like medicine and we try to describe it in terms of FrameNet, we probably would obtain frames representing it like CURE, formed by words like cure.v, heal.v or palliative.a or MEDICAL CONDITIONS with lexical units such as arthritis.n, asphyxia.n or asthma.n. The purpose of this work is to develop an automatic means of selecting frames from a particular domain and to translate them into Spanish. As we have stated, we will focus on medicine. The selection of the medical frames will be corpus-based, that is, we will extract all the frames that are statistically significant from a representative corpus. We will discuss why using a corpus-based approach is a reliable and unbiased way of dealing with this task. We will present an automatic method for the selection of FrameNet frames and, in order to make sure that the results obtained are coherent, we will contrast them with a previous manual selection or benchmark. Outcomes will be analysed by using the F-score, a measure widely used in this type of applications. We obtained a 0.87 F-score according to our benchmark, which demonstrates the applicability of this type of automatic approaches. The second part of the book is devoted to the translation of this selection into Spanish. The translation will be made using EuroWordNet, a extension of the Princeton WordNet for some European languages. We will explore different ways to link the different units of our medical FrameNet selection to a certain WordNet synset or set of words that have similar meanings. Matching the frame units to a specific synset in EuroWordNet allows us both to translate them into Spanish and to add new terms provided by WordNet into FrameNet. The results show how translation can be done quite accurately (95.6%). We hope this work can add new insight into the field of natural language processing.

This article focuses on the use of probabilistic context-free grammars (PCFGs) in natural language processing involving a large-scale natural language parsing task. It describes detailed, highly-structured Bayesian modelling in which model dimension and complexity responds naturally to observed data. The framework, termed hierarchical Dirichlet process probabilistic context-free grammar (HDP-PCFG), involves structured hierarchical Dirichlet process modelling and customized model fitting via variational methods to address the problem of syntactic parsing and the underlying problems of grammar induction and grammar refinement. The central object of study is the parse tree, which can be used to describe a substantial amount of the syntactic structure and relational semantics of natural language sentences. The article first provides an overview of the formal probabilistic specification of the HDP-PCFG, algorithms for posterior inference under the HDP-PCFG, and experiments on grammar learning run on the Wall Street Journal portion of the Penn Treebank.

The monograph reflects the problems of Russian psycholinguistics from the moment of its inception in Russia to the present day and presents its main directions that are currently developing. In addition, theoretical developments and practical results obtained in the framework of different directions and research centers are described in a concise form. The task of the book is to reflect, as far as it is possible in one edition, firstly, the history of the formation of Russian psycholinguistics; secondly, its methodology and developed methods; thirdly, the results obtained in different research centers and directions in different regions of Russia; fourthly, to outline the main directions of the further development of Russian psycholinguistics. There is no doubt that in the theoretical, methodological and applied aspects, the main problems and the results of their development by Russian psycholinguistics have no analogues in world linguistics and psycholinguistics, or are represented by completely original concepts and methods. We have tried to show this uniqueness of the problematics and the methodological equipment of Russian psycholinguistics in this book. The main role in the formation of Russian psycholinguistics was played by the Moscow psycholinguistic school of A.A. Leontyev. It still defines the main directions of Russian psycholinguistics. Russian psycholinguistics (the theory of speech activity - TSA) is based on the achievements of Russian psychology: a cultural-historical approach to the analysis of mental phenomena L.S. Vygotsky and the system-activity approach of A.N. Leontyev. Moscow is the most "psycholinguistic region" of Russia - INL RAS, Moscow State University, Moscow State Linguistic University, RUDN, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Sechenov University, Moscow State University and other Moscow universities. Saint Petersburg psycholinguists have significant achievements, especially in the study of neurolinguistic problems, ontolinguistics. The most important feature of Russian psycholinguistics is the widespread development of psycholinguistics in the regions, the emergence of recognized psycholinguistic research centers - St. Petersburg, Tver, Saratov, Perm, Ufa, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Voronezh, Yekaterinburg, Kursk, Chelyabinsk; psycholinguistics is represented in Cherepovets, Ivanovo, Volgograd, Vyatka, Kaluga, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Abakan, Maikop, Barnaul, Ulan-Ude, Yakutsk, Syktyvkar, Armavir and other cities; in Belarus - Minsk, in Ukraine - Lvov, Chernivtsi, Kharkov, in the DPR - Donetsk, in Kazakhstan - Alma-Ata, Chimkent. Our researchers work in Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, China, France, Switzerland. There are Russian psycholinguists in Canada, USA, Israel, Austria and a number of other countries. All scientists from these regions and countries have contributed to the development of Russian psycholinguistics, to the development of psycholinguistic theory and methods of psycholinguistic research. Their participation has not been forgotten. We tried to present the main Russian psycholinguists in the Appendix - in the sections "Scientometrics", "Monographs and Manuals" and "Dissertations", even if there is no information about them in the Electronic Library and RSCI. The principles of including scientists in the scientometric list are presented in the Appendix. Our analysis of the content of the resulting monograph on psycholinguistic research in Russia allows us to draw preliminary conclusions about some of the distinctive features of Russian psycholinguistics: 1. cultural-historical approach to the analysis of mental phenomena of L.S.Vygotsky and the system-activity approach of A.N. Leontiev as methodological basis of Russian psycholinguistics; 2. theoretical nature of psycholinguistic research as a characteristic feature of Russian psycholinguistics. Our psycholinguistics has always built a general theory of the generation and perception of speech, mental vocabulary, linked specific research with the problems of ontogenesis, the relationship between language and thinking; 3. psycholinguistic studies of speech communication as an important subject of psycholinguistics; 4. attention to the psycholinguistic analysis of the text and the development of methods for such analysis; 5. active research into the ontogenesis of linguistic ability; 6. investigation of linguistic consciousness as one of the important subjects of psycholinguistics; 7. understanding the need to create associative dictionaries of different types as the most important practical task of psycholinguistics; 8. widespread use of psycholinguistic methods for applied purposes, active development of applied psycholinguistics. The review of the main directions of development of Russian psycholinguistics, carried out in this monograph, clearly shows that the direction associated with the study of linguistic consciousness is currently being most intensively developed in modern Russian psycholinguistics. As the practice of many years of psycholinguistic research in our country shows, the subject of study of psycholinguists is precisely linguistic consciousness - this is a part of human consciousness that is responsible for generating, understanding speech and keeping language in consciousness. Associative experiments are the core of most psycholinguistic techniques and are important both theoretically and practically. The following main areas of practical application of the results of associative experiments can be outlined. 1. Education. Associative experiments are the basis for constructing Mind Maps, one of the most promising tools for systematizing knowledge, assessing the quality, volume and nature of declarative knowledge (and using special techniques and skills). Methods based on smart maps are already widely used in teaching foreign languages, fast and deep immersion in various subject areas. 2. Information search, search optimization. The results of associative experiments can significantly improve the quality of information retrieval, its efficiency, as well as adaptability for a specific person (social group). When promoting sites (promoting them in search results), an associative experiment allows you to increase and improve the quality of the audience reached. 3. Translation studies, translation automation. An associative experiment can significantly improve the quality of translation, take into account intercultural and other social characteristics of native speakers. 4. Computational linguistics and automatic word processing. The results of associative experiments make it possible to reveal the features of a person's linguistic consciousness and contribute to the development of automatic text processing systems in a wide range of applications of natural language interfaces of computer programs and robotic solutions. 5. Advertising. The use of data on associations for specific words, slogans and texts allows you to predict and improve advertising texts. 6. Social relationships. The analysis of texts using the data of associative experiments makes it possible to assess the tonality of messages (negative / positive moods, aggression and other characteristics) based on user comments on the Internet and social networks, in the press in various projections (by individuals, events, organizations, etc.) from various social angles, to diagnose the formation of extremist ideas. 7. Content control and protection of personal data. Associative experiments improve the quality of content detection and filtering by identifying associative fields in areas subject to age restrictions, personal information, tobacco and alcohol advertising, incitement to ethnic hatred, etc. 8. Gender and individual differences. The data of associative experiments can be used to compare the reactions (and, in general, other features of thinking) between men and women, different social and age groups, representatives of different regions. The directions for the further development of Russian psycholinguistics from the standpoint of the current state of psycholinguistic science in the country are seen by us, first of all:  in the development of research in various areas of linguistic consciousness, which will contribute to the development of an important concept of speech as a verbal model of non-linguistic consciousness, in which knowledge revealed by social practice and assigned by each member of society during its inculturation is consolidated for society and on its behalf;  in the expansion of the problematics, which is formed under the influence of the growing intercultural communication in the world community, which inevitably involves the speech behavior of natural and artificial bilinguals in the new object area of psycholinguistics;  in using the capabilities of national linguistic corpora in the interests of researchers studying the functioning of non-linguistic and linguistic consciousness in speech processes;  in expanding research on the semantic perception of multimodal texts, the scope of which has greatly expanded in connection with the spread of the Internet as a means of communication in the life of modern society;  in the inclusion of the problems of professional communication and professional activity in the object area of psycholinguistics in connection with the introduction of information technologies into public practice, entailing the emergence of new professions and new features of the professional ethos;  in the further development of the theory of the mental lexicon (identifying the role of different types of knowledge in its formation and functioning, the role of the word as a unit of the mental lexicon in the formation of the image of the world, as well as the role of the natural / internal metalanguage and its specificity in speech activity);  in the broad development of associative lexicography, which will meet the most diverse needs of society and cognitive sciences. The development of associative lexicography may lead to the emergence of such disciplines as associative typology, associative variantology, associative axiology;  in expanding the spheres of applied use of psycholinguistics in social sciences, sociology, semasiology, lexicography, in the study of the brain, linguodidactics, medicine, etc. This book is a kind of summarizing result of the development of Russian psycholinguistics today. Each section provides a bibliography of studies on the relevant issue. The Appendix contains the scientometrics of leading Russian psycholinguists, basic monographs, psycholinguistic textbooks and dissertations defended in psycholinguistics. The content of the publications presented here is convincing evidence of the relevance of psycholinguistic topics and the effectiveness of the development of psycholinguistic problems in Russia.

Economy and mankind are inextricably interlinked. Just as the economy or the production of material wealth is unimaginable without a man, so human existence and development are impossible without the wealth created in the economy. Shortly, both the goal and the means of achieving and realization of the economy are still the human resources. People have long ago noticed that it was the economy that created livelihoods, and the delays in their production led to the catastrophic events such as hunger, poverty, civil wars, social upheavals, revolutions, moral degeneration, and more. Therefore, the special interest of people in understanding the regulatory framework of the functioning of the economy has existed and exists in all historical epochs [A. Sisvadze. Economic theory. Part One. 2006y. p. 22]. The system of economic disciplines studies economy or economic activities of a society. All of them are based on science, which is currently called economic theory in the post-socialist space (the science of economics, the principles of economics or modern economics), and in most countries of the world - predominantly in the Greek-Latin manner - economics. The title of the present book is also Modern Economics. Economics (economic theory) is the science that studies the efficient use of limited resources to produce and distribute goods and services in order to satisfy as much as possible the unlimited needs and demands of the society. More simply, economics is the science of choice and how society manages its limited resources. Moreover, it should be emphasized that economics (economic theory) studies only the distribution, exchange and consumption of the economic wealth (food, beverages, clothing, housing, machine tools, computers, services, etc.), the production of which is possible and limited. And the wealth that exists indefinitely: no economic relations are formed in the production and distribution of solar energy, air, and the like. This current book is the second complete updated edition of the challenges of the modern global economy in the context of the coronary crisis, taking into account some of the priority directions of the country's development. Its purpose is to help students and interested readers gain a thorough knowledge of economics and show them how this knowledge can be applied pragmatically (professionally) in professional activities or in everyday life. To achieve this goal, this textbook, which consists of two parts and tests, discusses in simple and clear language issues such as: the essence of economics as a science, reasons for origin, purpose, tasks, usefulness and functions; Basic principles, problems and peculiarities of economics in different economic systems; Needs and demand, the essence of economic resources, types and limitations; Interaction, mobility, interchangeability and efficient use of economic resources. The essence and types of wealth; The essence, types and models of the economic system; The interaction of households and firms in the market of resources and products; Market mechanism and its elements - demand, supply and price; Demand and supply elasticity; Production costs and the ways to reduce them; Forms of the market - perfect and incomplete competition markets and their peculiarities; Markets for Production Factors and factor incomes; The essence of macroeconomics, causes and importance of origin; The essence and calculation of key macroeconomic indicators (gross national product, gross domestic product, net national product, national income, etc.); Macroeconomic stability and instability, unemployment, inflation and anti-inflationary policies; State regulation of the economy and economic policy; Monetary and fiscal policy; Income and standard of living; Economic Growth; The Corona Pandemic as a Defect and Effect of Globalization; National Economic Problems and New Opportunities for Development in the conditions of the Coronary Crisis; The Socio-economic problems of moral obsolescence in digital technologies; Education and creativity are the main solution way to overcome the economic crisis caused by the coronavirus; Positive and negative effects of tourism in Georgia; Formation of the middle class as a contributing factor to the development of tourism in Georgia; Corporate culture in Georgian travel companies, etc. The axiomatic truth is that economics is the union of people in constant interaction. Given that the behavior of the economy reflects the behavior of the people who make up the economy, after clarifying the essence of the economy, we move on to the analysis of the four principles of individual decision-making. Furtermore, the book describes how people make independent decisions. The key to making an individual decision is that people have to choose from alternative options, that the value of any action is measured by the value of what must be given or what must be given up to get something, that the rational, smart people make decisions based on the comparison of the marginal costs and marginal returns (benefits), and that people behave accordingly to stimuli. Afterwards, the need for human interaction is then analyzed and substantiated. If a person is isolated, he will have to take care of his own food, clothes, shoes, his own house and so on. In the case of such a closed economy and universalization of labor, firstly, its productivity will be low and, secondly, it will be able to consume only what it produces. It is clear that human productivity will be higher and more profitable as a result of labor specialization and the opportunity to trade with others. Indeed, trade allows each person to specialize, to engage in the activities that are most successful, be it agriculture, sewing or construction, and to buy more diverse goods and services from others at a relatively lower price. The key to such human interactions is that trade is mutually beneficial; That markets are usually the good means of coordination between people and that the government can improve the results of market functioning if the market reveals weakness or the results of market functioning are not fair. Moroever, it also shows how the economy works as a whole. In particular, it is argued that productivity is a key determinant of living standards, that an increase in the money supply is a major source of inflation, and that one of the main impediments to avoiding inflation is the existence of an alternative between inflation and unemployment in the short term, that the inflation decrease causes the temporary decline in unemployement and vice versa. The Understanding creatively of all above mentioned issues, we think, will help the reader to develop market economy-appropriate thinking and rational economic-commercial-financial behaviors, to be more competitive in the domestic and international labor markets, and thus to ensure both their own prosperity and the functioning of the country's economy. How he/she copes with the tasks, it is up to the individual reader to decide. At the same time, we will receive all the smart useful advices with a sense of gratitude and will take it into account in the further work. We also would like to thank the editor and reviewers of the books. Finally, there are many things changing, so it is very important to realize that the XXI century has come: 1. The century of the new economy; 2. Age of Knowledge; 3. Age of Information and economic activities are changing in term of innovations. 1. Why is the 21st century the century of the new economy? Because for this period the economic resources, especially non-productive, non-recoverable ones (oil, natural gas, coal, etc.) are becoming increasingly limited. According to the World Energy Council, there are currently 43 years of gas and oil reserves left in the world (see “New Commersant 2007 # 2, p. 16). Under such conditions, sustainable growth of real gross domestic product (GDP) and maximum satisfaction of uncertain needs should be achieved not through the use of more land, labor and capital (extensification), but through more efficient use of available resources (intensification) or innovative economy. And economics, as it was said, is the science of finding the ways about the more effective usage of the limited resources. At the same time, with the sustainable growth and development of the economy, the present needs must be met in a way that does not deprive future generations of the opportunity to meet their needs; 2. Why is the 21st century the age of knowledge? Because in a modern economy, it is not land (natural resources), labor and capital that is crucial, but knowledge. Modern production, its factors and products are not time-consuming and capital-intensive, but science-intensive, knowledge-intensive. The good example of this is a Japanese enterprise (firm) where the production process is going on but people are almost invisible, also, the result of such production (Japanese product) is a miniature or a sample of how to get the maximum result at the lowest cost; 3. Why is the 21st century the age of information? Because the efficient functioning of the modern economy, the effective organization of the material and personal factors of production largely depend on the right governance decision. The right governance decision requires prompt and accurate information. Gone are the days when the main means of transport was a sailing ship, the main form of data processing was pencil and paper, and the main means of transmitting information was sending letters through a postman on horseback. By the modern transport infrastructure (highways, railways, ships, regular domestic and international flights, oil and gas pipelines, etc.), the movement of goods, services and labor resoucres has been significantly accelerated, while through the modern means of communication (mobile phone, internet, other) the information is spreading rapidly globally, which seems to have "shrunk" the world and made it a single large country. The Authors of the book: Ushangi Samadashvili, Doctor of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University - Introduction, Chapters - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,12, 15,16, 17.1,18 , Tests, Revaz Shengelia, Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University, Chapters_7, 8, 13. 14, 17.2, 17.4; Zhuzhuna Tsiklauri - Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University - Chapters 13.6, 13.7,17.2, 17.3, 18. We also thank the editor and reviewers of the book.