Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Landscape photography – New South Wales'

This paper grows out of my ongoing practice of photographing the Darling River in western NSW. My interest in imaging the landscape and representing the contemporary divisions within it led me to investigate previous colonial conflicts, which occurred as white explorers in the 1830’s and squatters in the 1850’s took over the Aboriginal tribal lands on the Darling. In this paper I investigate the images created by explorers, artists and photographers, which were the beginnings of a Eurocentric vision for this land. These images were created in the context of a colonial history which forms the ideological backdrop to historical events and representations of this land. This research has involved me in an investigation across three different disciplines; Australian history, Australian visual art, and environmental aspects of human interactions with the land. The postcolonial histories which inform my work are themselves re-evaluations of earlier histories. This recent history has revealed, amid the images of European ‘settlement’ and ‘progress’, views of frontier violence and Aboriginal resistance to colonisation that were excluded from earlier histories. The fan-like shape of the Darling River, which for millennia has bought water to this dry land, is the motif that focuses my investigation. I discuss the relatively recent degradation of the river, which is the focus of contemporary conflicts between graziers, Aboriginal people, environmentalists and irrigators. Because large-scale irrigation now has the capacity to divert the flows of entire rivers for the irrigation of cash crops, the insecurities of earlier generations over the ‘unpredictable’ floods and their perception of lack of control over water - has been entirely reversed. ‘Control’ of water is now held by irrigators and the river down stream from the pumps is kept at a constant low, becoming a chain of stagnant waterholes during summer. Like many rivers in industrialised countries, the Darling no longer flows to its ocean. The physical characteristics of rangeland grazing are an important background to my paper. Although the introduction of sheep and cattle has altered and degraded this landscape, unlike ploughed country to the east this land retains much of its native vegetation and an Aboriginal history embedded across its surface. This paper is an investigation of the changing representations of the Australian landscape, and central to my paper (and a result of growing up in this area) is my recognition, at an early age, of cultural difference in the context of this landscape. I became aware of contradictions in how Aboriginal people were treated by the ‘white’ community and I glimpsed the distinct cultural viewpoints held by Aboriginal people. A connection to country continues to be expressed in art produced by Aboriginal people in the Wilcannia area, including work by Badger Bates and Waddy Harris. The Wilcannia Mob, a schoolboy rap-group received national press coverage, winning a Deadly Award in 2002 for their acclaimed song ‘Down River’. While a discussion of these artworks is not part of the discussion of my paper, it is a context for my research. In broad terms this paper is an investigation of different worldviews, different views of land and landscape by graziers, Aboriginal people, environmentalists and irrigators. These views carry with them different cultural understandings and different representations of the land - different and sometimes opposing views of its past and its future. It seems in 2005 that, just as artists, historians, filmmakers, etc. are beginning to come to terms with Australian colonial history, as the El Nino seasons and the importance of ‘environmental flows’ in the Murray Darling Basin are increasingly understood, that technological changes and the global effects of population densities are creating other changes (greenhouse gasses, ozone depletion, climate changes) that once again appear to be unpredictable and beyond our control. While this environmental discussion is outside the scope of the current paper it is a context for my investigation of this landscape.

Master of Visual Arts
This paper grows out of my ongoing practice of photographing the Darling River in western NSW. My interest in imaging the landscape and representing the contemporary divisions within it led me to investigate previous colonial conflicts, which occurred as white explorers in the 1830’s and squatters in the 1850’s took over the Aboriginal tribal lands on the Darling. In this paper I investigate the images created by explorers, artists and photographers, which were the beginnings of a Eurocentric vision for this land. These images were created in the context of a colonial history which forms the ideological backdrop to historical events and representations of this land. This research has involved me in an investigation across three different disciplines; Australian history, Australian visual art, and environmental aspects of human interactions with the land. The postcolonial histories which inform my work are themselves re-evaluations of earlier histories. This recent history has revealed, amid the images of European ‘settlement’ and ‘progress’, views of frontier violence and Aboriginal resistance to colonisation that were excluded from earlier histories. The fan-like shape of the Darling River, which for millennia has bought water to this dry land, is the motif that focuses my investigation. I discuss the relatively recent degradation of the river, which is the focus of contemporary conflicts between graziers, Aboriginal people, environmentalists and irrigators. Because large-scale irrigation now has the capacity to divert the flows of entire rivers for the irrigation of cash crops, the insecurities of earlier generations over the ‘unpredictable’ floods and their perception of lack of control over water - has been entirely reversed. ‘Control’ of water is now held by irrigators and the river down stream from the pumps is kept at a constant low, becoming a chain of stagnant waterholes during summer. Like many rivers in industrialised countries, the Darling no longer flows to its ocean. The physical characteristics of rangeland grazing are an important background to my paper. Although the introduction of sheep and cattle has altered and degraded this landscape, unlike ploughed country to the east this land retains much of its native vegetation and an Aboriginal history embedded across its surface. This paper is an investigation of the changing representations of the Australian landscape, and central to my paper (and a result of growing up in this area) is my recognition, at an early age, of cultural difference in the context of this landscape. I became aware of contradictions in how Aboriginal people were treated by the ‘white’ community and I glimpsed the distinct cultural viewpoints held by Aboriginal people. A connection to country continues to be expressed in art produced by Aboriginal people in the Wilcannia area, including work by Badger Bates and Waddy Harris. The Wilcannia Mob, a schoolboy rap-group received national press coverage, winning a Deadly Award in 2002 for their acclaimed song ‘Down River’. While a discussion of these artworks is not part of the discussion of my paper, it is a context for my research. In broad terms this paper is an investigation of different worldviews, different views of land and landscape by graziers, Aboriginal people, environmentalists and irrigators. These views carry with them different cultural understandings and different representations of the land - different and sometimes opposing views of its past and its future. It seems in 2005 that, just as artists, historians, filmmakers, etc. are beginning to come to terms with Australian colonial history, as the El Nino seasons and the importance of ‘environmental flows’ in the Murray Darling Basin are increasingly understood, that technological changes and the global effects of population densities are creating other changes (greenhouse gasses, ozone depletion, climate changes) that once again appear to be unpredictable and beyond our control. While this environmental discussion is outside the scope of the current paper it is a context for my investigation of this landscape.

The study area extends from west of the Great Divide to the Broken Hill and Tibooburra regions of far western New South Wales, encompassing several important mining districts that not only include the famous Broken Hill lodes (Pb-Zn-Ag), but also Parkes (Cu-Au), Peak Hill (Au), Cobar (Cu-Au-Zn) and White Cliffs (opal). The area is generally semi-arid to arid undulating to flat terrain covered by sparse vegetation. ¶ During the Cretaceous, an extensive sea retreated across vast plains, with rivers draining from the south and east. After the uplift of the Great Divide associated with opening of the Tasman Sea in the Late Cretaceous, drainage swung to the west, cutting across the Darling River Lineament. The Murray-Darling Basin depression developed as a depocentre during the Paleogene. Climates also underwent dramatic change during the Cenozoic, from warm-humid to cooler, more seasonal climates, to the arid conditions prevalent today. Up until now, there has been very little temporal constraint on the development of this landscape over this time period. This study seeks to address the timing of various weathering and landscape evolution events in northwestern New South Wales. ¶ The application of various regolith dating methods was undertaken. Palaeomagnetic dating, clay δ18O dating, (U+Th)/He and U-Pb dating were all investigated. Palaeomagnetic and clay dating methods have been well established in Australian regolith studies for the last 30 years. More recently, (U+Th)/He dating has been successfully trialled both overseas and in Australia. U-Pb dating of regolith materials has not been undertaken. Each method dates different regolith forming processes and materials. Palaeomagnetic and clay dating were both successfully carried out for sites across northwestern New South Wales, providing a multi-technique approach to resolving the timing of weathering events. Although (U+Th)/He dating was unsuccessful, there is scope for further refinement of the technique, and its application to regolith dating. U-Pb dating was also unsuccessfully applied to late-stage anatase, which is a cement in many Australian silcretes. ¶ Results from this study indicate that the landscape evolution and weathering history of northwestern New South Wales dates back at least 60 million years, probably 100 million years, and perhaps even as far back as 180 million years. The results imply that northwestern New South Wales was continuously sub-aerially exposed for the last 100 Ma, indicating that marine sedimentation in the Murray-Darling and Eromanga-Surat Basins was separated by this exposed region. The ages also provide further evidence for episodic deep chemical weathering under certain climatic conditions across the region, and add to the data from across Australia for similar events. In particular, the palaeomagnetic ages, which cluster at ~60 ± 10 Ma and 15 ± 10 Ma, are recorded in other palaeomagnetic dating studies of Australian regolith. The clay ages are more continuous across the field area, but show older clays in the Eromanga Basin sediments at White Cliffs and Lightning Ridge, Eocene clays in the Cobar region, and Oligocene – Miocene clays in the Broken Hill region, indicating progressively younger clay formation from east to west across northwestern New South Wales, in broad agreement with previously published clay weathering ages from around Australia. ¶ These weathering ages can be reconciled with reconstructions of Australian climates from previously published work, which show a cooling trend over the last 40 Ma, following an extended period of high mean annual temperatures in the Paleocene and Eocene. In conjunction with this cooling, total precipitation decreased, and rainfall became more seasonal. The weathering ages fall within periods of wetness (clay formation), the onset of seasonal climate (clay formation and palaeomagnetic weathering ages) and the initiation of aridity in the late Miocene (palaeomagnetic weathering ages). ¶ This study provides initial weathering ages for northwestern New South Wales, and, a broad geochronology for the development of the landscape of the region. Building on the results of this study, there is much scope for further geochronological work in the region.

Construction of a 1:250,000 scale regolith-landform map of the Cobar area of central New South Wales (NSW) Australia, demonstrates the presence of a wide range of previously undescribed regolith materials, landforms and landscape features in the region. The map covers the east-west extent of the Cobar Basin, extends to the west onto the Darling River Floodplain, and east onto rocks of the Girilambone Group. The mapping area is centred on the Cobar township and covers -14,730 krn2 between 303113 and 446113 E and 6483184 and 6586183 N (AGO 66, MGA Zone 55). 48 regolithlandform units have been identified, including both transported (alluvial, colluvial, aeolian, lacustrine) and in situ materials. A range of siliceous, ferruginous and calcareous indurated materials are also present. Four major drainage types have been identified based on lithological, sedimentological and topographic differences in alluvial materials. The 4 drainage types include: 1) modern drainage; 2) maghemite and quartzose gravels elevated 1-2 m relative to the modern drainage; 3) higher topographically inverted, and at least partly silicified, gravels; and, 4) sediments of Cretaceous origin. Multiple phases of drainage stability and instability from the Cretaceous to the present are indicated within the sediments. Breaching of drainage divides and increased dissection of the modern drainage, especially to the south of Cobar, indicate possible tectonic movement across a major regolith-landform boundary in the southern map area. Colluvial materials are more widespread to the north of Cobar reflecting the increased landscape dissection to the south. Colluvial fans are preserved adjacent to major rangefronts. Aeolian and lacustrine materials include longitudinal dunefields of the Darling River floodplain, source bordering dunes, and small lunettes associated with the Barnato Lakes system. Regolith-landform mapping at Cobar has been used to assess the applicability of previously developed landscape evolution models of the Cobar Block and surrounding region, and to develop a new landscape evolution model for the region. The new landscape evolution model of Cobar indicates minimal deposition of Cretaceous sediments, succeeded by high-energy early Tertiary fluvial regimes across the Cobar landscape. Weathering and sediment deposition continued into the Miocene, coupled with deep valley incision on the Cobar Block associated with early Oligocene regression. By the close of the Miocene, the Cobar Block had eroded to predominantly bedrock terrain and widespread filling of previously incised valleys occurred. A decrease in erosion and fluvial activity led to the formation of the modern drainage during the Pliocene-early Quaternary, followed by the formation of alluvial, aeolian and lacustrine deposits in the later Quaternary. Regionally, Eromanga Basin sediments were not extensive over the Cobar Block, and low rates of erosion are recorded at Cobar from the Cretaceous to the present. Former northerly drainage did exist in this area in the Cretaceous, but was limited in distribution. By at least the Early Tertiary the Cobar area was a structural high and drainage systems of the region had assumed their current configuration. These findings do not support interpretations of AFTT data of significant cover and subsequent stripping over the Cobar Block in the Early Tertiary. Evidence of landscape evolution from the Cretaceous to the present suggests that the Cobar landscape has been responding to changes in the primary landscape forming factors of lithology, climate and to a lesser degree, tectonics. Variations in the these three primary landscape forming factors have contributed to ongoing weathering, relatively continuous deposition, and periods of relative stability and instability, particularly in response to climatic and baselevel fluctuations, within a dynamically evolving landscape throughout the entire Tertiary. Former landscape evolution models of peneplanation and pediplanation, based on correlation of palaeosurfaces including duricrusts, a deep weathering profile developed during extended planation in the Early Tertiary, and tectonism during the late Tertiary in the Cobar area, are not supported by evidence preserved in regolith-landform features at Cobar.

Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Division of Environmental & Life Sciences, Graduate School of the Environment, 2002.
Includes bibliographical references: p. 228-232.
Geomorphology, archaeology and geoarchaeology: introduction and background -- Surface stone artefact scatters: why can we see them? -- Geomorphic controls on spatial patterning of the surface stone artefact record -- A temporal framework for interpreting surface artefact scatters in Western NSW -- Synthesis: stone artefact scatters in a dynamic landscape.
Surface scatters of stone artefacts are the most ubiquitous feature of the Australian Aboriginal archaeological record, yet the most underutilized by archaeologists in developing models of Aboriginal prehistory. Among the many reasons for this are the lack of understanding of geomorphic processes that have exposed them, and the lack of a suitable chronological framework for investigating Aboriginal 'use of place'. This thesis addresses both of these issues. -- In arid western NSW, erosion and deposition accelerated as a result of the introduction of sheep grazing in the mid 1800s has resulted in exposure of artefact scatters in some areas, burial in others, and complete removal in those parts of the landscape subject to concentrated flood flows. The result is a patchwork of artefact scatters exhibiting various degrees of preservation, exposure and visibility. My research at Stud Creek, in Sturt National Park in far western NSW, develops artefact and landscape survey protocols to accommodate this dynamic geomorphic setting. A sampling strategy stratified on the basis of landscape morphodynamics is presented that allows archaeologists to target areas of maximum artefact exposure and minimum post-discard disturbance. Differential artefact visibility at the time of the survey is accommodated by incorporating measures of surface cover which quantify the effects of various ephemeral environmental processes, such as deposition of sediments, vegetation growth, and bioturbation, on artefact count. -- While surface stone artefact scatters lack the stratigraphy usually considered necessary for establishing the timing of Aboriginal occupation, a combination of radiocarbon determinations on associated heat-retainer ovens, and stratigraphic analysis and dating of the valley fills which underlie the scatters, allows a two-stage chronology for huntergatherer activity to be developed. In the Stud Creek study area, dating of the valley fill by OSL established a maximum age of 2,040±100 y for surface artefact scatters. The heatretainer ovens ranged in age from 1630±30 y BP to 220±55 y BP. Bayesian statistical analysis of the sample of 28 radiocarbon determinations supported the notion, already established from analysis of the artefacts, that the Stud Creek valley was occupied intermittently for short durations over a relatively long period of time, rather than intensively occupied at any one time. Furthermore, a gap in oven building between about 800 and 1100 years ago was evident. Environmental explanations for this gap are explored, but the paiaeoenvironmental record for this part of the Australian arid zone is too sparse and too coarse to provide explanations of human behaviour on time scales of just a few hundred years. -- Having established a model for Stud Creek of episodic landscape change throughout the late Pleistocene and Holocene, right up to European contact, its veracity was evaluated in a pilot study at another location within the region. The length of the archaeological record preserved in three geomorphically distinct locations at Fowlers Gap, 250 km south of Stud Creek, is a function of geomorphic dynamics, with a record of a few hundred years from sites located on channel margins and low terraces, and the longest record thus far of around 5,000 years from high terrace surfaces more remote from active channel incision. But even here, the record is not continuous, and like Stud Creek, the gaps are interpreted to indicate that Aboriginal people moved into and out of these places intermittently throughout the mid to late Holocene. -- I conclude that episodic nonequilibrium characterizes the geomorphic history of these arid landscapes, with impacts on the preservation of the archaeological record. Dating of both archaeological and landform features shows that the landscape, and the archaeological record it preserves, are both spatially and temporally disjointed. Models of Aboriginal hunter-gatherer behaviour and settlement patterns must take account of these discontinuities in an archaeological record that is controlled by geomorphic activity. -- I propose a new geoarchaeological framework for landscape-based studies of surface artefact scatters that incorporates geomorphic analysis and dating of landscapes, as well as tool typology, into the interpretation of spatial and temporal patterns of Aboriginal huntergatherer 'use of place'.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
vii, 232 p. ill., maps

The research reviewed here was initiated in the early 1950's when Australian pedology was concerned primarily with soil classification and mapping. Theories about soil genesis and distribution were based, for the most part, on geographic concepts of the northern hemisphere and interpretations relied heavily on present climate and steady state landscapes. These were not always appropriate. At that time also, surficial geology in Australia was in its infancy and the generally accepted space—time framework of geology for landscape development was too coarse for considering soils. The realities of our soil landscapes demanded a new approach. A new and essentially unique approach was developed in Australia. It was based on stratigraphic principles and recognized the episodic or cyclic nature of landscape events. The papers submitted here represent a contribution to the development of that new approach. They show its application in several geographic regions in Australia and in midwestern United States of America and also its use in providing a basis for studies of soil genesis. Furthermore, the principles of alternating landscape stability and instability were the basis of research into historic erosion. The findings of this research are also presented. The development of pedological concepts that relate to field occurrence requires that a substantial body of field knowledge be built up. In the present instance, regional soil surveys provided much of this background knowledge. The regional pedological studies developed from them give a thematic structure to the first part of this thesis. The relevant soil survey reports are not, however, presented with the published papers but are listed separately in the Appendix.

Ministerial responsibility is a corollary of the democratic process. An administrative component of that democratic expression is the Treasury. Federal, state or national treasuries have always played pivotal roles in the political, economic, social, technical and cultural evolution of the political arenas within which they function. This thesis presents, for the first time, an institutional history of the New South Wales Treasury. It includes an analysis of its British antecedents, its establishment in the penal colony of New South Wales, by way of the Commissariat and Colonial Funds, and its subsequent development into one of the most influential State government departments. What is fundamental to the successful and efficient administration of a Treasury in the twenty-first century was also true five thousand years ago. There is a universality of constant principles applying to the administration of the public purse and those principles have not altered over the millennia: security, accountability, transparency, efficiency and control. A component of a modern Treasury is its advisory capacity in financial matters. This thesis, therefore, examines the application of those constants in the context of New South Wales over the previous one hundred and fifty years, 1824 to 1976. The New South Wales Treasury is examined specifically, as the vehicle for the adaptation and application of those constant principles attaching to the financial administration of the public purse. An examination is also made of the growth of Treasury??s internal structure, leadership, modus operandi, its response to administrative reform and its role in the public service. The inter-play between Treasury, Governors, Colonial Treasurers, and the public service are all vial elements in this exposition of Treasury. This history, therefore, analyses and dissects the influences that provided the impetus for a government agency to develop successfully, from a modest office of three in 1824, into the present day department of state.

Floodplains are amongst the most productive and biodiverse ecosystems. The structure and functioning of floodplains is controlled by the interaction of intermittent inundation with the floodplain landscape. These interactions create highly complex and dynamic ecosystems that are difficult to study at large scales. Consequently, most research of floodplains has been conducted at small spatial and temporal scales. Inundation of floodplains can extend over many square kilometres, however, which unifies the floodplain landscape into an integrated ecosystem operating at the landscape scale. The lack of data and poor understanding of the landscape-scale structure and functioning of floodplains limits the possibility of managing floodplains sustainably as pressure for exploitation of their resources increases. This thesis quantifies the landscape-scale relationship between the frequency and patterns of inundation, the composition and structure of the landscape, and the functioning of the floodplain landscape in terms of the distribution and dynamics of plant growth vigour over an area of approximately 376,000 ha on the Lower Balonne Floodplain; highly biodiverse, semi-arid floodplain ecosystem that straddles the state border between New South Wales and Queensland approximately 500 km inland from the eastern coast of Australia. Mean annual rainfall at St.George, to the north of the study area, is approximately 400�450 mm per year, and median annual evaporation is approximately 2000 mm per year. Plants and animals on the floodplain are therefore heavily dependent upon flooding for survival. This project is based on the analysis of 13 Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite images captured over a 10-year period during which land and water resource development increased substantially. There is now concern that development activities have affected the functioning of the floodplain to the detriment of the natural environment and agricultural productivity. The impacts from these activities on the functioning of the floodplain are not yet known, however. Inundation of the Lower Balonne Floodplain was mapped using a two-part process involving a band ratio to identify deep clear water, and a change detection analysis to identify areas of shallower inundation. This analysis shows that, in contrast with most floodplains, the main flowpath of the Lower Balonne Floodplain runs along its central axis away from river channels, which flow along the floodplain�s outer edges. Inundation propagates from the centre of the floodplain out towards river channels as flood discharge volumes increase. Variations in the spatial pattern of inundated patches within the inundated extent create distinctive aquatic habitat and connectivity conditions at different flow levels. These can be described in terms of three connectivity phases: (I) Disconnected, in which isolated patches of inundation occur at low flows and river channels are hydrologically dislocated from the floodplain; (II) Interaction, where increased hydrological connectivity between inundated patches, and between the floodplain and the river channels at moderate flows, may enable significant exchange of materials, organisms and energy; and (III) Integration, in which almost the entire floodplain landscape is connected by open water during large magnitude floods. There is an abrupt transition in inundation patterns as flows increase between 60,000 ML day-1 and 65,000 ML day-1 (ARI 2 to 2.3 years) in which inundation patterns transform from being relatively disconnected into a highly integrated network of patches. These patterns may have significant consequences for the structure and functioning of the floodplain. Increases in flows across this small range may therefore mark an important ecological flow threshold on this system. Water resource development impacts have changed the relative frequency of flows on the Lower Balonne Floodplain, which will probably affect the sequence of connectivity phases over time. The most likely impact of these changes will be to create a floodplain that is drier overall than under natural flow conditions, and that has a smaller and wetter area of high inundation frequency. The relationship between inundation and the structure of the floodplain landscape was examined by comparing a landcover map showing the distribution and character of 10 landcover types to the inundation frequency maps. Landcover types were mapped from a multi-date Reference Image composite of seven images captured over a period of 10 years. The Reference Image improves landcover discrimination by at least 14% over classification of a single-date image, and has an overall accuracy between 82.5% and 85% at the landscape-scale. The Reference Image shows that the landscape of the Lower Balonne Floodplain is a highly fragmented mosaic of diverse landcover types distributed in association with inundation frequency. Stratifying the floodplain into zones of frequent and rare inundation shows that frequently inundated areas have a less fragmented but less diverse landscape structure than rarely inundated areas. Assessment of the functioning of each landcover types within the floodplain ecosystem, based on landscape pattern metric analysis, indicates that the function of landcover types also changes between inundation frequency zones. Most importantly, these changes include a transformation of the matrix landcover type, which controls the character and dynamics of the ecosystem overall, from Open Grassland to Coolibah Open Woodland in the frequently inundated zone. The landscape structure of the Lower Balonne Floodplain has been affected by development impacts, which include clearing of native vegetation, isolation of parts of the floodplain from natural inundation events by the construction of levee banks and drainage channels, and grazing impacts. Changes to the inundation regime may also affect the structure of the floodplain landscape. Over the long term, these changes are likely to create a larger area of Open Grassland and a smaller area of Coolibah Open Woodland as the zone of frequent inundation becomes smaller and wetter. To examine the functioning of the floodplain ecosystem, the inundation maps were compared to remotely sensed indexes of plant growth vigour at the landscape and landcover-type scales. The dynamics of plant growth vigour over time are influenced by factors operating at the regional, landscape and patch scales. Evaporation is the major control of growth vigour levels at the landscape scale, but each landcover type has a distinctive pattern of growth vigour dynamics that is related to its composition and location, and possibly its landscape structure. The association between the spatial distribution of plant growth vigour and inundation frequency is non-linear, with the highest growth vigour occurring where inundation occurs approximately once per year. This indicates a subsidy-stress interaction with water in which plant growth vigour is limited by soil anoxia in areas of frequent or long term inundation, and by drought stress in rarely inundated areas. A landscape-scale model of growth vigour dynamics, founded on the principles of Hierarchical Patch Dynamics and Landscape Ecology, was created from growth vigour measurements of each landcover type over time. This model was used to examine possible impacts of development activities on the functioning of the floodplain ecosystem. This model shows that the response of plant growth vigour development activities can be complex and subtle, and include a change in mean long-term growth vigour and an increased susceptibility to drought. The model also indicates that periods of high growth vigour can occur in substantially altered floodplain ecosystems. The model was also used to explore the levels of landcover change that might cause a threshold change in the functioning of the ecosystem, which may substantially alter the disturbance-response characteristics of the floodplain ecosystem. The model indicates a threshold change when the extent of Open Grassland is reduced by 30% of its extent in 1993, in which plant growth vigour response to disturbance is virtually inverted from that observed in the images. The temporal variability of plant growth vigour levels increases as the extent of Open Grassland is further reduced. This thesis makes a number of important contributions to our understanding of floodplain structure and functioning. It includes the development of new techniques suited to studying large diverse and complex landscapes at the landscape scale from satellite images, and provides quantitative data describing the links between the structure of floodplain landscapes and their functioning at the landscape scale. This work improves the understanding of floodplain ecosystems by integrating models of floodplain structure and functioning, which have been developed largely from smaller-scale studies of temperate and tropical floodplains, with landscape-scale measurements of this semi-arid system. This thesis also has implications for the Lower Balonne Floodplain by improving the level of information about this important ecosystem and providing baseline data against which the condition of the floodplain can be assessed in future.

This exegesis forms part of a cycle in the author's ongoing journey into the space of one tree, Eucalyptus gummifera. Many previously unchartered zones of experience give rise to experiences which are perceived slowly, with an open mind, in order to communicate an assemblage of experiences, objects and data which have come together to represent a reading of elements of the landscape of the Sydney Basin, one place where Eucalyptus gummifera grows. Each element has a niche within a specific grid of interaction that takes place in this lived environment. The work surveys fields of physical objects and relationships, inspiring new readings and translations of the landscape of one's own discoveries. Here the world acquires perspective and significance which enables fresh understandings and the deeper accquisition of knowledge. Thus the interactions in this sequence of the author's journeys into the space of one tree reveal further elements of the spatial landscape of Eucalyptus gummifera.

In 1815 the Blue Mountains were first identified as a unique landscape when Governor Macquarie took a tour over them and located the nineteenth century principles of the Sublime and Picturesque within its' landscape. Until this time the Blue Mountains were considered to be a hostile impenetrable barrier to the West. This paper examines some of the ways the Blue Mountains has been represented in the past, and has been identified as a tourist destination through interpretations imposed on the landscape by the tourist industry since that time. The areas covered deal with the heritage of British Colonialism as a way of forming opinions about the Australian landscape. Then, the theories of the Picturesque and Sublime are examined when applied to the Blue Mountains landscape. The final chapters in this paper deal with contemporary issues that have shaped the way the tourist industry is encouraged to encounter the Blue Mountains landscape

The study area extends from west of the Great Divide to the Broken Hill and Tibooburra regions of far western New South Wales, encompassing several important mining districts that not only include the famous Broken Hill lodes (Pb-Zn-Ag), but also Parkes (Cu-Au), Peak Hill (Au), Cobar (Cu-Au-Zn) and White Cliffs (opal). The area is generally semi-arid to arid undulating to flat terrain covered by sparse vegetation. ¶ During the Cretaceous, an extensive sea retreated across vast plains, with rivers draining from the south and east. After the uplift of the Great Divide associated with opening of the Tasman Sea in the Late Cretaceous, drainage swung to the west, cutting across the Darling River Lineament. The Murray-Darling Basin depression developed as a depocentre during the Paleogene. Climates also underwent dramatic change during the Cenozoic, from warm-humid to cooler, more seasonal climates, to the arid conditions prevalent today. Up until now, there has been very little temporal constraint on the development of this landscape over this time period. This study seeks to address the timing of various weathering and landscape evolution events in northwestern New South Wales. ¶ ...

Agricultural pastures are one of the most common land-cover types in fragmented terrestrial landscapes. While they may act as a 'matrix' (i.e. unable to support sustainable populations) for some species, for others they can have high conservation potential. In many parts of the world, agricultural pastures are being replaced by tree plantations, which will influence the distribution of patch-associated species and those that occur more broadly across the landscape. Understanding how species respond to landscape transformation is critical to the successful conservation of biodiversity. My thesis introduction further explores possible consequences of landscape transformation and the ecological and management context of my research (Chapter 1). I then present my systematic review, which assesses how the matrix has so far been considered in fragmentation studies on butterflies (Chapter 2). I found it was significantly more likely for studies not to include the matrix in their experimental design. This result was concerning as 80% of the papers which did consider the matrix reported that it had a negative impact on butterflies. My review highlights the need for future research to ensure the matrix is included appropriately in the experimental design of studies in fragmented landscapes. I then present empirical research on butterflies (Chapter 3) and ground-active beetles (Chapter 4) in a landscape of native Eucalyptus woodland patches surrounded by agricultural pastures and pine plantations in the southwest slopes of New South Wales, Australia. My results suggest that farmland offers resources to both taxa. Conversely, in areas where farmland has been transformed to plantation, I found significantly fewer beetles and a complete absence of butterflies. This research indicates that land-cover change could have serious implications for the successful dispersal of animals, and may lead to population isolation and/or biotic homogenisation. I further explore mechanisms driving the distribution of butterflies in this landscape by investigating movement of Heteronympha merope (common brown butterfly) at edges of eucalypt woodland, agricultural pasture and pine plantation (Chapter 5). I found individuals were less likely to approach pine edges compared to edges of farmland or eucalypt. They also were unlikely to cross pine edges, and in cases where they did cross, they always returned to the area they were released from. If released within pine, individuals actively departed. These results further support the suggestion that dense pine plantations may interrupt successful disperal for species in patchy landscapes. My thesis demonstrates the effects of landscape transformation on patch-associated species and others that occur more widely across the landscape. The lack of biodiversity supported by plantations is particularly concerning for conservation considering demands for plantation wood will result in plantation expansion in many areas worldwide. This thesis concludes by providing recommendations for improving the conservation value of plantations (Chapter 6), including; adopting earlier thinning schedules and preserving corridors of native trees or understorey vegetation. Implementing my recommendations will likely improve matrix use and patch connectivity for invertebrates and other taxa. Future research should concentrate on evaluating the effectiveness of my management recommendations for various taxa and systems (Chapter 6).

The proximate causes of many of the environmental issues facing residents of the Western Division are well known. Inappropriate land use practices (intensity, duration and timing of grazing), total grazing pressure, poor knowledge of ecosystem fragility and seasonal variation are some of the issues that contribute to an actual or perceived degradation of the landscape. Many of the current practices are seemingly at odds with the attitudes and values of the wider community and also those of the pastoralists who carry out these practices. This thesis seeks to explain this apparent contradiction. The thesis is composed of four elements. The first element reviews historical (mostly European) thinking about nature and the relationship between nature and society and traces how this thinking has changed through time. The second element is a review of the history of land settlement and land use in the division, and shows how the development of the division followed contemporary societal attitudes and values. The third element is an examination of the portrayal of landscape in a western visual art tradition and how this has the potential to be used to reflect contemporary social attitudes and values. The fourth element involves the use of three projects that used art and text as a basis for investigating the attitudes and values of people in the Western Division. The findings of the research indicate that visual landscape has the potential to become an aid in the identification of community attitudes and values about the landscape in which they live. Further, this technique allows for the emergence of other factors such as individual identity and its accommodation within the behavioural framework. In accommodating such factors as individual identity, individual and social attitudes and values toward the environment in any discussion of behaviour in relation to the landscape and its use, a better understanding of the motives underlying behaviour will be gained. In so doing better decisions can be made by both pastoralists and land administrators. Further research is needed to verify the usefulness of these findings in both opening up a positive dialogue with landholders and administrators and in aligning pastoralists’ behaviour towards a more sustainable land use ethic.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The proximate causes of many of the environmental issues facing residents of the Western Division are well known. Inappropriate land use practices (intensity, duration and timing of grazing), total grazing pressure, poor knowledge of ecosystem fragility and seasonal variation are some of the issues that contribute to an actual or perceived degradation of the landscape. Many of the current practices are seemingly at odds with the attitudes and values of the wider community and also those of the pastoralists who carry out these practices. This thesis seeks to explain this apparent contradiction. The thesis is composed of four elements. The first element reviews historical (mostly European) thinking about nature and the relationship between nature and society and traces how this thinking has changed through time. The second element is a review of the history of land settlement and land use in the division, and shows how the development of the division followed contemporary societal attitudes and values. The third element is an examination of the portrayal of landscape in a western visual art tradition and how this has the potential to be used to reflect contemporary social attitudes and values. The fourth element involves the use of three projects that used art and text as a basis for investigating the attitudes and values of people in the Western Division. The findings of the research indicate that visual landscape has the potential to become an aid in the identification of community attitudes and values about the landscape in which they live. Further, this technique allows for the emergence of other factors such as individual identity and its accommodation within the behavioural framework. In accommodating such factors as individual identity, individual and social attitudes and values toward the environment in any discussion of behaviour in relation to the landscape and its use, a better understanding of the motives underlying behaviour will be gained. In so doing better decisions can be made by both pastoralists and land administrators. Further research is needed to verify the usefulness of these findings in both opening up a positive dialogue with landholders and administrators and in aligning pastoralists’ behaviour towards a more sustainable land use ethic.

In 1832, William Montagu Rothery and his brother, Frederick, founded Cliefden, a pastoral station in central western New South Wales. This thesis examines Aboriginal and Chinese labour at Cliefden during the period 1832-1899. It takes Cliefden as a case study, a ‘situated context’ of shared European, Aboriginal and Chinese experience. Using a rich array of archives from this station, it argues that, notwithstanding intense violence on expanding colonial frontiers, some pastoral stations could be places of necessary mutual accommodation and relatively equitable labour. It also argues that, for Chinese, some pastoral stations could be places of ongoing labour outside the goldfields and away from the pernicious anti-Chinese hostility prevalent during the second half of the nineteenth century. In so doing, it aims to add new historical insights into Indigenous and Chinese experience in nineteenth-century rural Australia and reveal the shared landscape of the mid- to late-nineteenth century pastoral station. The daily labour experiences of both Aboriginal and Chinese workers on pastoral stations are areas of developing, but not yet extensive, scholarship. This thesis builds on that scholarship and overturns two general presumptions: that the Aboriginal labour experience on pastoral stations was always based on inequitable labour relations, and that Chinese workers were few, itinerant, and equally underpaid. As well, this thesis offers a more comprehensive view of one pastoral station as a ‘contact zone’, a ‘shared landscape’, and a site of colonial labour for Aboriginal, European and Chinese peoples. Historian. Tony Ballantyne recently made the point that, while there is a need for more work that maps broad patterns and pursues large questions, it needs to ‘sit alongside and engage with the more specialised and localised research that should be the lifeblood of history as a discipline’. As a localised study, this thesis contributes to that lifeblood

This exegesis forms part of a cycle in the author's ongoing journey into the space of one tree, Eucalyptus gummifera. Many previously unchartered zones of experience give rise to experiences which are perceived slowly, with an open mind, in order to communicate an assemblage of experiences, objects and data which have come together to represent a reading of elements of the landscape of the Sydney Basin, one place where Eucalyptus gummifera grows. Each element has a niche within a specific grid of interaction that takes place in this lived environment. The work surveys fields of physical objects and relationships, inspiring new readings and translations of the landscape of one's own discoveries. Here the world acquires perspective and significance which enables fresh understandings and the deeper accquisition of knowledge. Thus the interactions in this sequence of the author's journeys into the space of one tree reveal further elements of the spatial landscape of Eucalyptus gummifera.
Master of Arts (Hons)(Contemporary Arts)

Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) are one of Australia’s most iconic species. An increase in watering sites and urban development have dramatically influenced the species range and abundance. Current knowledge of group structure, dispersal and behaviour of eastern grey kangaroos is limited. Developing a better understanding of these topics is essential in creation of effective management strategies. The following thesis explores multiple aspects of behavioural ecology and health in free ranging eastern grey kangaroos. Motion detecting infra-red camera traps were used to assess activity patterns and social interactions, as well as the suitability of this tool for measuring behaviour in this species. Activity patterns were compared between a modified and natural site. The location of 23 road killed kangaroos was studied to evaluate what influences road mortality. DNA extracted from tissue and blood samples were used to conduct microsatellite analysis and investigate genetic structure of the population. Baseline haematology, blood chemistry, and acute phase protein parameters were examined for eight kangaroos including three adult males, three adult females and two sub-adult males to assess health. The aim of the research was to expand the existing knowledge of the behaviour, social organisation, population dynamics and health of eastern grey kangaroos to assist in developing more informed and effective management strategies for this species. Research was conducted at two sites in NSW, Yarramundi paddocks at the Hawkesbury campus of WSU, Richmond, NSW; an active farmland site fragmented by an urban environment consisting of 308 ha of pasture, grassland, marshes and open woodland, and the Emirates One and Only Wolgan Valley Resort, Newnes, NSW; a largely undeveloped area and conservation reserve at an eco-resort situated on 1619 ha of grasslands, woodland and riparian areas surrounded by the sandstone cliffs of World Heritage listed National Parks. Camera trap data was consistent with activity patterns of eastern grey kangaroos observed on foot in previous studies. The behaviour of kangaroos appeared to be influenced by the presence of cameras, however no kangaroos retreated from cameras and all appeared to become habituated to cameras after eight months. The findings suggest that camera traps are suitable for assessing the diurnal activity of kangaroos, however nocturnal activity appeared to be underrepresented. Observations of unusual fighting behaviour illustrates the potential for camera traps to enable capture of novel observations. Comparison of camera trap data showed that kangaroos at the modified site had a higher density, spent more time in larger groups, and had an earlier peak activity time than those at the natural site. More vigilance (standing still and scanning for threats) and less feeding were observed at the modified site. The higher population density at the modified site is likely to be a result of increased resources and restricted dispersal. The earlier peak activity time observed at the modified site may be in response to artificial lighting. Increased vigilance may be due human presence, and visual barriers in modified landscapes that reduce the line of sight. Reduced feeding time is probably a result of the higher nutritional content of pasture grasses at the modified site. Assessment of factors that influence kangaroo road mortality at the modified site demonstrated that more mortalities occurred during periods of low temperature and low rainfall, and during the waning gibbous phase of the lunar cycle. Periods of low temperature and low rainfall reduce forage quality, causing kangaroos to travel further to find high quality vegetation. High moon illumination provides increased visibility and allows for greater mobility of kangaroos. Significantly more road mortalities occurred a short distance from the end of a section of street lights. Gaps in roadside lighting are likely to reduce motorists’ ability to visually detect animals on roads while their eyes adjust to different lighting levels. Investigation of the genetic structure within the population indicated one pair of kangaroos were full siblings, and a high proportion were identified as half siblings. Six positive parentage assignments were detected. The locus used for microsatellite analysis were polymorphic and highly informative for use in the study population. No genetic spatial autocorrelation was detected. Examination of health parameters of free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos found preliminary differences in both the haematological and blood chemistry values of kangaroos of different ages and genders. The kangaroo serumhad a strong antibacterial response to Klebsiella pneumoniae, and moderate responses to Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Haptoglobin and serum amyloid A were present in kangaroo serum, but only haptoglobin was elevated in a kangaroo with necrotic wounds. Results confirm that camera traps are suitable for assessing the diurnal activity of eastern grey kangaroos and should be incorporated in into future studies to reduce observer effect and costs, thus enabling effective long term monitoring. The expanded knowledge of the factors found to increase kangaroo road mortality enable more effective road design planning and wildlife management strategies such as targeted wildlife crossing structures and warning signs. Understanding of the genetic structure and dispersal patterns occurring within these free-ranging populations, and their health, will assist in effective population monitoring, which is necessary for the successful management of kangaroo populations in increasingly developed landscapes. Overall, the information gained from this research is essential for developing effective management practices for high density kangaroo populations in developed areas, which is necessary as a result of the increasing development and habitat fragmentation across Australia.