Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Land tenure – Law and legislation'

Thesis (LLM (Private Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this thesis, the Communal Land Rights Act 11 0f 2004 is analysed in order to determine whether it can give effect to the constitutional mandate in terms of which it was promulgated, namely section 25(5), (6) and (9) of the Constitution. Land policy pertaining to land tenure reform is discussed to see how and to what extent it finds application in the Act. The time-consuming process pertaining to the registration of the community rules is investigated, and the implications where a community fails to adhere to this peremptory provision in the Act are explained. The thesis also analyses and discusses the functions of statutorily created institutions, like the land administration committee and the land rights boards, in the efficient management of land in rural areas. The aforementioned land administration committee is particularly problematic, since the Act provides that in cases where a recognised tribal authority exist, that institution “may” be considered as the land administration committee, subject to prescribed composition requirements as contained in the Act. The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act will also be discussed since it intersects with the Communal Land Rights Act in this regard. The pending constitutional challenge which relates to this potentially problematic issue, will be discussed. The constitutional challenge of the Act by four communities’ is explored in order to indicate just how potentially problematic the institution of traditional leadership could be. vi This study also discusses and analyses the compromise contained in the Act, regarding the registration of the land title of a community and the registration of “new order rights” in the name of individuals. In this context the impact of this process on the efficacy on the current Deeds registration system is investigated. The Ministerial determination and its constitutional implications is yet another issue, examined in this study. All of these issues will have a negative impact on the implementation of the Communal Land Rights Act and especially on achieving tenure security.
AFRIKAANS OPSOMMING: In hierdie tesis word die Wet op Kommunale Grondregte 11 van 2004 geanaliseer om te bepaal of dit inderdaad voldoen aan die grondwetlike mandaat soos voorsien in art 25(5), (6) en (9) van die Grondwet. Die beleid van toepassing op grondbeheerhervorming word bespreek om te bepaal tot watter mate dit wel in die Wet aanwending vind. Die tydrowende prosedure van die registrasie van gemeenskapsreëls word ondersoek, asook die implikasies indien ‘n gemeenskap nie aan die voorskriftelike bepaling voldoen nie. Die tesis bespreek en evalueer ook die funksies van die twee instellings wat statutêr geskep is, naamlik grond administrasie komitees en grondregte rade. Die twee instellings is geskep met die doel om van hulp te wees in die effektiewe administrasie van grond in die kommunale areas. Dit is veral die grond administrasie komitee wat problematies is, omdat die Wet op Kommunale Grondregte bepaal dat waar ‘n gemeenskap ‘n erkende tradisionele owerheid het, hierdie owerheid beskou sal word as die grond administrasie komitee van daardie spesifieke gemeenskap. In hierdie konteks is ‘n bespreking van die Wet op Tradisionele Leierskap en Regeringsraamwerk, noodsaaklik. Die betwiste grondwetlike kwessie wat tot op hede nog onbeslis is wat hiermee verband hou, sal ook bespreek word. ‘n Kort uiteensetting word gedoen van die vier gemeenskappe wat die Wet op grondwetlik gronde aanveg om presies te probeer aantoon hoe problematies die instelling van tradisionele leierskap is. Hierdie studie bespreek en analiseer verder ook die kompromis wat getref is tussen registrasie van die titelakte in die naam van ‘n gemeenskap en die viii registrasie van sogenaamde “nuwe orde regte” in die naam van individue. Die impak van hierdie magdom registrasies op die bestaande registrasiesisteem word ook oorweeg. Die grondwetlikheid van die ministeriële besluitnemingsbevoegdheid word breedvoerig bespreek in hierdie studie. Al hierdie genoemde kwessies mag nadelige impak hê op die implementering van die Wet op Kommunale Grondregte en spesifiek ook op grondbeheerhervorming.

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation is an attempt at reconciling the existing (and until recently predominant) private law concept of ownership and the property rights espoused by the new constitutional order. The attempts at land reform in South Africa and Germany are used as specifie examples of the manner in which the whole property law order in both these legal systems is developed through legislative and judicial initiative, on the basis of the constitutional provisions concerning property protection and regulation. The purpose of the investigation is to determine to what extent constitutional development of the private law of property will result in a property law order serving the socio-economic and political goals of economic growth and self-fulfilment and empowerment of the individual. Focus is placed on the influence of the constitutional protection and regulation of property as a mechanism for developing the private law of ownership in Germany and South Africa. In the first part of the exposition, the choice of legal comparison as course of inquiry is substantiated, and the terminological difficulties connected with an investigation into the development of the private law of property by the constitutional protection and regulation of property are discussed. Attention is given to the use of the terms "ownership" and "property" in the private law and in the constitutional context. The term "tenure" is also discussed in the context of land reform in South Africa. Further, the usc of terms such as "public interest", "common weal" and "public purposes" is discussed. The use of these terms are particularly complicated by the fact that each of them are often used in more than one sense, and that the use of these di fferent terms overlap to varying extents. The second part of the exposition contains information on the background of the constitutional property orders as they arc found in Germany and South Africa. The drafting histories of the South African and German constitutional property clauses indicate that in both these legal systems, the constitutional property clauses have hybrid ideological foundations. Both contain a compromise between, on the one hand, classical liberalism (which affords the holders of rights a high degree of individual freedom and autonomy) and, on the other hand, social democracy (which allow stronger regulatory measures, also upon private properly). Further, some of the structural aspects connected to constitutional protection and regulation of property in Germany and South Africa are discussed. The positively phrased property guarantee in art 14 GG is compared with the negatively phrased "guarantee" of s 25 Fe, whereby the transitional property guarantee in s 28 JC is also considered. Further, the basic structure and stages of an inquiry into the constitutional property clause are discussed, with reference to differences between the German and South African methods. These differences are not of such a nature that it excludes further comparison. Ilowever, it is necessary to keep the differences in the judicial system in mind when conducting a comparison of the present nature. Therefore, a brief overview of the judicial systems of Germany and South Africa is provided, with specific reference to the manner in which the courts resolved certain property questions. The principles underlying the constitutional orders of Germany and South Africa are also discussed with specific reference to their significance for the treatment of property issues. In particular, the meaning of the constitutional state (Rechtsstaat) and the social wei fare state (Sozialstaat) for the solution of problems connected to property is discussed. It is indicated that the legitimacy of the legal order in general and property law in particular, depends on the degree of success in the implementation of these values. Further, it is indicated that the implementation of these values also determines the importance of private property and/or regulation thereof in a specific legal system. In the third part of the exposition, the relevance of the constitutional protection and regulation for the private law of ownership is discussed. The expansion of the concept of property by the application of a "purely" constitutional definition thereof raises the question as to the continued relevance of the private law concept of ownership. This issue is discussed with reference to the protection of property in terms of the constitution in comparison with the scope of property in private law. It is indicated that the "exclusively constitutional" concept of property is by no means based only on Constitutional law. The role of the private law concept of ownership in a constitutional order is then elucidated. The discussion then turns to an analysis of the limitations on property endorsed by the constitutional order. Two main kinds of limitation are possible: (i) limitation of property through vertical operation of the constitution (ie a broad category of legislative and administrative deprivation (regulation), and a more specialised category, namely expropriations), and (ii) limitation through horizontal operation of the constitution (ie through the inroads allowed on property rights by the protection of other rights in the Bill of Rights). It is indicated that the application of the public interest / public purposes requirements are sometimes intended to protect individual interest above those of society in general. In other cases, the public interest / public purposes requirement is aimed at securing the interests of the society at large. Further, it is indicated that the purpose of constitutional "interference" in the area of private property law is to correct imbalances in the relations among private persons which are regarded by the law as "equals," even if they are not equal for all practical purposes. The fourth part of the exposition concentrates on the land reform programmes in Germany (after the reunification of 1990) and South Africa (since 1991) in order to analyse the attempts by the legislature and judiciary to give effect to the improved property order as anticipated by constitutional development of property. In both Germany and South Africa political changes made land reform programmes essential: In South Africa the land reform programme was introduced to reverse the injustices created by colonialism and apartheid. A tripartite programme is employed for this purpose. The new kinds of land rights created through this system of land reform are indicated. The manner in which this body of law is treated by the courts is also analysed with reference to its relevance for the development of Property Law in general. In Germany a property and land reform programme became necessary with the reunification. On the one hand, the socialist property order in the former GDR had to be replaced by the property order already existing in the FGR, and on the other hand the individual claims for restitution of the land and enterprises taken by the GDR state or its Soviet predecessor had to be balanced against the claims that present occupiers of such land have to it. The influence of legislation and litigation connected to these issues on the development of Property Law is discussed. The final part of the exposition is a summary of the conclusions drawn during the course of the analysis.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In 'n poging om in hierdie uiteensetting die bestaande (en tot onlangs nog oorheersende) privaatregtelike begrip "eiendom" te versoen met die breër eiendomsbegrip wat deur die nuwe grondwetlike bestel gepropageer word, word die grondhervormingsprogramme in Suid Afrika en Duitsland gebruik as voorbeelde van die wyse waarop die bestaande Eiendomsreg in beide regsisteme deur die wetgewer en die howe ontwikkel word. Die doel van die ondersoek is om vas te stel tot watter mate die grondwetlike ontwikkeling van privaatregtelike Eiendomsreg sal bydra tot die totstandkoming van 'n eiendomsregtelike regsorde waarin die sosio-ekonomiese en politieke doelwitte van ekonomiese groei en die vrye ontwikkeling en bemagtiging van die individu gedien word. Die klem word geplaas op die grondwetlike beskerming en regulering van eiendom as 'n meganisme waardeur die privaatregtelike Eiendomsreg in Duitsland en Suid- Afrika ontwikkel kan word. Die eerste deel van die uiteensetting begrond die keuse van regsvergelying as metode van analise en bespreek die terminologiese probleme wat in 'n ondersoek na die grondwetlike ontwikkeling van die privaatregtelike eiendomsreg kan opduik. Aandag word gegee aan die gebruik van begrippe wat verband hou met eiendom en publieke belang in sowel die privaatreg as in die grondwetlike konteks. Die gebruik van verskillende terme, veral in Engels, kan problematies wees, en daarom word dit breedvoeriger bespreek. In die tweede deel van die uiteensetting word die agtergrond waarteen die grondwetlike bestelle van Duitsland en Suid-Afrika funksioneer, bespreek: Eers word die formulering van die eiendomsklousules in Suid-Afrika en Duitsland vanuit 'n historiese perspektief ondersoek. In beide regsisteme is die grondwetlike eiendomsklousules op 'n kompromis tussen verskillende ideologieë gebaseer. Enersyds op klassieke liberalisme, in terme waarvan eienaars en ander reghebbendes 'n hoë mate van individuele vryheid en outonomie toegeken word; andersyds op sosiaal-demokratiese denke, in terme waarvan strenger regulerende maatreëls (ook op privaat eiendom) geduld moet word. Dan word sommige van die strukturele aspekte verbonde aan die grondwetlike beskerming en regulering van eiendom in Duitsland en Suid-Afrika bespreek. Die positief geformuleerde eiendomswaarborg in art 14 GG word vergelyk met die negatiewe formulering in art 25 FG en die positiewe waarborg in art 28 lG. Verder word die basiese struktuur en fases van 'n grondwetlike ondersoek in die beskerming en regulering van eiendom bespreek, met spesifieke verwysing na die verskille in die Duitse en Suid-Afrikaanse benaderings. Hierdie verskille is nie van so 'n aard dat dit regsvergelyking kortwiek nie. Nogtans is dit noodsaaklik dat die benaderingsverskille in ag geneem word vir 'n meer diepgaande vergelyking. Daarom word 'n vlugtige oorsig oor die rol van die howe in die hantering van eiendomsvraagstukke in grondwetlike konteks verskaf. Verder word die beginsels onderliggend aan die grondwetlike bestelle in Duitsland en Suid-Afrika bespreek met spesifieke verwysing na die betekenis daarvan vir die beskerming en regulering van eiendom. Daar word veral klem gelê op die regstaat- en sosiaalstaatbeginsels. Die legitimi teit van die regsorde in die algemeen, en meer spesifiek die Eiendomsreg, hang af van die mate van sukses waarmee hierdie beginsels in die gemeenskap geïmplementeer word. Daar word verder aangedui dat die toepassing van hierdie beginsels die mate van individuele vryheid in die uitoefening van eiendomsreg en/of die graad van regulering van eiendomsreg in 'n bepaalde regstelsel bepaal. Die derde deel van die uiteensetting konsentreer op die betekenis van die grondwetlike beskerming en regulering van eiendom vir die privaatregtelike Eiendomsreg. Die uitgebreide eiendomsbegrip wat in die grondwetlike konteks aangewend word, gee aanleiding tot die vraag na die sin van 'n voortgesette enger eiendomsbegrip in die privaatreg. Hierdie kwessie word bespreek met verwysing na die beskerming van eiendom in terme van die grondwet, en word vergelyk met die omvang van die eiendomsbegrip in die privaatreg. Daar word aangedui dat die sogenaamde uitsluitlik grondwetlike eiendomsbegrip geensins eksklusief aan die Grondwetlike Reg is nie. Die rol van die privaatregtelike eiendomsbegrip in 'n grondwetlike bestel word vervolgens uiteengesit. Verder word die beperkings op eiendom in die grondwetlike konteks geanaliseer. In beginsel is twee soorte beperkings regverdigbaar: (i) Beperking van eiendomsreg deur die vertikale aanwending van die grondwet, dit wil sê deur die breër kategorie wetgewende en administratiewe ontnemings (regulerings) van eiendomsreg en deur 'n enger en meer spesifieke kategorie, naamlik onteiening; en (ii) beperking van eiendomsreg deur horisontale aanwending van die grondwet, dit wil sê deur die inbreuk op eiendomsregte wat toegelaat word as gevolg van die uitwerking van die beskerming van ander regte in die Handves vir Menseregte. Daar word aangedui dat die vereiste van publieke belang in twee teenoorstaande opsigte gebruik word: Enersyds om die individuele belang bo dié van die gemeenskap te stel, en andersyds om die gemeenskap se belange as sulks te beskerm. Daar word ook aangedui dat grondwetlike "inmenging" met privaatregtelike eiendomsreg daarop gemik is om ongebalanseerdhede in die regsverhoudings tussen persone wat deur die reg as "gelykes" bejeën word en in effek nie gelyk is nie, uit te skakel. In die vierde deel van die uiteensetting word die grondhervormingsprogramrne in Duitsland (sedert hervereniging in 1990) en Suid-Afrika (sedert 1991) bespreek. Die klem val op die pogings van die wetgewer en howe om die verbeterde eiendomsbestel, soos wat dit in die grondwet in die vooruitsig gestel word, te konkretiseer. In beide regstelsels het politieke veranderinge 'n grondhervormingsprogram onontbeerlik gemaak: Die grondhervormingsprogram in Suid-Afrika het ten doelom die ongeregtighede in die grondbesitstelsel wat ontstaan het as gevolg van kolonialisme en apartheid uit te skakel. Vir dié doel berus die grondhervormingsprogram op drie verwante, maar uiteenlopende, beginsels. Die nuwe vorme van grondregte wat uit hierdie sisteem ontstaan, word aangedui, en die wyse waarop hierdie deel van die reg deur die howe hanteer word, word bespreek met verwysing na die betekenis daarvan vir die ontwikkeling van die Eiendomsreg. In Duitsland is die noodwendigheid van 'n grondhervormingsprogram aan die hervereniging van die DDR en die BRD gekoppel. Die sosialisties-georienteerde eiendomsbestel wat in die "oostelike" deel van Duitsland aanwending gevind het, moes vervang word deur die bestel wat reeds in die "westelike" deel van die "nuwe" staat in werking was. Verder moet die grondeise van persone wat grond of besigheidseiendom verloor het gedurende die sosialistiese regeringstyd en die voorafgaande Sowjetiese besetting, opgeweeg word teen die aansprake wat huidige besitters op sulke grond het. Die invloed van wetgewing en regspraak hieroor op die Eiendomsreg word geanaliseer. Die laaste deel van die uiteensetting bevat 'n samevatting van die gevolgtrekkings wat deur die loop van die analise gemaak is.

This thesis probes the land (in)justice in Hong Kong by presenting an archival research which contributes to the inter-disciplinary scholarship of legal geography. It conceptualises the leasehold land system as the legal mechanism in the land (re)development regime and politicises the understanding of land (in)justice by explaining how it is produced and reproduced by the legal mechanism. Drawing on critical realism, Dikeç's spatial dialectics of injustice, Lefebvre's concrete abstraction and several concepts in legal geography, this thesis proposes "spatio-legal dialectics of land (in)justice" as the theoretical framework. Reconstructing the historical geography of this former British colony, through the lens of scalar politics, demonstrates that the legal system and land development have been inextricably intertwined in Hong Kong. Through the legal technicalities of land leases, the Colonial Government transformed the territory of Hong Kong into an exploitable land property, and thus secured the absolute control of land and the effective governance of the society. The expiry problem of the land lease placed the future of Hong Kong as a diplomatic question between China and Britain. The "Tin Shui Wai Myth", situated in the 1980s, reflected the frictions between the two countries. The "Myth" is not only related to the production of the spatiality of injustice as a new town but also associated with the production of the injustice of spatiality because of some legal changes. These legal changes, related to land lease and urban infrastructure, evolved after the Sino-British Negotiation and led the land (re)development regime to be more hegemonic. Understanding Hong Kong as a property jurisdiction, the current problematic of land injustice, under the new constitutional order of the Chinese sovereignty, is elaborated by the thesis of complete exploitation with the concept of urban land nexus. This thesis empirically interprets the mutual constitution of law and urban development, and conceptually engages in the academic debates about (in)justice, law and urban spatiality.

Legislation in various jurisdictions alters the common law right to control access to one???s land by allowing the imposition of rights of access in favour of one landowner over the land of another. The relevant legislation can be divided into two categories. The first-generation legislation (s 88K, Conveyancing Act 1919 (NSW) and s 180, Property Law Act 1974 (Qld)) permits the creation of easements over servient land to facilitate the development of dominant land. The second-generation legislation (the Access to Neighbouring Land Act of New South Wales, Tasmania and the United Kingdom) permits the creation of temporary rights of access over servient land to facilitate work on dominant land. This thesis examines the extent to which this change in the law can be justified by three modes of ethical discourse: right-based, duty-based, and goal-based reasoning. An examination of the first-generation legislation and the cases in which it has been applied suggests that a form of goal-based reasoning can be used to justify its enactment. The legislation is needed to facilitate the efficient use of land where the existence of a bilateral monopoly and the possibility of strategic bargaining puts at risk the conclusion of a mutually beneficial agreement regarding access. A review of the second-generation legislation and the law reform reports and parliamentary debate that preceded its enactment indicates that the legislation can be justified by a form of duty-based reasoning. The legislation is needed to bring about a proper social ordering by imposing access rights where this would be consistent with the ideal of good neighbourliness. The thesis concludes that although these goal-based and duty-based discourses make an arguable case for the enactment of both generations of the legislation, neither of them, in an unadulterated form, provides a conclusive justification. Rather, an eclectic approach that draws on both discourses is required. It proposes that the legislation???s compensation provisions be amended to reflect the commingling of the ideas of efficiency, a properly ordered society and intensive land use, and to allow the servient owner to share in the benefits generated by the imposition of access.

Thesis (MTech (Public Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2011.
The main objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of Employment Equity Legislation on land reform delivery within the Provincial Land Reform Office of the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform in the Western Cape Province. In order to achieve this goal the researcher conducted a literature search of relevant books, journal articles, academic papers, news paper articles, legislation and subordinate legislation, policy documents, official reports, other applicable published and unpublished research materials. In conjunction with the literature search, the researcher developed a survey questionnaire to establish whether employment equity legislation does have a negative impact on land reform delivery within the provincial land reform office in the Western Cape. The survey was conducted arnonqst 60 employees within the Provincial Land Reform Office in Cape Town, including the District Offices of the Provincial Office. Fifty four (54) responses were used in the analysis, which represent a 90% rate of return. Based on the findings of the literature study and the empirical survey, 51.9% respondents' are of the opinion that the implementation of employment equity legislation does have a negative impact on land reform delivery within the provincial land reform office of the Western Cape. The researcher recommends that the department should consider using provincial demographics when employing staff within its provincial offices to ensure a more stable workforce. This is a true reflection of the responses as the majority of the respondents (81.5 %) agreed that Employment Equity (EE) targets should be based on provincial demographics rather than national demographics, whilst 13% of the respondents disagreed with this statement. Seventy seven comma eight percent (77.8 %) of the respondents also agreed that EE should reflect the target market being served. This will go a long way to foster good employer - employee relationships.

This thesis deals with the conceptualization of access to land by the dispossessed as a human right and commences with an account of the struggle for land between the peoples of African and European extractions in South Africa. It is observed that the latter assumed sovereignty over the ancestral lands of the former. The thesis discusses the theoretical foundation of the study and situates the topic within its conceptual parameters. The writer examines the notions of justice and equity in the context of the post apartheid constitutional mandate to redress the skewed policy of the past. It is argued that the dispossession of Africans from lands that they had possessed for thousands of years on the assumption that the land was terra nullius was profoundly iniquitous and unjust. Although the study is technically limited to dispossessions occurring on or after the 13th June 1913, it covers a fairly extensive account of dispossession predating this date. This historical analysis is imperative for two reasons. Besides supporting the writer’s contention that the limitation of restitution to land dispossessed on or after 1913 was arbitrary, it also highlights both the material and non-material cost of the devastating wars of dispossessions. The candidate comments extensively on the post apartheid constitutional property structure which was conceived as a redress to the imbalance created by dispossession. This underlying objective explains why the state’s present land policy is geared towards facilitating access to land for the landless. The thesis investigates the extent to which the present property structure which defines access to land as a human right has succeeded in achieving the stated objective. It reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the land restitution process as well as the question of the payment of just and equitable compensation for land expropriated for restitution. The latter was carefully examined because it plays a crucial role in the success or otherwise of the restitution scheme. The writer argues that the courts have, on occasions, construed just and equitable compensation generously. This approach has failed to reflect the moral component inherent in the Aristotelian corrective justice. This, in the context of South Africa, requires compensation to reflect the fact that what is being paid for is land dispossessed from the forebears of indigenous inhabitants. It seems obvious that the scales of justice are tilted heavily in favour of the propertied class whose ancestors were responsible for this dispossession. This has a ripple effect on the pace of the restitution process. It also seems to have the effect of favouring the property class at the expense of the entire restitution process. The candidate also comments on the court’s differing approaches to the interpretation of the constitutional property clause. The candidate contends that the construction of the property clause and related pieces of legislation in a manner that stresses the maintenance of a balance between private property interest and land reform is flawed. This contention is supported by the fact that these values do not have proportional worth in the present property context of South Africa. The narrow definition of “past racially discriminatory law and practices” and labour tenant as used in the relevant post apartheid land reform laws is criticized for the same reason of its uncontextual approach. A comparative appraisal of similar developments relating to property law in other societies like India and Zimbabwe has been done. The writer has treated the post reform land evictions as a form of dispossession. The candidate notes that the country should guard against allowing the disastrous developments in Zimbabwe to influence events in the country and calls for an amendment of the property clause of the constitution in response to the practical difficulties which a decade of the operation of the current constitution has revealed.

Magister Artium - MA
Both Am-Xhosa and the European farmers, being pastoralists "the search for land and grass was (their) first principle", notes Walker (1928). When they met, they differed fundamentally on the "vital matter oflandholding" . So different were their perspectives, that Lekhehla (1955) suggested, as far as the treaties were concerned: "The Native Chiefs either did not understand the implications of the border treaties, or if they did, never intended to respect such treaties" (p.2 1). Hopper (1980) says the tension between the Europeans and the Africans on the land issue emanated from the fact that "Xhosa expansion" and "colonial expansion" processes were entirely different. While Am-Xhosa expanded in order to "preserve their political integrity" colonists were driven by an economic dynamic they expanded because land was necessary to accommodate growth (1980:261).

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Section 25(2) of the 1996 Constitution states that property may only be expropriated for a public purpose or in the public interest and compensation must be paid. This dissertation analyses the public purpose and public interest requirement in light of recent court decisions, especially with regard to third party transfer of expropriated property for economic development purposes. The public purpose requirement is explained in terms of pre-constitutional case law to create a context in which to understand the public purpose and public interest in terms of the 1996 Constitution. This leads to a discussion of whether third party transfers for economic development purposes are generally for a public purpose or in the public interest. The legitimacy of the purpose of both the expropriation and the transfer of property to third parties in order to realise the purpose is considered. Conclusions from a discussion of foreign case law dealing with the same question are used to analyse the South African cases where third party transfers for economic development have been addressed. Based on the overview of foreign case law and the critical analysis of South African cases, the dissertation sets out guidelines that should be taken into account when this question comes up again in future. The dissertation also considers whether an expropriation can be set aside if alternative means, other than expropriating the property, are available that would also promote the purpose for which the property was expropriated. Recent decisions suggest that alternative and less invasive measures are irrelevant when the expropriation is clearly for a public purpose. However, the dissertation argues that less invasive means should be considered in cases where it is not immediately clear that the expropriation is for a valid public purpose or in the public interest, such as in the case of a third party transfer for economic development. The role of the public purpose post-expropriation is considered with reference to purposes that are not realised or are abandoned and subsequently changed. In this regard the dissertation considers whether the state is allowed to change the purpose for which the property was expropriated, and also under which circumstances the previous owner would be entitled to reclaim the expropriated property when the public purpose that justifies the expropriation falls away. It is contended that the purpose can be changed, but that the new purpose must also comply with the constitutional requirements.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Artikel 25(2) van die Grondwet van 1996 vereis dat `n onteining slegs vir `n openbare doel of in die openbare belang mag plaasvind, en dat vergoeding betaalbaar is. In die proefskrif word die openbare doel en openbare belang geanaliseer in die lig van onlangse regspraak wat veral verband hou met die onteining van grond wat oorgedra word aan derde partye vir doeleindes van ekonomiese ontwikkeling. Die openbare doel vereiste word geanaliseer in die lig van respraak voor die aanvang van die grondwetlike bedeling om beide die openbare doel en openbare belang in terme van die Grondwet van 1996 te verstaan. Op grond van hierdie bespreking word die vraag ondersoek of die onteiening van grond vir ekonomiese ontwikkeling en die oordrag daarvan aan derde partye vir `n openbare doel of in die openbare belang is. Gevolgtrekkings uit `n oorsig van buitelandse respraak waarin dieselfde vraag reeds behandel is dien as maatstaf vir die Suid-Afrikaanse regspraak oor die vraag te evalueer. Op grond van die kritiese analise van die buitelandse regspraak word sekere aanbevelings gemaak wat in ag geneem behoort te word indien so `n vraag weer na vore kom. Die vraag of `n onteiening ter syde gestel kan word omdat daar `n alternatiewe, minder ingrypende manier is om die openbare doel te bereik word ook in die proefskrif aangespreek. In onlangse regspraak word aangedui dat die beskikbaarheid van ander, minder ingrypende maniere irrelevant is as die onteiening vir `n openbare doel of in die openbare belang geskied. Daar word hier aangevoer dat die beskikbaarheid van alternatiewe metodes in ag geneem behoort te word in gevalle waar dit onduidelik is of die onteining vir `n openbare doel of in die openbare belang geskied, soos in die geval van oordrag van grond aan derde partye vir ekonomiese ontwikkelingsdoeleindes. Ter aansluiting by die vraag of die onteining van grond vir oordrag aan derdes vir ekonomiese ontwikkeling geldig is, word die funksie van die openbare doel na onteiening ook ondersoek. Die vraag is of die staat geregtig is om die doel waarvoor die eiendom onteien is na afloop van die onteiening te verander. Die vraag in watter gevalle die vorige eienaar van die grond teruggawe van die grond kan eis word ook aangespreek. Daar word aangevoer dat die staat die doel waarvoor die eiendom benut word kan verander, maar dat die nuwe doel ook moet voldoen aan die grondwetlike vereistes.
South African Research Chair in Property Law, sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology, administered by the National Research Foundation and hosted by Stellenbosch University
Cuicci bursary fund
Faculty of Law Stellenbosch University

This thesis describes the evolution and demise of Oregon's alien land laws of 1923 and 1945 and their impact on the Nikkei community and the state's culture. After a brief discussion of Japanese immigration to Oregon and their lifestyle, the work discusses the emergence of discrimination against Japanese residents. At the same time, it outlines how the Nikkei adopted creative responses to the law. This thesis then explores the manner by which anti-Japanese internment policies during World War II shattered the Issei community, revoking many of the gains made in the previous half-century. The effects of the second alien land law and wartime economic changes in agriculture also are considered. The final section of the thesis deals with successful efforts in reversing the alien land laws and suggests how the Japanese experience in Oregon illustrates the challenges facing a pluralist society.

Section 12N, introduction into the Income Tax Act by way of Taxation Laws Amendment Act and which became effective on 2 November 2010, provides for allowances on the leasehold improvements on government-owned land and land leased from certain tax exempt entities as stipulated in section 10 (1) (cA) and (t). As section 12N deems the lessee to be the owner of the leasehold improvement, the lessee now qualifies for capital allowances which were previously disallowed.

This study focused on community participation in relation to policy formulation in Lesotho. It paid particular attention to whether the Lesotho community participated in the formulation of the Lesotho Land Bill 2009. Literature related to the concept of participatory development, community participation and policy formulation was reviewed. From the literature, it was clear that the attainment of effective community participation in policy formulation is not something that can take place overnight and this makes community participation a crucial aspect of any development project. The study used the qualitative approach to provide more information and detailed examination of community participation in the formulation of the Lesotho Land Bill 2009. This approach adopted the case study design. The data was collected using focus groups, interview schedule and document analysis. The study found that the government did not consult widely on the Bill before it was enacted into an Act of parliament. Therefore, it recommends that the government of Lesotho should involve all relevant stakeholders to participate in policy formulation. This will help to establish a link between the government and civil society stakeholders at local levels, for participatory policy-making to be effective.

A land tenure system is a set of rules which govern social relations between peoples in respect to land. It defines the property rights in land of individuals or groups in a specific locality or society. The property rights, which are in effect bundles of rights, may include the right to use, lease, mortgage, transfer, and so on. The source of these tenurial rules can be either customs or enacted laws. This thesis examines in detail these aspects of land tenure systems in respect to Eritrea, a country situated in the Horn of East Africa. Accordingly, the indigenous systems of land tenure of the country, land reforms introduced by the country's colonizers, and land laws enacted by the country's Government after independence, are discussed and criticized.

The present enquiry is a study of specific social possibilities in a culture-contact situation, namely the encounter of the Dene and Inuit of the Northwest Territories with Canadian society; and shows how by analyzing the basic content of two traditions in contact with one another, the possibilities for mutual adjustment of one tradition to the other, or the lack of such possibilities, may be logically derived from that content. The study also uses the perspective of cultural ecology to devise and demonstrate a way in which any system of land-tenure may be compared with any other, without the concepts of one system being imposed upon the other. The particular problem of the enquiry is to compare the traditional ideas of land and land-tenure among Dene and Inuit with the ideas of land and land-tenure in Canadian law; and to discover a way whereby the Dene and Inuit may use the concepts of the dominant Canadian system to preserve their own traditional ways of holding land. The analysis begins by outlining the cultural ecosystem of each people, their basic modes of subsistence, the resources used, the kinds of technical operations applied to those resources, the work organization, and relevant parts of social organization and world-view. Then, in order, the idea of land which the people appear to be following, the kinds of land-rights and principles of land-holding recognized by the" people, and the kinds of "persons" who may hold land-rights, are described. The systems are then compared in order to discover the possibilities for "reconciliation". The enquiry concludes that the basic premises and characters of the Dene and Inuit systems of land-tenure are fundamentally irreconcilable with those of Canadian real property law, but that the Dene and Inuit systems can be encapsulated within the dominant Canadian system by means of the Community Land-Holding Corporation (CLHC). The CLHC as proposed in this enquiry would allow the members of a community to hold land among themselves according to their own rules, while the corporation holds the land of the whole community against outsiders according to the principles of Canadian law.
Arts, Faculty of
Anthropology, Department of
Graduate

Thesis (LLD (Public Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
Bibliography
ABSTRACT ENGLISH: The dissertation considers the tenure rights of urban residential tenants in the post-1994 constitutional dispensation. The 1996 Constitution mandates tenure reform in two instances. Firstly, section 25(6) (read with section 25(9)) mandates the legislature to enact legislation that would provide legally secure tenure rights for a person or community whose tenure of land is insecure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices. This form of tenure reform is race-based. Secondly, section 26(3) mandates the courts to consider all relevant circumstances during eviction proceedings. In terms of this provision the court can refuse to grant the eviction order on the basis of the occupier's socio-economic weakness, which is a more general form of class-related tenure reform. The Constitution also ensures the right to have access to adequate housing, while the legislature must introduce measures that would give effect to this right (sections 26(1) and 26(2)). To determine whether the current landlord-tenant regime in South Africa is able to provide tenants with secure occupation rights and access to rental housing, it is compared to landlord-tenant regimes in pre-1994 South Africa, the United Kingdom, New York State and Germany. The landlord-tenant regimes are considered in light of changing socio-economic circumstances where the state had to assist households during housing shortages. The dissertation assesses the efficiency of landlord-tenant law, combined with regulatory measures that ensure substantive tenure rights and rent restrictions, as a form of tenure that could help alleviate housing shortages and initiate a new landlord-tenant regime for South Africa that would give effect to the Constitution. The dissertation concludes that the current substantive tenure rights of urban residential tenants are largely based on the common law, which is associated with weak tenure security. The landlord-tenant laws, namely the Rental Housing Act 50 of 1999 and the Social Housing Act 16 of 2008, fail to provide urban residential tenants with substantive tenure rights. The legislature has failed to enact a law that gives effect to section 25(6) in the landlord-tenant framework. The legislature did enact the Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act 19 of 1998 (PIE) in order to give effect to section 26(3). Recently the courts interpreted PIE to provide marginalized tenants with substantive tenure protection during eviction proceedings. However, to give effect to section 25(6) legislation should grant residential tenants substantive tenure rights that are legally secure prior to eviction. The legislature enacted the Rental Housing Act and the Social Housing Act to give effect to the right to housing (section 26 of the Constitution) in the landlord-tenant framework. These laws fail to promote access to rental housing as a form of tenure that could help alleviate housing shortages.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die proefskrif oorweeg die okkupasieregte van stedelike residensiële huurders in die post-1994 konstitusionele bedeling. Die 1996 Grondwet bepaal dat okkupasieregte in twee gevalle hervorm moet word. Eerstens gee artikel 25(6) (gelees met artikel 25(9)) opdrag aan die wetgewer om wetgewing te verorden wat okkupasieregte met verblyfsekerheid aan 'n person of gemeenskap sal verleen indien so 'n person of gemeenskap tans grond okkupeer met okkupasieregte wat onseker is as gevolg van vorige rasgebaseerde wetgewing. Hierdie tipe hervorming is rasgebaseer. Tweedens gee artikel 26(3) opdrag aan die howe om alle relevante faktore te oorweeg as deel van enige uitsettingsprosedure. In terme van hierdie bepaling is die howe gemagtig om 'n uitsettingsbevel te weier op die basis van die okkupeerder se sosio-ekonomiese kwesbaarheid. Hierdie tipe hervorming is 'n meer algemene klasgebaseerde hervorming. Artikel 26(1) (gelees met artikel 26(2)) van die Grondwet bepaal dat elkeen die reg op toegang tot geskikte behuising het, terwyl die staat redelike wetgewende en ander maatreëls moet tref om hierdie reg te verwesenlik. Ten einde te bepaal of die huidige huurbehuisingstelsel in Suid-Afrika voldoende is, met inagneming van die stelsel se vermoë om huurders te voorsien van okkupasieregte met verblyfsekerheid en van toegang tot huurbehuising, word dit vergelyk met die huurbehuisingstelsels in Suid Afrika voor 1994, die Verenigde Koninkryk, New York Staat en Duitsland. Hierdie huurbehuisingstelsels word bespreek met inagneming van veranderinge in die sosio-ekonomiese omstandighede waartydens die staat gedurende behuisingstekorte huishoudings moes ondersteun. Die doeltreffendheid van huurbehuising word beoordeel met verwysing na regulasies wat substantiewe okkupasieregte verseker en beperkings plaas op huurpryse om 'n vorm van verblyfreg daar te stel wat die behuisingstekort kan verminder ten einde 'n nuwe huurbehuisingstelsel vir Suid-Afrika te inisieër wat gevolg aan die Grondwet sal gee. Die proefskrif lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat die huidige substantiewe okkupasieregte van stedelike residensiële huurders grotendeels op die gemenereg gebaseer is. Die gemenereg maak nie voorsiening vir sterk substantiewe okkupasieregte nie. Die huidige huurbehuisingswetgewing, naamlik die Wet op Huurbehuising 50 van 1999 en die Wet op Maatskaplike Behuising 16 van 2008, slaag nie daarin om substantiewe okkupasieregte vir stedelike residensiële huurders te voorsien nie. Die wetgewer het nie daarin geslaag om 'n wet te promulgeer wat in die huurbehuisingsraamwerk aan artikel 25(6) effek gee nie. Die wetgewer het wel die Wet op die Voorkoming van Onwettige Uitsetting en Onregmatige Besetting van Grond 19 van 1998 verorden om effek te gee aan artikel 26(3) van die Grondwet. Hierdie Wet is onlangs so deur die howe geïnterpreteer dat dit kwesbare huurders tydens uitsettingsprosedures met substantiewe okkupasieregte beskerm. Om aan artikel 25(6) te voldoen moet wetgewing egter substantiewe okkupasieregte met verblyfsekerheid aan residensiële huurders verskaf voordat hulle uitgesit word. Die wetgewer het die Wet op Huurbehuising en die Wet op Maatskaplike Behuising verorden ten einde effek aan die reg op behuising (artikel 26 van die Grondwet) in die gebied van huurbehuising te gee. Geeneen van hierdie wette slaag daarin om toegang tot behuising, en veral huurbehuising as 'n vorm van okkupasie, te bevorder ten einde die behuisingtekort te verminder nie.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Section 25(6) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 guarantees legally secure tenure to persons whose tenure of land is insecure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws and practices. The Extension of Security of Tenure Act 62 of 1997 (ESTA) and the Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act 3 of 1996 (LTA) were enacted to give effect to section 25(6), read with section 25(9) of the Constitution, with the aim to improve and strengthen tenure security in rural areas, including farmland. However, the general opinion amongst scholars is that these efforts to strengthen tenure security have generally failed to ensure legally secure tenure on farmland. To this effect, the Draft tenure security policy and Draft Land Tenure Security Bill (2010) were formulated to introduce new measures to improve tenure security on farmland. This gives a clear indication that eighteen years after the government embarked on an all-encompassing land reform programme, its intended goals have not yet been achieved, resulting in the continued challenges faced by farm dwellers. The thesis discusses the inherent challenges associated with tenure security on white-owned commercial farmland, with specific reference to government‟s obligation to improve tenure security; the nature of farm dwellers‟ rights; and the shortcomings of the existing policy and legislative measures. A historical overview explains the effects of the apartheid land holding system that underpins the need for tenure reform, while an analysis of constitutional and international law sets out the guiding principles on tenure security. An analysis of the applicable policy and legislative measures establishes the causes of continued tenure insecurity on farmland, which include shortcomings in the main legislative measures; failure by the legislature to translate policy into legislation; misinterpretation and misapplication of legislation by the courts; and lack of effective implementation. The thesis considers the impact of the Draft tenure security policy and the Bill in light of the challenges facing farm dwellers and concludes that tenure security in relation to farmland remains insecure and government still falls short of the appropriate solutions to address the tenure security challenges on farmland.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Artikel 25(6) van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika 1996 waarborg sekerheid van verblyfregte vir persone wie se verblyfregte regsonseker is as gevolg van ras-diskriminerende wette en praktyke van die verlede. Die Wet op die Uitbreiding van Sekerheid van Verblyfreg 62 van 1997 (ESTA) en die Wet op Grondhervorming (Huurarbeiders) 3 van 1996 (LTA) is gepromulgeer om gevolg te gee aan artikel 25(6), saamgelees met artikel 25(9), van die Grondwet, wat daarop gemik is om die sekerheid van verblyfregte in landelike gebiede te verbeter en te versterk. Die algemene siening onder geleerdes is egter dat hierdie pogings om sekerheid van bestaande verblyfregte te versterk oor die algemeen ten opsigte van verblyfregte op landbougrond gefaal het. In verband hiermee is die Konsep beleid op sekerheid van verblyfregte (Draft tenure security policy) en die Konsep Wetsontwerp op die Sekerheid van Verblyfregte in Grond (Draft Land Tenure Security Bill) (2010) geformuleer om nuwe maatreëls voor te stel om sekerheid van verblyfregte ten opsigte van landbougrond te bewerkstellig. Hierdie ontwikkelings gee ‟n aanduiding dat die staat ná ‟n omvattende grondhervormingsprogram van agtien jaar nie die beoogde doelwitte bereik het nie en dat plaasbewoners steeds uitdagings in die gesig staar. Hierdie tesis bespreek die inherente uitdagings wat geassosioseer word met regsonsekere verblyfregte ten opsigte van kommersiële landbougrond, hoofsaaklik van wit grondeienaars, met spesifieke verwysing na die staat se plig om regsekerheid te versterk; die aard van plaasbewoners se regte; en die tekortkominge van die bestaande beleids- en wetgewende maatreëls. Die behoefte aan hervorming word beklemtoon met verwysing na ‟n historiese oorsig wat die uitwerking van die apartheid-grondbeheerstelsel verduidelik, terwyl ‟n analise van grondwetlike en internasionale reg die beginsels met betrekking tot die sekerheid van verblyfregte uiteensit. ‟n Analise van die toepaslike beleids- en wetgewende maatreëls dui op die oorsake van voortdurende onsekerheid van verblyfregte in landbougrond, wat die volgende insluit: tekortkominge in die primêre wetgewende maatreëls; versuim deur die wetgewer om beleid in wetgewing om te skakel; foutiewe uitleg of toepassing van wetgewing deur die howe; en ‟n gebrek aan die effektiewe uitvoering van wetgewing. Die tesis oorweeg die impak van die Konsep beleid op sekerheid van verblyfregte (Draft tenure security policy) en die Konsep Wetsontwerp in die lig van die uitdagings waarmee plaasbewoners steeds te kampe het, en kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat verblyfregte ten opsigte van landbougrond steeds regsonseker is en dat die staat steeds versuim om geskikte oplossings vir die uitdagings daar te stel.

The paper outlines the historical development of Kenyan land tenure reform in relation to a group of smallholders in Maragoli. The transformation of common property into private property has not completely destroyed the authority of local institutions in matters of land tenure and land use. Customary social obligations have continued to play a role in the decision-making process of smallholders in Maragoli. The government in Kenya continues to be uninformed by the socioeconomic realities that affect smallholders. Agrarian law and administration should be built on the kinds of agricultural systems that are being practiced by the majority of the population in Kenya.

On March 10, 1957, the United States Army Corps of Engineers completed The Dalles Dam and inundated Celilo Falls, the oldest continuously inhabited site in North America and a cultural and economic hub for Indigenous people. In the negotiation of treaties between the United States, nearly one hundred years earlier, Indigenous leaders reserved access to Columbia River fishing sites as they ceded territory and retained smaller reservations. In the years before the dam’s completion, leaders, many of who were the descendants of earlier treaty signatories, attempted to stop the dam and protect both fishing sites from the encroachment of state and federal regulations and archaeological sites from destruction. This study traces the work of Wilson Charley, a Native fisherman, a member of the Yakama Nation’s Tribal Council, and great-grandson of one of the 1855 treaty signatories. More broadly, this study places Indigenous actors on a twentieth-century Columbia River while demonstrating that they played active roles in the protest and management of areas affected by The Dalles Dam.

Using previously untapped archival sources—a substantial cache of letters—my analysis illustrates that Charley articulated multiple strategies to fight The Dalles Dam and regulations to curtail Native’s treaty fishing rights. Aiming to protect the 1855 treaty and stop The Dalles Dam, Charley created Native-centered regulatory agencies. He worked directly with politicians and supported political candidates, like Richard Neuberger, that favored Native concerns. He attempted to build partnerships with archaeologists and landscape preservationists concerned about losing the area’s rich cultural sites. Even after the dam’s completion, he conceptualized multiple tribal economic development plans that would allow for Natives’ cultural and economic survival.

Given the national rise of technological optimism and the willingness for the federal government to terminate its relationship with federally recognized tribes, Charley realized that taking the 1855 treaty to court was too risky for the political climate of the 1950s. Instead, he framed his strategies in the language of twentieth-century conservation, specifically to garner support from a national audience of non-natives interested in protecting landscapes from industrial development. While many of these non-native partners ultimately failed him, his strategies are noteworthy for three reasons. First, he cast the fight to uphold Native treaty rights in terms that were relevant to non-natives, demonstrating his complex understanding of the times in which he lived. Second, his strategies continued an ongoing struggle for Natives to fish at their treaty-protected sites, thereby documenting an overlooked period between the fishing rights cases of the turn of the twentieth century and the 1960s and 1970s. Charley left a lasting legacy that scholars have not recognized because many of his visionary ideas came to fruition decades later. Finally, my analysis of Charley’s letters also documents personal details that afford readers the unique perspective of one Indigenous person navigated through a tumultuous period in the Pacific Northwest and Native American history.

The changes to the British Columbia Municipal Act repealing land use contracts in 1978 by Bill 42, and the subsequent amendments leading up to Bill 62 in 1985 and Bill 30 in 1987 have been both dramatic and comprehensive in their effect on land development and the approval process. Since the repealing of land use contracts and in spite of the new amendments, B.C. planning legislation has been increasingly criticized among developers, planners, and local governments for the lack of development agreement provisions and adequate flexibility in the municipal approval process. This thesis investigates the possibility of reintroducing land use contracts as a development agreement control in the context of current planning practices. A literature review of the evolution of municipal planning control in B.C. is conducted to provide background information for a theoretical and practical evaluation of the current system of controls in comparison to the former system of land use contracts. The theoretical evaluation is based on measuring both systems against normative criteria, whereas the practical evaluation is comprised of a local government/development industry survey and several case studies. The following conclusions are made in this research: - Land use contracts were introduced in response to a growing need among local governments for some legitimate legislative means of entering into development agreements with developers to require developers to assist in providing the municipal services associated with their development. - Local government support for the land use contract was based on the ability to regulate design, ensure regulation performance, and to enter into off-site servicing and amenity agreements. - The development industry was initially supportive of land use contracts because they offered unlimited flexibility during negotiations and the certainty of a legal contract immune to future zoning changes. Developers eventually withdrew their support for land use contracts complaining of large scale downzoning, lengthy approval delays and excessive impost fees. Many of these allegations are dispelled in this research, but the real weakness of the land use contract was that it was difficult to amend and could be used extensively to replace zoning, effectively "fettering" future council's planning powers. - In the absence of the land use contract, many municipal governments are continuing with a land use contract practice, but without a legislative or in some instances legal basis. - The theoretical analysis, survey and case studies determine that the current planning legislation is adequate for the most part. There is a need however, for a land use contract mechanism to accommodate mixed use, comprehensive or complicated developments. This type of control was determined to be superior in accommodating these types of projects to the current approach of using a variety of planning mechanisms. Generally there is support among local governments and the development industry in B.C. for new land use contract legislation as long as it is more clearly defined to avoid the mistakes of its use in the 1970's. On the basis of this analysis, the study recommends that land use contract reintroduced but in a much more controlled and limited way.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of
Graduate

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
Includes bibliography
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African land question presents complex legal and social challenges. The legal aspects of land are inextricably linked to other socio-economic aspects, such as access to housing, healthcare, water and social security. The Constitution provides for land reform in the property clause - section 25. This clause, while seeking to redress the colonial land dispossessions, by means of a tripartite land reform programme, also protects the property rights of all. The different legs of the land reform programme are redistribution, which is aimed at enabling citizens to access land on an equitable basis; restitution, which sets out to restore property rights or grant equitable redress to those dispossessed of land as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices and finally tenure reform. Tenure reform is premised on transforming the landholding system of those with legally insecure tenure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices or granting comparable redress. The primary focus of this thesis is on tenure security for black rural women in South Africa, while using the Namibian experience with regard of the same group as a comparison. Historically, before colonialism, landholding was governed by the customary law of the various tribes in South Africa. This landholding system underwent extensive change through the colonial era that ultimately led to a fragmented and disproportionate distribution of land based on race, with insecure land rights particularly in rural areas, where women are the majority. With the dawn of the Constitutional era, South Africa embarked upon a social justice project, based on a supreme Constitution, embodying human dignity, equality, non-racialism, accountability and the rule of law. Land reform forms part of the social project and is governed by the Constitution and influenced by both the civil and customary law. With the South African tenure context, policy documents, legislation and case law will be analysed. In this process the role of the stakeholders and other related factors, for example customary practices are also considered. The analysis indicates that case law has played a significant part in addressing women’s plight with regard to equality, tenure reform and abolishing suppressive legislative provisions and practices. It is furthermore clear that the different categories of women are affected differently by the overarching tenure and other related measures. For a legal comparative study, Namibia was chosen for the following reasons: (a) both South Africa and Namibia have a shared colonial and apartheid background; (b) both countries have a Constitutional foundation incorporating human rights and equality; and (c) both countries have embarked on land reform programmes. However, contrary to the South African position, both the Namibian Constitution and its National Land Policy are more gender-specific. Tenure reform is an on-going process in Namibia in terms of which specific categories of women have benefitted lately. To that end the gender inclined approach may be of specific value for the South African situation, in general, but in particular concerning black rural women. Consequently, particular recommendations, linked to the specific categories of women, are finally provided for the South African position, in light of the Namibian experience.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse grondkwessie beliggaam ingewikkelde regs- en sosiale uitdagings. Die regsaspekte wat verband hou met grond is ook onlosmaaklik gekoppel aan sosio-ekonomiese kwessies, soos byvoorbeeld toegang to behuising, gesondheidsdienste, water en sosiale sekuriteit. Die Grondwet maak vir grondhervorming in die eiendomsklousule, artikel 25, voorsiening. Die eiendomsklousule beoog om koloniale grondontnemings (deur ‘n drie-ledige oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram) aan te spreek en terselfdertyd eiendomsregte te beskerm. Die oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram bestaan uit herverdeling, waarmee billike toegang tot grond vir alle burgers bewerkstellig word; restitusie, waarvolgens herstel (of ander billike vergoeding) vir persone en gemeenskappe wat grond en regte as gevolg van rasdiskriminerende maatreëls verloor het, bewerkstellig word en laastens grondbeheerhervorming. Grondbeheerhervorming behels die aanpas of opgradeer van grondbeheervorme (of die betaal van billike vergoeding) in gevalle waar regte onseker (of swak) is weens rasdiskriminerende maatreëls en praktyke van die verlede. Die hooffokus van die tesis is op die regsekerheid (al dan nie) van grondbeheer van swart landelike vrouens in Suid- Afrika, met die Namibiese ervaring as regsvergelykende komponent. Histories, voordat kolonialisme ingetree het, was grondbeheer deur die tradisionele inheemse reg van die verskillende gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika gereguleer. Hierdie grondbeheersisteme het grootskaalse verandering gedurende die koloniale tydperk ondergaan. Dit het eindelik tot ‘n rasgebaseerde, gefragmenteerde sisteem gelei waarvan die verdeling van grond disproporsioneel was en die grondbeheervorme regsonseker, veral in die landelike gebiede waar vrouens die meerderheid van die bevolking uitmaak. Toe die grondwetlike era in Suid-Afrika aanbreek, is daar met ‘n sosiale geregtigheidprojek (heropbou en ontwikkeling) begin. Hierdie benadering is op die Grondwet gefundeer waarin menswaardigheid, gelykheid, nie-rassigheid, rekenskap en regsorde beliggaam is. Grondhervorming vorm deel van die oorhoofse projek en word deur die Grondwet bestuur en deur beide die nasionale en die Inheems reg beïnvloed. Met betrekking tot die Suid-Afrikaanse grondbeheeristeem word beleidsdokumente, wetgewing en regspraak geanaliseer. In hierdie proses word die rol van belanghebbendes en ander verwante aspekte, soos byvoorbeeld Inheemse partyke, ook oorweeg. Die analise dui aan dat dit veral ontwikkelings in regspraak is wat ‘n groot bydrae gelewer het om vrouens se stryd om gelykheid en sekerheid van grondbeheer te bevorder en wat gelei het tot die afskaffing van onderdrukkende wetgewende maatreëls en praktyke. Dit is verder ook duidelik dat verskillende kategorieë van vrouens verskillend deur die oorhoofse grondbeheer- en ander verwante maatreëls, geaffekteer word. Namibië is vir die regsvergelykende analise geïdentifiseer omdat (a) beide Suid- Afrika en Namibië ‘n koloniale en apartheidsgeskiedenis deel; (b) beide jurisdiksies ‘n grondwetlike basis het waarin menseregte en gelykheid beliggaam word; en (c) beide lande grondhervormingsprogramme van stapel gestuur het. In teenstelling met die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering, is die Namibiese Grondwet en die nasionale grondbeleid egter meer geslag-spesifiek. Grondbeheerhervorming in Namibië is ‘n aaneenlopende proses waaruit veral sekere kategorieë vrouens onlangs voordeel getrek het. Om daardie rede mag die geslag-spesifke benadering wat in Namibië gevolg word vir Suid-Afrika ook van waarde wees, nie net in die algemeen by grondbeheer nie, maar spesifiek ook met betrekking tot swart landelike vroue. In die lig van die Namibiese ervaring word daar ten slotte spesifieke aanbevelings tot die Suid-Afrikaanse sisteem, gekoppel aan bepaalde kategorieë van vroue, gemaak.

Aspects of customary land tenure may survive even where formal rules in a society supersede custom. This thesis is about persisting custom for Maori Freehold land (MFL) in New Zealand, and the Communal Areas (CAs) of Zimbabwe. Three questions are addressed: what unwritten land tenure custom still persists for Ngai Tahu, Shona and Ndebele, what key historical processes and events in New Zealand and Zimbabwe shaped the relationship between people and land into the form it displays today, and how do we explain differences between surviving customary tenure practices in the two countries? The research was based on in-depth interviews. A key difference between the two countries was found to lie in the type and degree of security available over the years to Maori and Shona/Ndebele. Roots of security were found in the substance of the founding treaties and concessions, and thereafter in a variety of other factors including the help (or lack of it) offered by the law in redressing grievances, the level of intermarriage between settler and autochthon, the differing security of land rights offered in urban centres in the respective countries, demographic factors and the availability of state benefits. This research finds that greater security was offered to Maori than to Shona and Ndebele, and that this has reduced the centrality of customary practices with regard to land. The research found that, in Zimbabwe, tenure security in the CAs is still underwritten by communities and that significant investment is still made in both living and dead members of those communities. Another finding is that land custom has adapted dynamically to meet new challenges, such as urban land and CA land sales. In New Zealand, investment in groups that jointly hold rights in MFL has, to some extent been eclipsed by the payment of rates and the availability of services (e.g. state-maintained boundary records and law enforcement mechanisms) and of benefits (e.g. superannuation, disability and unemployment). Land and community are not as closely linked to survival as they were in the past and, for many, they have come to hold largely symbolic value and less practical significance. Overall, it is the pursuit of security and �belonging� that have been the greatest influences on customary land tenure practices in the long term.

Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Graduate School of the Environment, 2001.
Bibliography: p. 10-1 to 10-23.
An overview of contaminated land issues -- Land contamination law -- The impact of environmental planning on contaminated land value -- Identification and management of contaminated land -- Contaminated land valuation method - an overview -- Current stigma assessment methods -- Suggested method for stigma assessment -- General conclusion.
This dissertation is about the valuation of contaminated land and the problem of stigma. The value of contaminated land is to a large extent affected by statutory regulations. Stigma, if it exists, is another factor that has significant impact on contaminated land value. This thesis looks at the relevant laws governing contaminated land in Australia. It also introduces an alternative method to assess the stigma factor. -- Contaminated land is a major environmental problem. Apart from causing actual or potential threats to human health and the environment, contaminated land also leads to legal liabilities and financial losses to the landowner. Regarding financial losses, they may be costs to meet legal requirements in relation to clean up and long term monitoring expenses. In addition, they may be losses due to a drop in market value and/or rental of the property, longer vacancy periods, high remediation and monitoring costs. In the extreme case, the property may lose marketability completely. -- Regarding valuation methods, most valuers use traditional valuation methods with arbitrary adjustments. The most straightforward method is the impaired value (affected value) approach. It requires the valuer to assess the property on a clean land basis. From the unimpaired (clean) value, other financial losses due to contamination, remediation costs and stigma value loss are deducted to get the impaired value. The most difficult part is to quantify stigma impact. The existing stigma assessment methods are not satisfactory. Alternative and non-traditional methods are available. However they are academic and are not suitable for day-to-day operation of a valuer. This thesis suggests a multi-criteria decision-making model to assess stigma impact. The target stigma factor is obtained by processing the relevant criteria with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. The best alternative from the model is the reasonable stigma factor for the property.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
various pagings ill. (some col.)

Jersey law, and within it Jersey property law, has received little academic attention. This thesis seeks to examine, and provide a systematic account of, the Jersey law of property. Specific aspects of substantive law are explored. From these, general observations about the nature and structure of property law are made. Unsurprisingly, given the small size of the island, Jersey has a relatively limited amount of indigenous legal material to offer, much of it in French. Inevitably, there are gaps in the sources and some way of addressing these has to be determined before a systematic account of the law is possible. Juristic writing and modern caselaw demonstrate consistent recourse to the laws of other jurisdictions when gaps are encountered. Norman law, modern French law, and English law (to a much lesser extent and mainly where it conforms to Roman law) are used in the cases on property law, and thus also in this thesis. Reference is also made to the law of Guernsey (Jersey’s sister jurisdiction) but the difficulties encountered in researching Jersey law are no less evident there. In areas such as the law of servitudes, Roman law is often referred to explicitly by the Jersey jurists and by the commentators on Norman law. The influence of Roman law is also evident in the division between real rights and personal rights, sometimes barely visible in Jersey law, and is also a general backdrop to the rules on classification of things. Norman feudal law remains vestigially in place but the structure of the law and its individual rules bear many civilian characteristics. For this reason, in addition to Jersey sources, Norman law, modern French law, and any other materials used by the courts, other jurisdictions with civilian systems of property law are also referred to, specifically mixed jurisdictions, of which Jersey is one.

This research study aims to investigate the South African Land Reform process from a conflict resolution perspective. According to Burton’s basic human needs theory deep-rooted social conflict will occur wherever social institutions neglect universal basic human needs. Excess to land and land tenure are considered basic human needs because they provide landowners with food, shelter and security. In absence of an extensive welfare state, land ownership fulfils the role of a social safety network, particularly in African countries. Consequently, an equal distribution of land is needed in order to enable the majority of South Africans to fulfil their basic human needs. The instrument chosen for correcting the inequalities in land distribution are the three components of the South African land reform programme namely tenure reform, restitution and redistribution. The South African Land Reform Programme was largely influenced by the World Bank’s ‘Willing-Seller Willing- Buyer’ or ‘Negotiated Land Reform Approach’. Nevertheless, the South African model differs from the original concept by the World Bank in some aspects. The outcome of the Land Reform Process is analysed and evaluated by the on-going evaluation approach. All sources used in this research are open to the public and published either on official websites or in hard cover version in reports and articles. The results of this investigation indicate that the target of redistributing 30% of white-owned agricultural land by the year 2014 is not going to be accomplished. Nevertheless, the settlement of claims can be considered a success story although most of the claims were settled by means of cash compensation instead of actual land transfer. Furthermore, a change in the land acquisition policy from a demand-led approach based on the negotiated land reform principle towards a more static, state-led, top-down approach has been identified as well as shortcomings in the post-settlement support of new landowners. To put it briefly, the land reform process in toto is about to fail and a chance of reducing the enormous conflict potential given away. Furthermore, the conflict potential will increase due to the failures in providing the poor and rural masses with access to land.

Planning administration in the Western Cape is at a critical juncture. It is faced with having to address planning issues and housing needs whilst at the same time demonstrating through its practices the promotion of environmentally sustainable development. This paper will discuss planning and environmental legislation and the impact that the application of the legislation has on development proposals. Current legislation addresses issues of spacial development in developed areas and new development proposals but lacks the ability to address issues within informal settlements. Although socio-economic factors are not currently considered when assessing the viability of applications, the courts seem to consider these factors. Since new housing settlements are often developed for the poor and industrial developments in close proximity to these areas have direct impact on these individuals, planning could only gain if these factors are taken into consideration.

If planning administration in the Western Cape is to continue successfully and without endless litigation against the Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning administrators will have to find a balance between promoting development and protecting the environment. To promote environmentally sustainable developments will require closer cooperation between the land use planning and environmental management components. The loopholes, which permit incremental development in the present legislation, have to be identified and addressed. Guidelines, which will standardize the conditions under which applications can be approved or refused, will have to be drafted to ensure decision-making that is consistent and defensible. If having a liquor store within an affluent environment is not considered desirable such applications should not be considered within lower income areas. The same should apply when dealing with applications to establish factories or industry which will have an impact on the living conditions of communities in close proximity. The MEC will have to ensure that all decision taken are within the legal framework and that such decisions benefit entire communities and protect the rights of the poorest communities as well as that of the wealthy and influential.

Environmental legislation and the growing importance of environmental protection is also having an impact on the way in which new settlements are planned and on the rights of property owners. Although, we are responsible for the preservation of the environment for the next generation, socio-economic conditions, HIV and a myriad of other considerations may have to take precedence over environmental concerns.

Access to land is crucial for combating discrimination. Women who are denied such access tend to be disadvantaged, a pattern that results in economic powerlessness. Tanzana is among the most undeveloped nations in the world, where gender inequalities with respect to accessing land are central problems. This study consequently aims at investigating women's access to land through customary land tenure in the Makete district in Tanzania. A case study strategy was adopted to address the research problem, whereby interviews, focus group discussions and documentary reviews were the main data collection methods. The findings indicate that the majority of women within villages are illiterate; unaware of any existing entitlements and lacking insufficient assets to fight for their rights, and that their involvement in land administration institutions is limited. At the familiy level, daughters and women are deprived of any right to possess land through inheritance because relatives believe they will be married to other families from which they will then gain access to land. This generally has been proven not to be the case. After marriage, women commonly are apportioned land strictly for crop cultivation (usufruct rights). Consequently, there are many challenges in realising women's property rights in Tanzania. These challenges include the dualisim of the property rights system: customary tenure operates alongside statutory tenure; inadequate knowledge about women's property rights by both women and men; negative attitudes towards women's influence, position, capability and reputation; outdated customs; archaic and conflicting interests in laws; and lack of legal capacity (empowerment) as to property rights. The most important tools for meeting these challenges include education and awareness campaigns that are designed to build the capacity of citizens as to the necessity of equity in access to property rights (land) using various legal tools at varying levels. Other measures include amending and repealing outdated laws, including provisons dicriminating against women's property rights and contradicting constitutional provisons and other international instruments. Other avenues are advocacy and working for behavioural chages can also be invoked by empowering individuals at all stages of life, supporting their involvement in productive activities and creating group networks, and facilitating the formation of community-based organisations as well as building capacity by mainstreaming land adminstration institutions.

QC 20170315

This research will focus on the influence of legislation (as indicated in this research) on the investment decision in residential income-producing property. Assumptions, as recorded in the hypothesis of this study, indicate that the legislation had a changing influence on the investment decision in residential income-producing property in comparison to the time period prior to the promulgation of the legislation. The research methodology will be based on a comparative analysis of the current legislation and the proposed Draft Amendment Bill. This analysis will be tested by means of a case study analysis incorporating a phenomenological study based on written data. The problems, sub-problems and hypothesis will be addressed and tested in this research in conjunction with the prescribed research methodology. This research is concluded by means of a synopsis and recommendations.

This thesis set out to determine the degree to which the Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act is in line with the objectives of South Africa's land reform policy with regard to the promotion of access to land and security of tenure, and to determine to which extent the Act has contributed to land reform. South Africa's history of denial of land rights by dispossession and forced removals made the regulation of evictions imperative. Before this, black people had no recource when they were forced off land that they occupied, or even owned, for decades. The purpose of the Act is "
to provide for the prohibition of unlawful eviction
to provide for procedures for the eviction of unlawful occuiers
and to repeal the Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act 52 of 1951"
.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa's history led to an unequal distribution in land ownership, which is not conducive to democratic consolidation. Land refortn is the means to address this problem. However, land reform, part of the larger process of transformation, is a potentially dangerous process: it can have negative implications on the rule of law. The objective of this study is to provide an analysis of the dynamic relationship between land reform, the rule of law and transformation in South Africa, within the debate on democratic consolidation. One can distinguish two paradigms regarding democracy: the liberal paradigm and the liberationist paradigm. These two paradigms have divergent views on the way land reform and transformation should be implemented, and what the goal of these two processes is. The liberal paradigm would seem to be more favourable for democratic consolidation, while the liberationist paradigm is a breeding ground for populist transformation. Furthermore, the negotiated constitutional settlement has left land reform with an ambiguity. On the one hand the constitution forces the govemment to address land reform, but on the other hand it firmly entrenches the private property rights by enforcing the 'willing buyer, willing seller' principle, which makes the process more costly and time consuming. The main hypothesis of this study is: Demographic indicators (race, party affiliation and provincial setting) influence support or rejection of the land reform policies of the South African govemment. Tbe dependent variable is 'support or rejection of the government's land reform policies'. Support for the govemment's land reform policies is indicative of the liberal paradigm and rejection of the govemment's policies is indicative of the liberationist paradigm. It is found that the majority of South Africans reject the govemment's land reform policies. However, strong divisions are evident. Respondents differ along racial, party affiliation and provincial lines. Thus, the liberationist paradigm dominates, but the liberal paradigm has a strong presence, creating an ideologically divided society. This means that the legitimacy of South Africa's land reform project, as well as the legitimacy of the constitution, is under stress. This does not bode well for democratic consolidation, as the rule of law is under severe threat. Thus, one can conclude that land reform is not going to make a positive contribution to the consolidation of South Africa's democracy, if a substantial financial injection is not found to increase the efficiency of the process.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika se geskiedenis het aanleiding gegee tot 'n ongelyke verspreiding van grondeienaarskap. Dit is nie gunstig vir demokratiese konsolidasie nie. Grondhervorming IS die mamer waarmee die probleem aangespreek kan word. Grondhervorming, deel van die groter proses van transformasie, is egter 'n potensieel gevaarlike proses: dit kan negatiewe implikasies vir regsoewereiniteit hê. Die doel van hierdie tesis is om 'n analise van die dinamiese wisselwerking tussen grondhervorming, regsoewereiniteit en transformasie te verskaf, binne die debat oor demokratiese konsolidasie. Daar kan aangaande demokrasie tussen twee paradigmas onderskei word: die liberale paradigma en die bevrydings (liberationist) paradigma. Hierdie twee paradigmas het teenstrydige perspektiewe oor die manier waarop grondhervorming, sowel as transformasie, geïmplementeer behoort te word, sowel as wat die doel van hierdie twee prosesse is. Die liberale paradigma is meer geskik vir demokratiese konsolidasie, terwyl die bevrydings paradigma 'n teelaarde vir populistiese transformasie is. Verder het die onderhandelde grondwetlike skikking grondhervorming in 'n teenstrydigheid geplaas. Aan die een kant vereis die grondwet dat die regering grondhervorming moet aanspreek, maar aan die anderkant bied dit 'n ferm onderskraging van private eiedomsreg deur op die 'gewillige koper, gewillige verkoper' beginsel aan te dring. Dit maak die grondhervormings proses langer en duurder. Die hoof hipotese van die studie is: Demografiese indikatore (ras, partyaffiliasie en provinsie) beïnvloed ondersteuning of verwerpmg van die regering se grondhervormingsbeleid. Die afhanklike veranderlike IS 'ondersteuning of verwerping van die regering se grondhervormingsbeleid '. Ondersteuning van die regering se grondhervormingsbeleid dui op die liberale paradigma, en die verwerping daarvan dui op die bevrydings paradigma. Daar word bevind dat die meerderheid Suid-Afrikaners die regenng se Respondente verskil volgens ras, partyaffiliasie en provinsie. Dus, die bevrydings paradigma domineer, maar die liberale paradigma het ook 'n sterk teenwoordigheid. Dit sorg vir 'n ideologies verdeelde samelewing. Dit beteken dat die legitimiteit van Suid-Afrika se grondhervormings projek, sowel as die legitimiteit van die grondwet, in gedrang is. Dit is nie 'n goeie teken vir demokratiese konsolidasie nie, aangesien dit regsoewereiniteit in die gedrang bring. Daarom kan daar tot die gevolg gekom word dat grondhervorming nie 'n positiewe bydrae ten opsigte van die konsolidasie van Suid-Afrikaanse demokrasie sal maak nie, tensy daar 'n beduidende finansiële inspuiting gevind kan word.

Masters of Art
In this full thesis, I explore the impact that HIV and AIDS pandemic is having in the livelihood strategies of rural women in Mozambique. My intention in this work is to highlight the navigation of Mozambican women through this harsh era. I establish a discussion about land as major asset in a poor and mainly agricultural country like Mozambique. And the fact that many scholars and policy makers are concerned about the escalating number of young widows that have had their land and other assets expropriated after the deaths of their husbands, mainly due to the HIV and AIDS pandemic. The convergence of the colonization process, the civil war (that took over 16 years in Mozambique) and the modernization/development process have been systematically trapping women in the interface between traditional and modern social organization. Now, with the spread of HIV and AIDS, young women and children whose only source of subsistence is their land have been losing their traditional rights, and they face the cultural changes brought about by a new social order that does not support them and their children after the death of a husband or father.
South Africa

The period preceding and after the enactment of ESTA marks an increase in the difficulties faced by the farm dwellers in South Africa. They are still faced with illegal evictions. Their difficulties are marked with loss of land for food farming, loss of work, income and homes. Nevertheless, the introduction of ESTA in 1997 aimed at protecting and restoring the land rights of farm dwellers working on farms. Despite its existence there are still challenges of illegal evictions. This research focuses on difficulties faced by farm workers after the enactment of ESTA and investigate the process and effects of illegal evictions. The thesis adopts a qualitative research methodology that takes the form of a case study on two farms, Killarney farm and Shellford farm, where farm workers experienced evictions. The findings confirm that the farm workers are subject to illegal evictions. The evictions are due to the conversion of agricultural farms to game farming and also due to labour disputes. Poor living conditions are evident and farm owners conduct tacit evictions by imposing restrictions and threatening the farm workers who wish to stay on the farms. This thesis concludes by presenting suggestions that may restrict or put an end to illegal evictions. ESTA needs to be amended in order to ensure the security of farm workers who live on the farms.

Land degradation is a serious problem in communal district of Alfred Nzo, Eastern Cape in South Africa. The root causes of land degradation and soil erosion differ. The causes of land degradation in Alfred Nzo district communal areas are due to soil erosion by wind, water and poor agricultural practices. Rainfall is one of the most important climatic factor that contributed a lot in land degradation in the Alfred Nzo District. Other main factors contributing to land degradation include: Socio-economic factors related to historical land policies and inappropriate land uses, Poor land use planning, Drought and rainfall variability .Land use and management and sand mining. This study tried to pay more focus on the assessment of government policies which aimed at combating land degradation in South Africa in their nature but the area of focus will be Ntabankulu Local Municipality area in the project called Ematolweni Agricultural Co-operative Project. The reason to focus in this project is because they are currently practising crop production under electrified irrigation system but the main obstacle in this project are the dongas which are seemed to be a serious threat to the project site. During rainy seasons the project site is not easily accessible, that hampers access to market. There is also direct and serious effect of land degradation which is food insecurity which is emanating from loss of biodiversity and ground cover, loss of soil productivity, loss of income, decreased yield, and decline in economic productivity and national development. Lastly it is wisely recommended that to reduce the effect of land degradation in Alfred Nzo enlarge, government should strengthen the intervention programmes and provide more support to the LandCare programme which was the concept introduced in Australian and adopted in South Africa in 2001. This programme is assisting at restoring sustainability and productivity to land and water management in both rural and urban areas. It is holistic in nature, encompassing integrated sustainable natural resource management.