Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Labour market in East Africa'

Despite high rates of unemployment in South Africa, there is little consensus about its origins and solutions to the problem. Job search (how and when people search for work) is one aspect of the unemployment problem. Job search is shown to be a complex process strongly linked to the endogenous structure of the labour market. The flaws in traditional methods (theoretical and measurement) highlight this. Using data from a tailor-made survey in Duncan Village (a peri-urban area in Buffalo City, South Africa) the research examines factors that influence the effectiveness of job search. The results show that mode of search (how people look for work) is used as a signal by employers. Degrees of success are stratified amongst searchers using either ‘word of mouth’, place-to-place or formal modes of search. The thesis provides a method-test to reveal a complex body of evidence that has yet to be fully explored by practitioners in this field.

Thesis (Ed.D.)--Teachers College, Columbia University, 1995.
Includes tables. Typescript; issued also on microfilm. Sponsor: Thomas Bailey. Dissertation Committee: Francisco Rivera-Batiz. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 201-212).

This paper directs interest on country-specific labour market discrimination Roma may suffer in South East Europe. The study lies in the tradition of statistical Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis. We use microdata from UNDP's 2004 survey of Roma minorities, and apply a Bayesian approach, proposed by Keith and LeSage (2004), for the decomposition analysis of wage differentials. This approach is based on a robust Bayesian heteroscedastic linear regression model in conjunction with Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) estimation. The results obtained indicate the presence of labour market discrimination in Albania and Kosovo, but point to its absence in Bulgaria, Croatia, and Serbia. (authors' abstract)

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: When South Africa re-entered the global arena, her immediate priority was to search for and affirm her position in the global economy. In this process, South Africa has witnessed massive job losses that compounded the already existing problem of unemployment. South Africa is considered to be one of the countries with the highest levels of unemployment - a fact that has raised a great deal of concern among Government, Business and Labour. This study project examines the functioning of South Africa's labour market with the intention of establishing whether or not it is linked to the problem of unemployment. The study draws labour-flexibility comparisons between the world's most flexible and deregulated labour market (USA) and Europe; and, relatively, tries to find South Africa's position. The study has revealed that there is a relationship between flexibility and employment - countries with flexible labour markets, ceteris paribus, also have high levels of ~- employment and vice versa. The study has also revealed that a culmination of high levels of illiteracy, trade union activities and the new labour laws has resulted into labour market rigidities which are partly responsible for the high rate of unemployment in South Africa. The study has also revealed that any effort by South Africa to adopt the US-style of labour market flexibility should be accompanied by some other policy checks to ensure maximum benefits. This is based on the finding that flexibility per se could have devastating effects for the economy. It is not only the labour market rigidities that are responsible for the current high rate of unemployment in South Africa. Factors like persistent and systematic decline in labour absorption capacity vis-a '-vis persistent and systematic increase in labour supply, decline in economic growth and globalisation claim a lion's share.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Met Suid-Afrika se hertoetrede tot die internasionale arena was sy eerste prioriteit om sy plek in die wêreldekonomie te vind en te bevestig. Algaande het Suid-Afrika 'n grootskaalse verlies aan werkgeleenthede ervaar, wat die reeds bestaande probleem van werkloosheid vererger het. Vandag word Suid-Afrika beskou as een van die lande met die hoogste vlakke van werkloosheid - wat groot kommer by die regering, besigheid en arbeid wek. Hierdie werkstuk ondersoek die funksionering van Suid-Afrika se arbeidmark met die doel om vas te stel of dit met die probleem van werkloosheid verband hou al dan nie. Die studie maak vergelykings ten opsigte van arbeidsbuigsaamheid tussen die wêreld se mees buigsame en gedereguleerde arbeidsmark (VSA) en Europa, en poog om Suid-Afrika se relatiewe posisie te bepaal. Die studie toon dat daar 'n verband tussen buigsaamheid en werkverskaffing is - dat lande met buigsame arbeidsmark, ceteris paribus, ook hoë vlakke van werkverskaffing het, en omgekeerd. Die studie het ook bevind dat 'n hoë vlak van ongeletterdheid, vakbondaktiwiteite en die nuwe arbeidswette aanleiding gegee het tot arbeidsmarkonbuigsaamheid, wat gedeeltelik verantwoordelik is vir die hoë werkloosheidsyfer in Suid-Afrika. Die studie toon verder dat enige poging deur Suid-Afrika om die arbeidsmarkbuigsaamheid van die VSA toe te pas, met ander beleidsmaatreëls gepaard moet gaan om maksimum voordele te verseker. Dit is gegrond op die bevinding dat buigsaamheid per se verreikende gevolge vir die ekonomie kan hê. Dit is nie net die onbuigsaamheid van die arbeidsmark wat vir die huidige hoë werkloosheidsyfer in Suid-Afrika verantwoordelik is nie. Faktore soos 'n volgehoue en stelselmatige afname in die kapasiteit om arbeid te absorbeer teenoor 'n volgehoue en stelselmatige toename in arbeidsaanbod, 'n afname in ekonomiese groei, en globalisering is vir 'n leeue-aandeel verantwoordelik.

The post-1994 role of women in the South African economy is changing with respect to issues such as education and employment opportunities. In the past, men tended to hold the primary or ‘good’ jobs, which have the greatest stability and promotional potential, whilst women tended to hold the secondary or ‘poor’ jobs, which have lower stability and lower wages (Kelly, 1991). Women’s labour force participation has risen significantly over the years since 1994, but more in depth research is needed in order to determine where and how changes could be implemented to ensure that any past gender inequalities fall away with minimal impact on the economy as a whole. As such, certain dynamics within the labour market need to be considered. Firstly, pre-market types of discrimination, including issues such as gender discrimination during the acquisition of human capital through educational attainment should be considered. In most countries, women enter the labour market with severe disadvantage in that they have been subject to discrimination in schooling opportunities (Standing, Sender & Weeks, 1996). Secondly, the feminisation of the labour force is dealt with, as well as what factors affect the female labour force participation decision (i.e. the decision of whether to participate in the labour market or not). iv Thirdly, employment discrimination is investigated, including the concept of ‘occupational crowding’. An analysis of trends in the occupational structure of economically active women in South Africa shows the typical shift out of agriculture into industrial related jobs (Verhoef, 1996). Lastly, wage discrimination is analysed, in order to determine if women get lower rates of pay for ‘equal work’. The objectives of this study are aimed at determining whether there have been any positive changes with respect to women in any of these focal areas mentioned above. There are studies that have established gender differentials when it comes to formal education, and these place women at the disadvantaged end (Bankole & Eboiyehi, 2000). If one considers the educational measures, namely, the levels of literacy, years of education, and overall educational attainment, employed by this country to determine whether there are in fact observed differences between the education of boys and girls, the following was found: Males rate higher with respect to two of these measures, namely literacy and educational attainment, and are thus able to exhibit lower levels of poverty than females in South Africa. Men exhibit slightly higher literacy rates than women of the same age (Statistics South Africa, 2002), and men also rate higher than women when it comes to university education. With regards to primary and secondary school attainment v since 1994, the gender gap does appear to have disappeared. The ‘neoclassical model of labour-leisure choice’, as applied in this study, shows that as the wage rate increases, women have an incentive to reduce the time they allocate to the household sector and are more likely to enter the labour market. In South Africa, however, the increase in the female participation rate has merely translated into a rise in unemployment and has not been associated with an increase in the demand for female labour. This implies that South African women are being ‘pushed’ into the labour market due to economic need, rather than being ‘pulled’ into the labour market in order to earn a higher wage. Women are gradually becoming better represented at all levels across a wide range of occupations. Women, however, continue to face greater prospects of unemployment and to earn less than their male counterparts even when they do find employment. These lower female wages are partly as a result of ‘occupational crowding’, whereby women are over-represented in certain occupations resulting in excess labour supply which drives down the wage rate. It has been determined that the problem of occupational crowding is a real and immediate one and has been found to depress wages within certain female specific occupations.

Professional and graduate mobility represents an increasing component of international migration streams due to the globalisation of markets, the expansion of the knowledge economy, and the global competition for talent. While in the last twenty years considerable attention was given to East-West mobility flows within Europe, little research has been done on mobile professionals' and graduates' occupational attainment abroad. In the thesis I analyse the social organisation of professional mobility, focusing on the determinants of mobility, the destination choice, and the job-seeking practices of East European professionals and graduates in London. Several bodies of literature deliver the conceptual basis for this research. Applying an economic sociological framework, I rely on three major currents among the theoretical approaches to migration and mobility: human capital, global cities and labour market segmentation theories. I use quantitative and qualitative techniques to analyse primary and secondary data, including an online survey and semi-structured interviews with Hungarian and Romanian professionals and graduates working in London, and London-based employers of East European graduates, as well as official statistics. While aiming to question the atomised economic individualism associated with well-educated migrants and to draw the profile of the potentially new 'Eurostars', the thesis reaches four main conclusions. First, I emphasise the need to investigate the social process leading to labour market incorporation of foreign professionals from a transnational perspective. I argue that the social structures and institutions at both destination and origin influence immigrants' labour market positions at destination. Second, I have found that mobility decisions are shaped by individual perceptions of relative deprivation when comparing their own social and occupational positions to the ones of members of groups they consider referential. Third, social ties act as centrifugal forces in sending professionals and graduates to either the top or the bottom of the occupational hierarchies at destination. Typically, however, professional and graduate mobility is a market-dependent phenomenon, influenced less by the existence of social ties, more by the supply and demand on the global labour, education and migration policy markets. These social institutions, together with social networks and migrants' self-selection contribute to the creation of labour market segments at destination. Finally, the thesis challenges the idea that the international transfer of human capital is a seamless process. Instead, I argue that it is the social aspects of human capital creation, transfer and appreciation which shape to a great extent what is socially recognised as being 'skilled' or 'highly qualified'. Being 'highly skilled' is an outcome of negotiations between employers and migrants on the socially constituted labour markets around the value and the value-attached significance of employable human capital.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
Some digitised pages may appear illegible due to the condition of the original hard copy.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The recent discussions regarding the relations between the government and industry have highlighted the importance and continuous changes that have been investigated, tried and tested by the tri-part alliance since its inception. A study was conducted of all the current issues and changes in labour legislation and its impact on the labour market. Due to the continuous changes and heated debates, not to mention regular strikes and negotiations by those parties and their representatives, this topic is heated and ever changing.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die onlangse onderhandelinge en besprekings betreffende die verhouding tussen die regering en industrie plaas klem op die belang van en gereelde veranderinge wat ondersoek, geimplimenteer en getoets is deur die drieledige alliansie sedert laasgenoemde se ontstaan. 'n Studie is gedoen van die huidige kwessies en veranderinge in arbeidswetgewing en die impak daarvan op die arbeidsmark. Die gereelde veranderinge in wetgewing en soms hewige debatvoering tussen die betrokke partye, bo en behalwe die gereelde stakings en onderhandelinge deur daardie partye en hul verteenwoordigers, maak hierdie onderwerp baie sensitief en stel dit bloot aan gereelde ondersoek en verandering.

Thesis (MPhil (Political Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The impact of globalisation can be found in every aspect of human life. Globalisation has also brought about changes in the world of work, such as the call for labour market flexibility, which has restructured the workplace. This study focuses on the implications of labour market flexibility for workers in South Africa and for trade unions, within the context of the introduction of a macroeconomic neoliberal policy in South Africa in 1996. The study examines the changing nature of employment and work in a company in the South African retail sector, namely Pick n Pay. Labour market flexibility comes about as companies try to compete and cut costs at the expense of workers. This implies a reduction of protection and benefits and has resulted in the creation of a ‘working poor’ labour segment. Trade unions have been ineffective in providing a voice and representation for the new working poor. This study argues that under conditions of economic globalisation, trade unions are disempowered and flexible labour market practices are introduced to cut costs in order to maintain market share and increase competitiveness. Economic globalisation has pressurised the South African government, and the African National Congress (ANC), to shift gradually to the right and to adopt a neoliberal macroeconomic policy. This has led to an increase in inequality, unemployment, new forms of insecure jobs and the creation of an informal economy. This study found that instead of creating jobs and alleviating poverty, the government’s Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy (GEAR) has resulted in retrenchments, downsizing and restructuring. The unemployed, retrenched and working poor find themselves in the ‘second economy’. The retail sector in particular makes use of labour market flexibility in order to compete for market share. Pick n Pay is an example of a retail company that increasingly makes use of flexible labour market practices. This study found that labour market flexibility has created a situation that trade unions find difficult to deal with, and that labour market flexibility has been accompanied by increasing inequality, which overlaps with race and gender identities. Furthermore, Pick n Pay maintains flexible employment under conditions of increased productivity and contrary to labour legislation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Impak van globalisering kan in elke aspek van mense se lewens waargeneem word. Globalisering het verandering in die wêreld van werk teweeggebring, soos die aandrang op arbeidsmarkbuigsaamheid wat tot die herstrukturering van die werkersmag gelei het. Hierdie studie fokus op die implikasie van arbeidsmarkbuigsaamheid vir werkers in Suid‐ Afrika, en die implikasie vir vakbonde in die konteks van die inwerkingstelling van ’n makroekonomiese neo‐liberale beleid in Suid‐Afrika in 1996. Verder ondersoek die studie die verandering in die aard van indiensneming en werk in ’n Suid‐Afrikaanse maatskappy in die kleinhandelsektor, naamlik Pick n Pay. Buigsaamheid in die arbeidsmag ontstaan wanneer besighede in ’n poging om kompeterend te wees, uitgawes ten koste van werkers besnoei. Dit bring die vermindering van beskerming en voordele mee, wat tot ’n arbeidsegment van ‘arm werkers’ lei. Vakbonde kon nie ’n stem en verteenwoordiging aan hierdie nuwe segment van arm werkers gee nie. Hierdie studie voer aan dat ekonomiese globalisering werkersunies magteloos laat terwyl buigsame arbeidsmarkpraktyke aangewend word om kostes te sny ten einde markaandeel en verhoogde kompetisie te verseker. Ekonomiese globalisasie plaas meer druk op die Suid‐Afrikaanse regering, die African National Congress (ANC), om ‘n verskuiwing na regs te maak en ’n neo‐liberale makroekonomiese beleid te volg. Dit het gelei tot verhoging in ongelykheid, werkloosheid, nuwe vorme van onsekere werksgeleenthede, en die skepping van ’n informele ekonomie. Die studie bevind dat die regering se Groei, Indiensnemings‐ en Herdistribusiebeleid (GEAR), wat veronderstel was om werk te skep en werkloosheid te verminder, eerder tot meer afdankings, afskaling en herstrukturering gelei het. Die werklose, afgedankte en armwerkerskorps bevind hulself nou in ’n ‘tweede ekonomie’. In die besonder maak die kleinhandelsektor gebruik van arbeidsmarkbuigsaamheid om vir ’n deel van die mark te kompeteer. Pick n Pay is ’n voorbeeld van ’n kleinhandelmaatskappy wat toenemend gebruik maak van arbeidsmarkbuigsaamheid. Die studie kom tot die slotsom dat arbeidsmarkbuigsaamheid ’n situasie geskep het wat vakbonde verlam het, en wat met ’n verhoging in ongelykheid wat verder met ras en geslagsidentiteite oorvleuel, gepaardgaan. daarby maak Pick n Pay gebruik van buigsaame indiensnemingspraktyke onder omstandighede van verhoogde produktiwiteit, in weerwil van arbeidswetgewing

The impact of immigrants on the labour market in the South African context has always been a long standing issue with both government and natives’ fearing for the latter’s displacement effect, pressure on wages and resources. Migrants are blamed for poor labour market conditions of a host country. Literature reviewed from Africa and elsewhere shows that migrants have negative outcomes on the host country’s labour market. For this study an Error Correction Model on time series data from 1980-2006 has been estimated. The study estimated two models that is the unemployment and the wages models. The variables used for estimation are immigration, inflation and the Gross Domestic Product. The study surprisingly found a positive impact of immigrants on wages but the effect on employment was negative and significant. It is important to note here that the calculated impact is only for the documented immigrants the impact the illegal ones is not known.

In this thesis I explore three topics in labour economics, using micro data from South Africa and Tanzania. South Africa suffers from extremely high income inequality, in part as a result of comprehensive Apartheid-era racial discrimination. The first topic explores possible explanations for the extremely large earnings differences across different types of employment for black South Africans, using the KwaZulu-Natal Income Dynamics Study data. I analyse the relative importance of individual ability and institutions, including public sector wage setting and trade unions, in determining earnings. My results suggest that human capital explains much of the earnings differentials within the private sector, including union premiums, but cannot explain the large premiums for public sector workers. Self-employment is very common in urban Tanzania but, unlike South Africa, survey data show that there are large overlaps in the distribution of earnings in private wage employment and self-employment. This suggests that self-employment represents a viable alternative to wage employment in small, low productivity firms for the majority of urban Tanzanians. In chapter three I build an equilibrium search model of the urban Tanzanian labour market to explain the choice of wage and self-employment and the variation in earnings across and within these sectors. In the final topic I explore the effect of education on earnings in Tanzania. Estimating the returns to education has stimulated much recent work in applied econometrics as researchers advance their understanding of the effect of individual heterogeneity on the possibility of estimating the returns to education. In my attempt to purge estimates of the return to education of the influence of individual heterogeneity, I use an education reform in Tanzania as a natural experiment that provides exogenous variation in education. When using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) I find high and strongly convex, increasing returns to education. My best attempt at separating out the effect of individual heterogeneity suggests that returns are still high but that they may actually be concave.

This study sets out to identify the most effective way in which persistently and unacceptably high levels of inequality can be reduced in South Africa. Three alternative approaches were identified from the literature and their impact explored statistically. They are: the introduction of a ‘Social Solidarity Grant’; a decrease in unemployment by 5%; and a narrowing of the skill premium through an expansion of tertiary education. It is important to note that the study makes no attempt at explaining how these outcomes might be implemented or achieved. Rather, it sets out to determine only the effect that such policies may have on measured inequality. It was found that while the introduction of a new grant had a significant effect on inequality, this effect however, was once-off. The grant would be financed by individuals in the top decile through tax increases, which would be a complicated endeavour. Both job creation and a narrowing of the skills premium were significantly effective in decreasing inequality. The narrowing of the skills premium showed more promise due to its accelerating effectiveness in decreasing inequality over time and the fact that it directly addresses the problem of wage differentials. It was noted that the extreme levels of poverty and unemployment in South Africa may dampen enthusiasm for policies that narrow the skills premium to reduce inequality. These characteristics make job creation a more popular policy option because of the positive impact on poverty and unemployment as well as on inequality.

This PhD thesis focuses on determinants of labour market outcomes in development economics with a special interest in South Africa and China. After an introduction in chapter 1, the key chapter 2, Ethnic Diversity and Labour Market Outcomes: Evidence from Post-Apartheid South Africa joint with Sara Tonini, investigates how ethnic diversity amongst black South Africans affects their employment opportunities in the post-Apartheid era. We find that ethnic diversity has a positive impact on the employment rate of the black South Africans, and it only affects ethnic groups with relatively large population size. To address the endogeneity of ethnic composition, we explore the location of historical “black homelands” and argue that districts more equally distant to multiple homelands are more ethnically diverse. In our instrumental variable regressions, a one standard deviation increase in ethnic diversity index increases employment rate by 3 (5) percentage point in 1996 (2001), which is around 8% (13%) of the average employment rate. We then propose a model of a coordination game to explain these findings. A more ethnically diverse place requires a higher rate of inter-ethnic communication to maintain social connection. As inter-ethnic communication requires more skills than intra-ethnic connection, people in ethnically diverse districts are motivated to invest more in social skills to be able to communicate with those outside their own group. The acquisition of these social skills makes them better equipped for the labour market. The remaining two chapters look into the intergenerational transmission of socio-economic status in South Africa and China. Chapter 3, Returns to Education, Marital Sorting and Family Background in South Africa joint with Patrizio Piraino, applies the model of Lam (1993, JPE) which combines intergenerational transmission of ability and assortative mating to investigate the relative explanatory power of father-in-law’s and father’s background for male wages. In the empirical analysis, after correcting for potential measurement errors in earnings and education, we find that father-in-law’s schooling is more correlated with male workers’ labour market earnings, employment rate and labour force participation than own father’s schooling in contemporary South Africa. This difference is more obvious when parental educational levels are higher. Chapter 4, Higher Education Expansion and Intergenerational Mobility in Contemporary China, studies how higher education affects the upward mobility of people from relatively disadvantaged families. Intergenerational occupational mobility is stimulated when children from different social classes end up in similar occupations. Whether or not they have similar occupational status depends not only on their level of education but also the occupational returns to education. Given there is already a convergence in educational achievements between children from different social classes in contemporary China, in this paper, I focus on their occupational returns to education. Occupational status is measured by the widely-accepted ISEI scaling system ranging from 16 to 90 points with large number indicating higher occupational status. I take advantage of an exogenous college expansion policy in 1999 as a natural experiment and find that one additional year of education increases the occupational status of their first job by 2.243 (2.774) points on average along the ISEI scale in OLS (IV) regressions. And children from upper-class families do not necessarily have higher returns to education than children from other social classes. The average occupational returns to education are higher for the most recent job than the first job, but the difference among social classes is still not significant.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: No disease in modern times has created as much fear and panic as HIV/AIDS - undoubtedly one of the most formidable public health problems facing South Africa today. Traditionally, HIV/AIDS has not been regarded as a workplace issue, except for "high-risk" professions such as surgeons, dentists and emergency medical technicians. The stark reality is that HIV/AIDS will have an impact on all sectors of society and all aspects of human activity throughout South Africa. Because of the nature of the spread of the disease, it hits predominantly sexually active people. These are the people that make up the workforce. It can therefore be expected that HIV/AIDS will impact directly on the patterns of employment in South Africa. Furthermore, the economic consequences of the epidemic will result in pressures on the South African economy, which again will influence employment. Apart from affecting the general population, HIV/AIDS will have a direct impact on businesses in various areas. HIV/AIDS will also have a significant impact at community level that will, in turn, impact on businesses. If business in South Africa is to survive, these impacts have to be managed so that productivity can be maintained and costs can be contained. The objective of this study is to explore the impact of HIV/AIDS on employment by examining the South African labour market. From the study, it is clear that South Africa is certain to experience severe consequences arising from the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Even without taking the immense impact of HIV/AIDS into account, there are various problems facing the' South African labour market. Specific problems discussed are unemployment, low productivity and a shortage of skills. These are not the only problems associated with the South African labour market, but the extent of these problems is further exacerbated by the impact of HIV/AIDS. All sectors of the society need to be mobilised into action. This action must encompass both prevention of the spread of the disease, as well as caring for the sick and dying.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geen ander siekte in die moderne tyd het al soveel vrees en paniek geskep as MIV/VIGS nie ongetwyfeld een van die mees formidabele gemeenskapsgesondheidsprobleme wat Suid-Afrika huidiglik in die gesig staar. Oorspronklik was MIV/VIGS slegs met die werksplek geassosieer in terme van "hoë-risiko" beroepe soos dokters, tandartse en nood mediese personeel. Die naakte waarheid is dat MIV/VIGS 'n impak sal hê op alle sektore en aspekte van die samelewing in Suid-Afrika. As gevolg van die aard van die verspreiding van die siekte, tref dit hoofsaaklik seksueel aktiewe persone. Hierdie persone is die lewensaar van die arbeidsmag. Dit kan dus verwag word dat MIV/VIGS 'n direkte impak op werkverskaffingspatrone in Suid-Afrika sal hê. Die ekonomiese gevolge van die epidemie sal verdere druk veroorsaak op die Suid-Afrikaanse ekonomie, wat op sy beurt werkverskaffing sal beïnvloed. Buiten die impak van MIV/VIGS op die algemene bevolking, sal die siekte ook in verskeie areas van die besigheidsektor 'n uitwerking hê. Verder sal MIV/VIGS 'n aansienlike impak op gemeenskapsvlak hê, wat op sy beurt weer 'n uitwerking sal hê op besighede. As besighede in Suid-Afrika wil oorleef, moet hierdie aanslae so bestuur word dat produktiwiteit gehandhaaf word en kostes onder beheer gehou word. Die oogmerk van hierdie studie is om die impak van MIV/VIGS op werkverskaffing te ondersoek deur na die Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmark te kyk. Van die studie is dit duidelik dat Suid-Afrika ernstige konsekwensies as gevolg van die MIV/VIGS epidemie kan verwag. Selfs sonder om die ontsaglike impak van MIV/VIGS in ag te neem, is daar verskeie probleme wat die Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmark in die gesig staar. Spesifieke probleme wat bespreek word is werkloosheid, lae produktiwiteit en 'n tekort aan gespesialiseerde vaardighede. Alhoewel hierdie nie die enigste probleme is wat met die Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmark geassosieer word nie, word die spesifieke probleme vererger deur die impak van MIV/VIGS. Wat vereis word is dat alle sektore van die samelewing moet oorgaan tot aksie. Hierdie aksie moet beide die voorkoming van die verspreiding van die siekte, sowel as die versorging van die siekes en sterwendes omvat.

This thesis examines the interplay between gender, family, and the Taiwanese public-sector labour market at national, local, and individual levels. It focuses on gendered occupational segregation, worker mobility in terms of job transfers and promotion, everyday work–life arrangements, and the influence of locality on workplace dynamics and individuals’ career moves. The public sector, especially that in East Asian countries, has long been regarded as a more women-friendly employer that promotes gender equality in the public sphere. Nonetheless, relevant research lacks a systematic investigation into the interplay of gender, social norms, and structured opportunities and constraints in this labour market. Therefore, I conducted this research by analysing governmental statistics and carrying out interviews. My research shows that gender segregation exists in the Taiwanese public sector and women are still underrepresented at senior levels, although the Taiwanese government has launched many measures to achieve gender equality in the public-sector labour market. It further scrutinises how the career trajectories of male and female civil servants differ because of gendered task assignment at work and gendered expectation after marriage, which restrain women’s mobility in spatial and career terms. Through the comparison of the experience of the civil servants working in three regions, I point out that locality influences the formation and function of social networks, work culture, and familial power relations. I also explain how local networking, work culture, and family relationships correlate with one another and thus implicitly influence the career development of male and female civil servants in the researched regions. In addition, my discussion looks at how extended family members influence household gender dynamics, which is seldom discussed in existing literature. There are three main findings in my research. First, prevalent gender norms in the wider societal context play an important role in the gendering process of civil servants’ career trajectories. Gendered investment in human capital contributes to gendered occupational choices and the tendency of men to start their civil service career at higher entry levels. Second, gender segregation exists in the assignment allocation, which is the result of prevalent gender stereotyping at work and in return reinforces the existing gender stereotypes. Third, the career plans of married civil servants, especially those with children, are highly determined by the interplay of gender dynamics at home and at work. Mothers tend to have the most limited career choices. Different family structures and local work cultures constitute diverse local settings for these mothers. In general, women who live close to or with their husbands’ extended families tend to prioritise their family commitments, although their extended family members provide them with resources and support, such as childcare. My research theorises back from the East Asian context to the literature on gender and families by unveiling multiple forms of patriarchy in different family structures, whereas previous Western-focused research has often focused on nuclear families. My research also suggests that the interlocking relationship between home and workplace gender relations and the influence of locality on these relations should be carefully considered during policy making and implementation.

This thesis focuses on the labour process within the minibus taxi industry in East London, South Africa. This industry is structurally situated within the informal sector or economy but is marked by contradictory processes of formalisation and in-formalisation. Though the taxi industry seems to straddle the formal and informal economies in South Africa, the study is conceptually framed in terms of the informal sector but in a critically-engaged fashion. The very distinction between formal and informal economies, whether in South Africa or elsewhere, is open to dispute; and, even if accepted, there are differing conceptualisations of the relationship between the ‘two’ economies. Also, the conceptual clarity of the term ‘informal economy’ has been subject to scrutiny, given the vast range of activities it is said to incorporate. While the distinction between formal and informal economies may be a useful conceptual starting-point, this thesis demonstrates that it is analytically useful to speak of degrees and forms of formalisation and in-formalisation along a continuum, rather than to dichotomize economies. The thesis therefore analyses in depth the competing and tension-riddled processes of formalisation and in-formalisation in the minibus taxi industry, and with a specific focus on the labour process.

Bibliography : leaves 112-120.
Unemployment has been rising in South Africa for the last three decades, leading to official unemployment rates of 26.4% (37% if the broad definition is used). This implies a jobless total of 7 million, with more than 40% of the rural population unemployed, and the development of a growing pool of workers who are excluded from the labour market. The South African economy is facing labour market failure, with labour supply increasingly outstripping demand. If the economy continues on its current growth path this problem of labour market failure will intensify and the employment situation will continue to deteriorate. The severe levels of unemployment resulting from this market failure are a particular problem in South Africa given the role unemployment plays in exacerbating poverty and inequality in an already highly unequal and segmented society, and the uneven incidence of unemployment among racial groups. Public works programming offers a response to both poverty and unemployment, while also addressing the linked national priority issue of asset creation. This paper discusses the option of state intervention through public works, reviewing the South African response in the context of global public works experience. The paper examines both project based public works programming, which forms the dominant policy response in South Africa, and the option of large-scale labour intensification of state expenditure, and examines the employment creation and cost implications of each, drawing on a case study from KwaZulu Natal. The paper concludes that public works interventions in South Africa to date have been relatively limited in scope and impact, and that the potential exists for far greater job creation and poverty alleviation through both the labour intensification of public spending, and the rationalization of the project based approach.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In order to evaluate the extent to which South Africa achieve the objectives of poverty and inequality reduction as well as job creation, up-to-date and reliable data are required. Since the transition, various survey data have been commonly used for these analyses, namely Census, Community Survey (CS) 2007, Income and Expenditure Survey (IES), October Household Survey (OHS), Labour Force Survey (LFS), Quarterly Labour Force Survey (QLFS), General Household Survey (GHS), Project for Statistics on Living Standards and Development (PSLSD), National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS) and All Media Products Survey (AMPS). However, these datasets are not fully comparable, due to differences in the sampling design, sample size, questionnaire structure, methodology to derive labour market status, as well as the way the income and expenditure information was collected. Hence, this dissertation begins by analysing these issues in each survey in Chapter 2. With regard to the income and expenditure information, it was collected differently in the surveys: the recall method was used in all surveys except IES 2005/2006, the only survey that adopted the diary method; respondents were asked to report the actual amount in some surveys but only asked to declare the relevant interval in others; for the former approach, respondents could either declare the single estimate amount or amounts for sub-categories that were then aggregated; for interval data, various methods can be used to determine the amount in each interval. Thus, Chapter 3 begins by discussing the merits and drawbacks of these approaches, as well as how they would affect the reliability and comparability of income and expenditure variables across the surveys. In some surveys (e.g., the two censuses and CS 2007), quite high proportions of households incorrectly reported zero income or expenditure or did not specify their income or expenditure. Poverty and inequality estimates could be influenced by either including or excluding these households from the analyses. Hence, various approaches to deal with these households are examined in Chapter 3. As the surveys typically under-captured income or expenditure when compared with the national accounts income, the validity of the resultant poverty and inequality estimates might be affected. Hence, arguments for and against adjusting the survey means in line with the national accounts mean (e.g. by shifting the survey distribution rightwards) are discussed. As the survey data are, strictly speaking, crosssectional and not designed for time-series labour market, poverty and inequality analyses, it is sometimes argued that the data should be re-weighted to be consistent with demographic and geographic numbers presented by the Actuarial Society of South Africa (ASSA) and Census data. This cross entropy re-weighting approach is discussed in Chapter 3. Finally, the chapter examines the labour market status derivation methodology in all OHSs, LFSs and QLFSs in greater detail, and investigates how the changes across the surveys could possibly affect the comparability of labour market estimates throughout the years. The dissertation then examines the labour market trends since the transition by using the OHS, LFS and QLFS data, and it is found that both the labour force and employment numbers increased in general since the transition, but the latter increase was not rapid enough to absorb the expanding labour force. In addition, the number of narrow unemployed doubled between 1994 and 2009, and the narrow unemployment rate showed an upward trend and peaked at just above 30% in 2003. It decreased between 2004 and 2007, before rising again in 2008- 2009 due to the impact of global recession. Application of the cross entropy approach does not substantially affect labour market trends, suggesting that the trends (including the abrupt increase in labour market estimates during the changeover from OHS to LFS) were either real or took place due to the improvement of the questionnaire to capture the labour market status of the respondents better. Furthermore, the application of the LFS 2000b-LFS 2007b methodology on the earlier surveys reduced the extent of the abrupt increase of the number of broad unemployed and broad unemployment rates during the changeover between OHS and LFS. Finally, the use of the QLFS methodology (which required minor revisions) on the LFSs greatly reduced the extent of the abrupt decrease of unemployment aggregates between LFS 2007b and QLFS 2008Q1, thereby improving the comparability of these aggregates across the surveys. In Chapter 5 poverty and inequality concepts are reviewed, followed by a detailed explanation of the sequential regression multiple imputation (SRMI) technique to deal with households with zero or missing income or expenditure, as well as the derivation of real income, expenditure and consumption variables in each survey. Poverty and inequality trends since the transition are examined in Chapter 6. With regard to poverty, with the exception of AMPS, the poverty trends were very similar across the surveys, that is, poverty increased since the transition, before a downward trend took place since 2000. As far as inequality is concerned, both the levels and trends in the Gini coefficients differed a lot amongst the surveys, as the estimates were very stable in the AMPSs, showed an upward trend in surveys like IESs and GHSs, but first increased until 2000 before a downward trend took place in others (e.g., the two censuses and CS 2007). The levels of inequality also differed when comparing the surveys. The abovementioned poverty and inequality estimates and trends could in part be affected by the various issues discussed in Chapter 3, thus there is a need for careful analysis. The impact of the number and width of intervals in which income or expenditure data are recorded on poverty and inequality estimates and trends are dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 6 by applying various intervals on the three IESs and NIDS 2008. It is found that the number and width of intervals only had some impact on these estimates and trends in some surveys. The effect of adjusting the survey means in line with the national accounts mean is also investigated. Finally, the application of the cross entropy re-weighting technique did not have any significant impact on the poverty and inequality estimates and trends.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Data wat op datum en betroubaar is word vereis om te kan evalueer in watter mate Suid- Afrika sy doelwitte rakende die vermindering van armoede en ongelykheid en die skepping van werkgeleenthede bereik. Sedert die politieke oorgang word verskeie opnamedatastelle gewoonlik vir sulke ontledings gebruik, byvoorbeeld Sensusse, die Gemeenskapsopname van 2007, Inkomste- en Bestedingsopnames, Oktober-huishoudingsopnames, Arbeidsmagopnames, Kwartaallikse Arbeidsmagopnames, Algemene-Huishoudingsopnames, die Nasionale-Inkomste-Dinamika-Studie en die Alle-Media-en-Produkte-opnames. Weens verskille in steekproef-ontwerp, struktuur van die vraelyste, metodologie om arbeidsmarkstatus te klassifiseer, asook maniere waarop inligting oor inkomste en besteding ingewin is, is hierdie datastelle egter nie ten volle vergelykbaar nie, Gevolglik begin hierdie proefskrif in Hoofstuk 2 om elk van hierdie kwessies in elke opname te ontleed. Inkomste- en bestedingsinligting is in die opnames verskillend ingewin: In die meeste opnames is respondente gevra om aan te dui hoeveel hulle in die verlede bestee of verdien het, maar in die Inkomste- en Bestedingsopname van 2005/2006 is die dagboekmetode gebruik; respondente is in party opnames gevra om die presiese bedrag te vermeld, terwyl hulle in ander opnames die betrokke inkomste- of bestedingsinterval moes aandui; vir eersgenoemde is hulle gevra om òf die enkelbedrag te verklaar, òf hulle moes ‘n aantal sub-komponente onderskei; vir intervaldata kan verskillende metodes gebruik word om skattings van die inkomste in elke interval te maak. Dus begin Hoofstuk 3 met ‘n oorsig van die voor- en nadele van die verskillende benaderings en ‘n bespreking van hoe dit die betroubaarheid en vergelykbaarheid van inkomste- en bestedingsveranderlikes oor die opnames beïnvloed. In party opnames (bv. die twee sensusse en die Gemeenskapsopname van 2007) dui heelwat huishoudings verkeerdelik aan dat hulle geen inkomste verdien of uitgawes aangaan nie, of hulle spesifiseer nie hoeveel hulle verdien of bestee nie. Ramings van armoede en ongelykheid kan geraak word deur sulke respondent in te sluit of deur hulle uit te laat in die ontledings. Gevolglik word verskeie benaderings in Hoofstuk 3 bespreek om hiermee om te gaan. Omdat opnames vergeleke met die nasionale rekeninge tipies inkomste of besteding onderskat, mag dit die geldigheid van daaruitvoortspruitende armoede- en ongelykheidsramings raak. Gevolglik word argumente vir en teen die aanpsssing van die opname-data om dit in ooreenstemming te bring met die nasionale rekeninge (d.w.s. deur die verdeling na regs te verskuif) bespreek. Ten slotte, omdat die opnamedata streng gesproke kruissnitdata is en nie ontwerp is vir tydreekse van die arbeidsmag, armoede en ongelykheid nie, word soms aangevoer dat die gewigte van die data herweeg moet word om in ooreenstemming te wees met demografiese en geografiese data soos verkry van die Aktuariële Vereniging van Suid-Afrika en sensusdata. Hierdie kruisentropie herwegingsmetode word in Hoofstuk 3 bespreek. Ten slotte ondersoek die laaste hoofstuk die metodologie vir die bepaling van arbeidsmarkstatus in all die OHS, LFS en QLFS opnames in groter besonderhede, en ook hoe die veranderings oor die verskillende opname-reekse heen dalk die vergelykbaarheid van arbeidsmarkramings deur die jare kan beïnvloed. Die proefskrif ontleed daarna arbeidsmarktendense sedert die politieke oorgang met gebruik van die Oktober-huishoudingsoponames, Arbeidsmagopnames en Kwartaallikse Arbeidsmagopnames. Beide die arbeidsmag en indiensneming het sedert die transisie toegeneem, maar die toename in indiensneming was onvoldoende om die uitbreiding van die arbeidsmag te absorbeer. Verder het die getal eng-gedefinieerde werkloses tussen 1994 en 2009 verdubbel, en die eng werkloosheidskoers het ‘n toename getoon en in 2003 ‘n toppunt van 30% bereik. Dit het daarna tussen 2004 en 2007 gedaal voordat dit weer in 2008-2009 gestyg het weens die wêreldreseessie. Die toepassing van die kruisentropie-benadering het arbeidsmarktendense nie noemenswaardig beïnvloed nie, wat daarop dui dat hierdie tendense (insluitende die skielike toename in arbeidsmagramings in die oorgang van die Oktoberhuishoudingsopname- data na die Arbeidsmarkopname-data) werklik was, of anders plaasgevind het weens veranderings in die opnamevraelyste om respondente se arbeidsmarkstatus beter te probeer bepaal. Verder het die toepassing van die LFS2000b tot LFS 2007B metodologie op die vroeëre opnames die abrupte verlaging in die oorgang tussen die OHS en LFS in die getal breed-gedefineerde werkloses en breë werkloosheidkoerse verminder. Ten slotte het die gebruik van die QLFS-metodologie op die LFS (wat kleiner hersienings benodig het) die abrupte verlaging tussen LFS2007b en QLFS2008Q1 aansienlik verminder, en dus die vergelykbaarheid van hierdie groothede oor die opnames heen verbeter. In Hoofstuk 5 word eers ‘n oorsig van armoede- en ongelykheidsbegrippe gegee, waarma die sekwensiële-regressie-veelvoudige-imputasie-tegniek in besonderhede bespreek word. Hierdie tegniek word veral gebruik vir gevalle waar huishoudings aandui dat hulle inkomste of besteding nul is, of waar hulle nie antwoord nie. Daar is ook ‘n bespreking van die bepaling van reële inkomste, besteding of verbruiksveranderlikes in elke opname. Armoedeen ongeleykheidstendense word in Hoofstul 6 bespreek. Rakende armoede is daar, met uitsondering van die Alle-Media-en-Produkte-opname, eenstemmigheid dat dit sedert die politieke oorgang eers gestyg het voor dit sedert 2000 begin daal het. Sover dit ongelykheid aanbetref verskil neigings in die Gini-koëffissiënt baie tussen die opnames, want die ramings is stabiel oor die periode vir die Alle-Media-en-Produkte-opname, styg vir die Inkomste- en Bestedingsopname en die Algemene-Huishoudingsopnames, en styg tot 2000 voordat dit afneem in ander opnames (bv. die twee sensusse en die Gemeenskapsopname van 2007). Vlakke van ongelykheid verskil ook tussen die opnames. Deels kan die genoemde tendense in armoede- en ongelykheid dalk toegeskryf word aan die kwessies wat in Hoofstuk 3 bespreek is. Die effek van die getal en wydte van die intervalle waarin inkomste- en bestedingsdata ingewin word op ramings van armoede en ongelykheid word in meer besonderheid in Hoofstuk 6 bespreek. Deur die toepassing van verskillende intervalle op data van die drie Inkomste- en Bestedingsopnames en die Nasionale-Inkomste-Dinamika-studie word bevind dat die getal en wydte van intervalle ‘n beperkte effek op hierdie ramings en tendense het. Verder word gekyk na die effek van die aanpssing van die opname-data om dit in ooreenstemming met die nasionale rekeninge te bring. Ten slotte word getoon dat die gebruik van die kruisentropie-metode nie enige beduidende uitwerking op armoede- en ongeleykheidsramings en -tendense het nie.

This thesis is about imperfections in urban labour markets of three developing countries. I study how physical living conditions place constraints on labour force participation, and increase risks associated with unemployment. In Chapter One I test for the impact of high search costs on labour market outcomes of job seekers. I use a randomized trial of transport subsidies among youth living far away from the centre of the city in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Lowering transport costs increases the intensity of job search and leads to better employment outcomes. Weekly phone call data shows that treatment works to stop job search activity from declining over time. I show that the results are consistent with a dynamic model of job search with cash constraints and monetary search costs. Income from temporary work is used to smooth consumption and pay for the costs of search. I find that subsidies reduce participation in temporary work. Chapter Two looks at the links between poor housing conditions in slums and market labour supply. I test for the effect of free government housing in South Africa on households, using four waves of panel data and a natural experiment due to the allocation of new housing according to proximity from housing projects. I then use planned but cancelled projects to control for non-random selection of housing project sites. I find that government housing leads to large increases in household incomes from wage work, and increases in the labour supply of female household members. I argue that these results are due to reduced burdens of work in the home of improved housing, especially for women. In Chapter Three we look at how labour markets respond to large but temporary economic shocks caused by typhoons in the Philippines. We use quarterly aggregate, repeated-cross sectional and panel data to demonstrate robust evidence of downward wage flexibility. Lay-offs do not occur when storms hits, but hours per worker fall. We explain these results with a model of implicit contracts under which risk is shared between workers and firms through wage cuts, but workers are insured against lay-offs so that adjustments in labour demand occur through reductions in hours per worker. Our results are particularly strong for workers in long term contractual relationships in the private sector.

The thesis itself proceeds according to the following outline. Chapter One is concerned with the neoclassical theory of the labour market. Three particular models are surveyed all of which attempt to explain wage differentials and labour adjustments within a competitive equilibrium framework. The basic model of the labour market which rests upon the marginal productivity theory of labour demand, the utility-maximising approach to labour supply and the competitive theory of market equilibrium is dealt with first.This is followed by an outline of human capital theory which emphasises the crucial role played by education and training in determining individual earnings . Finally, attention is focused on disequilibrium wage models of adjustment which account for wage dispersion in terms of the amount and quality of information available to transactors in the labour market.(Introduction, p. 3-4)

Includes bibliographical references
Existing literature is in agreement on the importance of education in the determination of labor market outcomes. Using data from South Africa's National Income Dynamics Study, this thesis explores this relationship. It does this firstly, by examining the effect of school quality measured by school inputs-pupil-teacher ratio and expenditure per pupil-on educational attainment in South Africa. Following a reduced form production function approach, a partial generalized ordered probit is applied in the analysis. The thesis finds that both pupil-teacher ratio and expenditure per pupil have strong and significant effects on educational attainment of African South Africans. The ratio is more important at lower schooling levels, indicating a 'lagged effect' on educational attainment. A small increase in expenditure has large effects. This suggests declining returns to fiscal investment in education. Alternatively, it could indicate inefficiency in the use of funds, or compensatory funding of poor schools. Secondly, we examine the extent to which wage differences shown among district councils in South Africa can be explained by the magnitude of external returns to education. We use an augmented Mincerian regression to investigate this, considering the effect of district council share of college graduates on workers' wages. The study employs District Council's annual average climate to instrument for the share of district council college graduates. The results show that a 1% increase in a District Council's share of college graduates raises workers' wages by 5-8%. There are also spillovers effects, with college graduates being the beneficiaries. Thirdly, we estimate unemployment duration by gender and by competing risk, that is, exits into employment or economic inactivity. We use the Kaplan-Meier estimator and the Cox proportion hazard model in these estimations. The results from both estimators show factors that influence unemployment differ by exits, and their effects vary by gender. The hazard rates show that transition rate into employment is higher for men than for women with similar characteristics. They show that age and race significantly influence employers' choice between educated men and women. However, this bias is less obvious at higher levels of education.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates the extent to which educational attainment, school quality and numeric competency influence individuals’ employment and earnings prospects in the South African labour market using data from the 2008 National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS). While NIDS is one of the first datasets to contain concurrent information on individual labour market outcomes, educational attainment levels, numeric proficiency and the quality of schooling received in South Africa, it is also characterised by limited and selective response patterns on its school quality and numeracy measures. To account for any estimation biases that arise from the selective observation of these variables or from endogenous selection into labour force participation and employment, the labour market returns to human capital are estimated using the Heckman Maximum Likelihood (ML) approach. The Heckman ML estimates are then compared to Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) estimates obtained using various sub-samples and model specifications in order to distinguish between the effects that model specification, estimation sample, and estimation procedure have on estimates of the labour market returns to human capital in South Africa. The findings from the multivariate analysis suggest that labour market returns to educational attainment in South Africa are largely negligible prior to tertiary levels of attainment and that racial differentials in school quality may explain a significant component of the observed racial differentials in South African labour market earnings. Neither numeracy nor school quality appears to influence labour market outcomes or the convex structure of the labour market returns to educational attainment in South Africa significantly once sociodemographic factors and other human capital endowment differentials have been taken into account. Though the regression results vary substantially across model specifications and estimation samples, they are largely unaffected by attempts to correct for instances of endogenous selection using the Heckman ML procedure. These findings suggest that the scope for overcoming data deficiencies by using standard parametric estimation techniques may be limited when the extent of those deficiencies are severe and that some form of sensitivity analysis is warranted whenever data imperfections threaten to undermine the robustness of one’s results.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek in watter mate opvoedingspeil, skoolgehalte en numeriese vaardighede individue se werks- en verdienstevooruitsigte in die Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmark beïnvloed. Die studie gebruik data van die 2008 National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS). Alhoewel NIDS een van die eerste datastelle is wat inligting oor individuele arbeidsmarkuitkomste, opvoedingsvlakke, numeriese vaardighede sowel as skoolgehalte bevat, word dit ook gekenmerk deur beperkte en selektiewe responspatrone rakende skoolgehalte en die numeriese vaardigheidmaatstaf. Die arbeidsmarkopbrengs op menslike kapitaal word deur middel van die Heckman ‘Maximum Likelihood (ML)’-metode geskat om te kontroleer vir moontlike sydighede wat mag onstaan weens selektiewe waarneming van hierdie veranderlikes of as gevolg van endogene seleksie in arbeidsmarkdeelname of indiensneming. Die Heckman ML-skattings word dan vergelyk met gewone kleinste-kwadrate-skattings wat met behulp van verskeie modelspesifikasies en steekproewe beraam is, om sodoende te bepaal hoe verskillende spesifikasies, steekproewe en beramingstegnieke skattings van die arbeidsmarkopbrengste op menslike kapitaal in Suid-Afrika beïnvloed. Die meerveranderlike-analise dui daarop dat daar grotendeels onbeduidende arbeidsmarkopbrengste is op opvoeding in Suid-Afrika vir opvoedingsvlakke benede tersiêre vlak, en dat rasseverskille in skoolgehalte ’n beduidende deel van waargenome rasseverskille in arbeidsmarkverdienste mag verduidelik. Indien sosio-demografiese faktore en ander menslike kapitaalverskille in ag geneem word, beïnvloed syfervaardigheid en skoolgehalte nie arbeidsmarkuitkomstes en die konvekse struktuur van die arbeidsmarkopbrengste op opvoeding in Suid-Afrika beduidend verder nie. Terwyl die regressieresultate aansienlik tussen die verskillende modelspesifikasies en steekproewe verskil, word die resultate weinig geraak deur vir gevalle van endogene seleksie met behulp van die Heckman ML-metode te kontroleer. Hierdie bevindinge dui daarop dat daar net beperkte ruimte bestaan om ernstige dataleemtes met behulp van standaard parametriese beramingstegnieke te oorkom, en dat die een of ander vorm van sensitiwiteitsanalise benodig word wanneer datagebreke die betroubaarheid van die beraamde resultate nadelig kan raak.

This thesis examines the prospects of creating a single East Africa electricity market, to enable the five examined countries (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi) to move from the status quo (unintegrated electricity market). The research estimates the potential benefits of integrating these power markets through an introduction of an efficient congestions management system (Nodal pricing). The integration is expected to increase efficiency in electricity trade and allow power flow amongst the countries as well as allowing for penetration of abundant renewables. Since the current electricity markets are not integrated, the study brings a new dimension in which the five countries could benefit from cross-border trade through this type of market coupling. These benefits are likely to attract more investment in the power generation and associated transmission infrastructure. Given that the five countries have a low electricity access rate and weak transmission infrastructure, this thesis finds that if the markets are integrated, the welfare gain could be $2.6million/hr and high rate of electricity supply. The thesis first adopts a 17-bus system representing the major subsystem in the five countries. A detailed analysis of the changes in prices, congestion, and power flow between these nodes under constrained and unconstrained scenarios is also investigated. It thereafter expands the nodes into a 50-bus system, representing the major substations in the five countries and the economic benefit of integrating these markets estimated. These analyses are estimated using the optimal power flow model optimisations in GAMS software. The benefits of integrating these markets are $4.8million/hr, representing overall net welfare increases by 118 percent. This thesis proceeds to investigate the impact of adding renewable energy into the system in an integrated electricity market. In this model, a 50-bus system is adopted representing the current major substation in each country. This thesis finds that integration of large-scale renewable energy sources in various countries results in an average drop of LMPs by 3.9 percent. With full integration and adequate transmission network, total electricity generation from solar and wind could contribute to 11 percent of the total generation in the East African region. Interestingly, it is also revealed that a change of location of the resources could affect the overall economic welfare. This research further finds that the aggregate welfare loss arising from inadequate transmission capacity could be of $0.3 million. Our simulation finds that a transmission capacity of at least 200MW for all the lines could be robust to yield a high economic welfare. For the markets integration to be fully evaluated, the thesis develops a roadmap called Renewable Integration Continuum (RIC) as a model against which the East African Community (EAC) power market could set out in defining and establishing this robust integration. The final part of this thesis assesses the convergence of existing laws in support of the future integration. It is observed that substantial elements of the electricity laws in these various countries may need to be developed which, could especially promote regional power trade and increased competition. We also emphasize that appropriate regulatory frameworks should be developed and enforced under properly established institutions to ensure that market rules are followed. This could be achieved through establishment of a regional agency overseeing the implementation of the future power market integration. This agency would lead to the harmonisation of the laws and would promote the institutionalisation across the five East African countries. The research observes that investment in infrastructure and the necessity to create a regional independent regulatory body is a precondition for a stronger EAC electricity integration.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Microeconometric techniques have improved understanding of South Africa’s labour market substantially in the last two decades. This dissertation adds to this evidence by considering three separate labour market questions, with particular attention to data quality and the application of credible methodology. Firstly, wage flexibility is investigated. Whereas selected previous microeconometric evidence suggests that wage setters in South Africa are highly responsive to external local labour market circumstances, it is not corroborated by macroeconomic and other microeconometric studies. This question is interrogated again, with particular attention to methodological issues in wage curve estimation. The latter is a robust negative relationship between individual wages and local unemployment rates, found in most countries, except where bargaining is highly centralized. Adding time variation to the data allows controls for spatial heterogeneity to be introduced, leading to the conclusion that wages are really inflexible in the short-run. Rather, the trade-off between wages and local unemployment that previous work has found represents a long-run spatial equilibrium. This finding is robust to instrumentation for reverse causality and the measurement error that is associated with choosing incorrect labour market demarcations. Secondly, the reliability of retrospective data related to childhood is investigated, with the view of estimating the long-run influence that early life circumstances have on adult outcomes. Two indicators, parental education and subjective rankings of childhood socioeconomic status, are evaluated. The first set of indicators has poor response rates, as many South African children live without their parents. Where respondents do volunteer this information, they answer consistently across waves. Subjective rankings have higher response rates, as they require respondents to provide information about their own past, and not about those of their parents. However, individuals’ assessments are inconsistent over time, despite being asked about the same point in the life cycle. They tend to change their view of the past in line with adjustments to perceptions of their position in the village income distribution and subjective well-being, providing clear evidence of anchoring. Instrumental variables analysis has been used in previous studies to account for measurement error in subjective data. However, if anchoring affects all assessments of the past and potential outcome variables (such as employment), microeconometric techniques will yield biased estimates of the effects of childhood on long-run outcomes. Finally, age-period-cohort models for South African labour force participation are estimated. This chapter is the first contribution to relax the assumption that cohort differences must remain permanent over the life cycle. Monte-Carlo simulation studies show that highly interactive specifications can partially recover the true underlying process. Using a variety of techniques (imposing behavioural restrictions and atheoretical approaches), this study shows that cohort effects in labour force participation can be temporary in South Africa, though more data is required to verify this conclusively. Regardless of technique, a distinct surge in labour force participation is noted for the group born after 1975. Pertinently, the combination of testable assumptions and highly flexible estimation can yield credible age-period-cohort profiles, despite the many disputes noted in the literature. Previous evidence of a surge in participation for the post-1975 cohort can now be shown to be temporary rather than a part of a long-run generational increase.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Mikro-ekonometriese tegnieke het kennis oor die Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmark aansienlik uitgebrei in die afgelope twee dekades. Hierdie proefskrif dra by tot hierdie bewyse deur drie afsonderlike arbeidsmark vraagstukke te beskou, met die klem op datagehalte en toepassing van geloofwaardige metodologie. Eerstens word die kwessie van loonaanpasbaarheid beskou. Waar sekere vorige mikro-ekonometriese bewyse aandui dat loonbepalers in Suid-Afrika sterk op eksterne plaaslike arbeidsmarktoestande reageer, word hierdie bevinding nie deur makro-ekonomiese en ander mikro-ekonometriese studies ondersteun nie. Hierdie vraag word dus opnuut ondersoek, met die klem op metodologiese kwessies wat ‘n invloed op die beraming van die loonkurwe het. Laasgenoemde is die negatiewe verhouding tussen individuele lone en plaaslike werkloosheidskoerse wat in die meeste lande geld, behalwe daar waar loonbedinging sterk gesentraliseer is. Deur tydsvariasie by die data te voeg, is dit moontlik om vir heterogeniteit oor ruimte voorsiening te maak, wat tot die gevolgtrekking lei dat lone inderdaad onbuigsaam oor die korttermyn is. Die afruiling tussen lone en plaaslike werkloosheidskoerse wat vorige navorsing bevind het, verteenwoordig eerder ‘n langtermyn ruimtelike ewewig. Hierdie bevinding is nie sensitief vir instrumentasie nie. Laasgenoemde is nodig om voorsiening te maak vir moontlike sydigheid wat kan ontstaan indien die rigting van kousaliteit omgekeerd is, sowel as metingsfoute wat daarmee gepaard gaan as navorsers die plaaslike arbeidsmark verkeerd definiëer. Tweedens word die betroubaarheid van data wat volwassenes vra om hulle kinderomstandighede te onthou, ondersoek. Die uiteindelike doel is om vas te stel of omstandighede vroeg in die lewe ‘n invloed op die uitkomstes van volwassenes het. Twee veranderlikes, naamlik ouers se opvoedingsvlakke en die subjektiewe terugskouende sosioekonomiese rang in respondente se kinderdae, word geëvalueer. Die eerste stel veranderlikes is onderhewig aan lae reaksiekoerse omdat ‘n aansienlike hoeveelheid Suid-Afrikaanse kinders sonder een of beide ouers grootword. Waar respondente wel hierdie inligting verskaf is individue se antwoorde konsekwent tussen twee golwe van ‘n paneelopname. Die vraag na die subjektiewe rang lewer beter reaksiekoerse omdat dit vereis dat respondente inligting oor hulle eie verlede verskaf, en nie oor dié van hul ouers nie. Nietemin is individue se antwoorde strydig oor tyd, ten spyte daarvan dat hulle inligting oor dieselfde tydstip in die lewenssiklus moet verskaf. Hulle is geneig om hulle opinies oor die verlede in lyn met veranderende persepsies van hul huidige posisie in die dorpsinkomsteverdeling, sowel as hulle eie subjektiewe welstand, aan te pas. Dit verskaf dus ‘n sterk aanduiding dat mense hulle antwoorde oor die verlede in huidige toestande anker. Instrumentele veranderlike analise is in vorige studies aangewend om voorsiening te maak vir metingsfoute in subjektiewe data. Indien inligting oor die verlede, asook moontlik uitkomsteveranderlikes (soos indiensname), geanker word in huidige persepsies, sal mikroekonometriese tegnieke egter steeds sydige beramings van die impak van kinderdae op langtermyn uitkomstes bied. Laastens, word sogenaamde ouderdom-periode-kohort modelle op Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmarkdeelname data toegepas. Hierdie hoofstuk is die eerste bydrae wat die aanname dat kohortverskille permanent moet bly oor die lewenssiklus laat vaar. Monte-Carlo simulasies dui aan dat hoogs interaktiewe spesifikasies die onderliggende proses gedeeltelik kan weerspieël. Verskeie tegnieke word aangewend (insluitend dié wat gedragsaannames afdwing asook ateoretiese benaderings) wat wys dat kohorteffekte in arbeidsmarkdeelname tydelik kan wees. Tog word meer data benodig om hierdie stelling sonder twyfel te bevestig. Onafhanklik van die tegniek wat gebruik word, is dit duidelik dat ‘n skerp toename in arbeidsmarkdeelname plaasgevind het vir die groep wat na 1975 gebore is. Verder is dit beduidend dat die kombinasie van toetsbare aannames en hoogs buigsame beramers ‘n geloofwaardige oplossing vir die ouderdoms-periode-kohort probleem verskaf, ten spyte van die vele twispunte wat in die literatuur uitgelig word. Vorige bewyse van ‘n toename in arbeidsmagdeelname vir die post-1975 kohort kan nou as ‘n tydelike tendens bestempel word, eerder as ‘n deel van die langtermyn toename oor generasies.

Magister Economicae - MEcon
The South African economy faces a challenging socio-economic problem of high and persistent unemployment since the transition. Looking at the unemployment problem in greater perspective, numerous studies found that it is most serious amongst the youth. Since the beginning of the 2000s, a few studies focused particularly on youth and graduate unemployment, but there has been a lack of research in this area in recent years. Hence, this dissertation aims to fill some gap in the available research by investigating the extent, nature and causes of graduate unemployment in South Africa. This study firstly defined the relevant concepts and discussed some theories relevant to graduate unemployment, before reviewing the results of the past studies on the nature and extent of graduate unemployment. Thereafter, the possible causes were investigated, such as lack of experience, lack of soft skills, skills mismatch, poor quality of education of the graduates, discrimination by employers, etc. Graduate unemployment in India, China and Europe were also considered, and it was found that graduate unemployment was not in a unique problem in South Africa. The study proceeded with an analysis the Statistics South Africa 1995-2010 labour survey data and conducted more up-to-date statistical analyses of the profile of graduate unemployed. The results showed that the characteristics of unemployed graduates were, in general, the same as what was found by the previous studies, as graduate unemployed were more likely to be female and black, aged 15-34 years at the time of the survey, residing in Gauteng, with only post-Matric certificates or diplomas, and graduating from the fields of Business /Commerce / Management, and Education / Training / Development. The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition was also applied, and the results indicated that employment discrimination against black graduates was very likely, after controlling for differences in demographic and educational attainment blacks and whites. Hence, the results of the empirical analysis showed that graduate unemployment persists. Finally, graduate employment elasticity coefficients and employment absorption rates were derived by educational attainment category, and the results showed that although graduate unemployment is clearly less serious than unemployment in other educational categories, the labour demand for graduates is not rapid enough to absorb all the graduates.

This thesis begins by raising the following question: what is the relationship between the labour market structure in South Africa and the ability of the monetary authority to keep control of macroeconomic dynamics? The answer to this question is threefold. First of all, we investigate the empirical evidence of the existence of wage rigidities in the South African labour market. Second, we assess the impact such frictions may have on the conduct of monetary policy. Finally, we introduce public employment to analyze the e¤ects it may have on labour market dynamics in the peculiar case of South Africa. This thesis is therefore divided into three main chapters. Chapter 2 estimates a New Keynesian Wage Phillips Curve for South Africa to determine the respon- siveness of wages to employment conditions. First, we estimate the model using aggregate data. The aggregate estimation results show that private sector wages are not quite responsive to employment con- ditions, while they also reveal a certain sensitivity to in‡ation and quite a good correlation with in‡ation expectations. The relationship between private sector nominal wage in‡ation and employment is clearly weak for the whole sample, and it becomes insigni…cant at the end of the sample, indicating an increase of wage rigidities in the post-apartheid South Africa. On the other hand, the relationship between nominal wage in‡ation and price in‡ation is quite strong and robust for the whole sample but it becomes quan- titatively weak for the in‡ation targeting period. In this period, trade unions in‡ation expectations are instead strongly correlated to nominal wage in‡ation. In the second part of the chapter we look at the relationship between nominal wages, productivity and the reservation wage. The …ndings con…rm that nominal wage in‡ation has consistently outpaced the growth in productivity, even after correcting for price in‡ation. Furthermore, the results suggest that employment conditions had little e¤ect on wage dynamics. We also …nd that for the community, social and personal services sector which, mainly consist of public …rms, the response of wages to market conditions is remarkably strong. The overall picture that comes out from the analysis is that of a wage formation mechanism that is very insensitive to overall macroeconomic conditions. Chapter 3 therefore investigates the implications this picture may have on conducting monetary policy. Therefore, we use a DSGE model with unemployment and labour market frictions following the work of Blanchard and Gali (2010) to answer this crucial interrogation. In an economy with ‡exible wages, the divine coincidence holds since stabilizing in‡ation automatically leads to a stable unemployment (output gap). However when we account for wage rigidities and further labour market frictions, the results show that pursuing an objective of a stable in‡ation leads to undesirable and persistent ‡uctuations in unemployment; with a sacri…ce ratio that is typically higher the more ‡uid the labour market. The estimation of the model using South African data displays two main results. First, labour market parameter estimates present a picture with pervasive wage rigidities which thus con…rms the …nding in chapter 2. Second, the labour market appears to be characterized by large ‡ows in job creation and job destruction rates, with the latter dominating the dynamics. Finally, chapter 4 revisits the …nding in chapter 2 of a strong response of wages to market conditions in the public sector. Furthermore, the public sector in South Africa is for the most part skilled workers intensive, and has been expanding since the 2008 …nancial crisis while private …rms experienced massive turbulences. This chapter thus raises two questions: what could be the impact of public employment on overall labour dynamics? Moreover, could these features of public employment contribute in part in explaining the rigidities in wages observed in the private sector? To answer this question, we use a DSGE model with two sectors and two types of workers (depending on their level of skills), which is essentially a modi…ed version of the framework …rst introduced by Gomes (2013). In particular, we mainly investigate the e¤ects of a positive public sector wage shock on a calibrated South African labour market. For comparison purposes, we also assess the impact of a positive private sector productivity shock. We further take into account the di¤erent level of bargaining power and how the di¤erence in productivity between public and private sectors both a¤ect the responsiveness of variables. The …ndings show that an increase in private sector productivity produces more desirable results with an increase in employment for both skilled and unskilled workers which translates into a decrease in overall unemployment. Public sector wage shock on the other hand mainly crowds out private skilled labour which the …rms react to by substituting it with unskilled workers. Ultimately, the increase in public wages raises overall unemployment as supplementary skilled unemployed individuals queue for public jobs. Altogether, the e¤ects are more pronounced when the bargaining power of unskilled workers is raised.the more ‡uid the labour market. The estimation of the model using South African data displays two main results. First, labour market parameter estimates present a picture with pervasive wage rigidities which thus con…rms the …nding in chapter 2. Second, the labour market appears to be characterized by large ‡ows in job creation and job destruction rates, with the latter dominating the dynamics. Finally, chapter 4 revisits the …nding in chapter 2 of a strong response of wages to market conditions in the public sector. Furthermore, the public sector in South Africa is for the most part skilled workers intensive, and has been expanding since the 2008 …nancial crisis while private …rms experienced massive turbulences. This chapter thus raises two questions: what could be the impact of public employment on overall labour dynamics? Moreover, could these features of public employment contribute in part in explaining the rigidities in wages observed in the private sector? To answer this question, we use a DSGE model with two sectors and two types of workers (depending on their level of skills), which is essentially a modi…ed version of the framework …rst introduced by Gomes (2013). In particular, we mainly investigate the e¤ects of a positive public sector wage shock on a calibrated South African labour market. For comparison purposes, we also assess the impact of a positive private sector productivity shock. We further take into account the di¤erent level of bargaining power and how the di¤erence in productivity between public and private sectors both a¤ect the responsiveness of variables. The …ndings show that an increase in private sector productivity produces more desirable results with an increase in employment for both skilled and unskilled workers which translates into a decrease in overall unemployment. Public sector wage shock on the other hand mainly crowds out private skilled labour which the …rms react to by substituting it with unskilled workers. Ultimately, the increase in public wages raises overall unemployment as supplementary skilled unemployed individuals queue for public jobs. Altogether, the e¤ects are more pronounced when the bargaining power of unskilled workers is raised.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2017.
Economics
PhD
Unrestricted

The relationship between health and labour market outcomes is of academic and policy interest due to the essential role the labour market plays in engendering economic growth. It is in this regard that this thesis is both timely and essential especially in light of scant literature on the health-labour market relationship in South Africa. South Africa presents an interesting case for a study of this nature as it had experienced high disease burden and mortality, coupled with declining labour force participation in the period prior to this study. Furthermore, the relationship between health and labour market earnings as well as impairment-related wage discrimination is not well-known in South Africa. Therefore, this thesis sought to establish the relationship between health on the one hand, and labour force participation, wage determination and wage discrimination on the other, in South Africa. Data was obtained from the first and third waves of the National Income Dynamics Study (collected in 2008 and 2012 respectively), a rich and nationally representative survey dataset of South African households. Descriptive analysis and different econometric techniques like instrumental variables, censored quantile regression and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition were used for estimation. For the cross-sectional analysis, the study found significant impact of health on labour force participation of between 20% and 33% depending on the measure, while longer term relationships indicated statistically significant association (up to 11% for females and 16% for males). These figures indicate that the relationship between health and labour force participation was not just temporary. Males had higher labour force participation probability than females. Furthermore, grant receipt was associated with reduced labour force participation probability while education and age were associated with increased labour force participation. Also, marriage/cohabitation was negatively (positively) associated with female (male) labour force participation. In addition, labour force participation probability was generally higher in other areas relative to traditional authority locations. These results conform to a priori expectations. On the relationship (or gradient) between health and wages, the study established positive and statistically significant gradients between better physical, psychological and general health on the one hand, and wages on the other, among Africans and coloureds. This was even after controlling for education and other important wage determinants like occupational category, industry, union membership and gender. These gradients ranged from an elasticity of -0.06 to -0.07 for psychological health/depression to an elasticity of 0.31-0.45 for physical health (proxied by body mass index) in the short term. Also, persistently adverse general health and psychological conditions exhibited steep gradients. Finally, the study found evidence of non-trivial impairment-related differences in returns to wage-determining characteristics (loosely termed wage discrimination) in both 2008 and 2012 for the average wage, while the proportion of estimated wage gaps contributed by impairment-related differences in returns increased over time. Similar findings were obtained across the wage distribution, as the proportion of total estimated wage gaps accounted for by returns to characteristics increased across waves in virtually all deciles of the wage distribution. Even in terms of magnitude, the returns/discrimination component of total estimated impairment-related wage gaps increased for most quantiles of the wage distribution. Finally, education and occupational class contributed the most to the explained wage gap across waves.

Bibliography: leaves 72-74.
There are ongoing debates on the topic of restructuring. More so in South Africa (especially in terms of welfare consequences that are likely to arise) when its government undertook the difficult task of restructuring State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs). There is however a general lack of information and data on the labour dynamics of restructuring SOEs to inform that debate. This paper tries to fill that gap by looking at (Labour Force Survey) LFS data as well as extensive data provided by one of the SOEs - namely Eskom.

It is argued that a lack of adequate legislation in pre-1994 South Africa resulted in inequality in the workplace and in society in general. The new democracy intended to address this by promulgated legislation and today the South Africa Constitutional and legislative provisions promoting equality are viewed as amongst the most progressive in the world. Conversely, this progressive legislation aimed to protect against discrimination, still seems to fail the very people it intended to promote and protect. The new legislation created awareness of the need for equality; the right of workers to employment – or at least to decent working conditions. The right to equality is accorded to everybody through the Constitution of South Africa. The Bill of Rights is based on the notion of equality before the law, and the prohibition of discrimination on various grounds. Despite this, the perception exist that persons with disabilities as a minority group are still being marginalised and are restricted in their right to exercise the right to participate and make a meaningful contribution to the labour market. This not only seems to be in contradiction with the Constitutional right to choose an occupation, but has wider social and economic consequences. The ethos of equality legislation is to ensure that the workplace is representative of the society we live in. It is understandable that labour as a social phenomenon is not only concerned with workplace related issues but with aspects encompassing the whole of the socio-political and economic scene. South African labour legislation drafted over the last two decades strives to align with the conventions and recommendations of the International Labour Organisations and in terms of the obligations of South Africa as a member state. However, the question prevails: is this legislation adequate to address the discrimination and inequality experienced by persons with disability? If so, why do statistics indicate such high unemployment amongst this group? Yet, there is a growing awareness that persons with disabilities represent enormous, untapped economic potential. According to the ILO report on The Right to Decent Work of Persons with Disabilities (1997), much has been accomplished in the international arena in recent years to improve the lives of persons with disabilities in the workplace. This treatise will attempt to evaluate the efficacy of South African legislation in the promotion and integration of persons with disabilities in the labour market.

Magister Artium (Social Work) - MA(SW)
The study upon which this dissertation was based was conducted against the backdrop of day labouring as a global phenomenon. In order to position the research topic, namely, the lived experiences and hardships encountered by day labourers in East London in the province of the Eastern Cape of South Africa, a comprehensive review of the relevant available literature pertaining to the phenomenon was conducted. The review covered both international trends and the relatively few significant studies which have been conducted in South Africa. A mixed methods approach was adopted in order to gather both quantitative and qualitative data, by means of a research design whose theoretical framework was derived from systems theory and the strengths-based theory. Of the twelve hiring sites which had been identified in East London during the conducting of a national study, six were selected and a survey questionnaire was administered to three participants at each, which yielded a research sample of eighteen participants. The participants were selected at each site through the use of convenience or availability sampling. The data which the survey questionnaire generated was presented in the form of descriptive statistics and analysed by means of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software to develop a socioeconomic and demographic profile of the participants. The findings of the quantitative study were subsequently evaluated against the qualitative data pertaining to the lived experiences of day labourers in East London, which was generated by conducting in-depth semi-structured interviews with three participants who were willing to be interviewed at each site. The qualitative data was analysed through thematic analysis. The integration of the two sets of data enabled a credible and meaningful assessment of the lived experiences of day labourers in East London and the hardships which they are obliged to endure to be made. On the basis of the findings, recommendations are made concerning appropriate strategies for integrating day labourers into initiatives which are designed to grant social justice to groups who continue to be unfairly marginalised and to live in abject poverty more than two decades after the official demise of apartheid.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The welfare challenge that faces South Africa in the post-apartheid period is, at its core, defined by the high levels of poverty and inequality in the society. The labour market, as a provider of wages to individuals and ultimately households, remains the key transmitter of these poverty and inequality outcomes in the society. This specific line of reasoning is the underlying intellectual thrust of this thesis: namely that the state of poverty and inequality in a society is mirrored by, and perhaps more strongly - determined and shaped - by the state of its labour market. The thesis therefore focuses in the first instance on employment trends in South Africa since 1970, across two discrete time periods. The intention is to sketch the changing patterns of labour demand in South Africa, with a particular focus on how these patterns have yielded differential gains for different occupation, race, gender and education cohorts. Ultimately, these uneven employment patterns remain one of the most significant factors shaping South Africa's poverty and inequality challenges. The inequality challenge, so often thought of in terms of households only, is analysed here purely in terms of the employed. The starting point once again, is that it is precisely these earnings that contribute to the extraordinarily high inequality levels in South Africa. This analysis imparts information about the manner in which intra-employed wage inequality is structured and furthermore, how South Africa compares in the international context. A major contribution of the thesis is to, through more formal measures of poverty, apply these to labour market-defined individuals, rather than households, which is the norm in the literature. The point of departure is of course that poverty, or vulnerability, expresses itself through individuals in the labour market, and is thereby transmitted at the household level. Hence a significant component of the dissertation attempts a formal measurement and modelling of the degree of poverty and vulnerability in the South African labour market. These welfare challenges for a society though, should not only be analysed, but rather solved as well. Hence the final two chapters of the dissertation attempts to examine two very recent policy options mooted in South Africa, and through using simulation techniques, attempts to estimate both the costs and benefits of instituting these two alternatives which are explicitly aimed at reducing poverty, vulnerability and inequality in the society.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika se welvaartsvraagstuk in die na-apartheidsperiode word deur die hoë vlakke van armoede en ongelykheid in die samelewing bepaal. Die arbeidsmark, as voorsiener van lone aan individue en uiteindelik ook huishoudings, is die belangrikste bepaler van die oordrag van armoede- en ongelykheidsuitkomste in die samelewing. Die sleuteluitgangspunt van hierdie proefskrif is dat die stand van armoede en ongelykheid in 'n samelewing in sy arbeidsmark weerspieël en selfs daardeur bepaal en gevorm word. Die proefskrif fokus daarom veralop Suid- Afrikaanse indiensnemingstendense sedert die sewentigerjare, in twee diskrete periodes. Die doel is om die veranderende Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsvraagpatroon te skets, veral die ongelyke voordele wat hierdie patrone vir verskillende beroeps-, rasse-, gestags- en opvoedkundige groepe meegebring het. Hierdie ongelyke indiensnemingspatrone is uiteindelik belangrike determinante van Suid-Afrika se armoede- en ongelykheidsvraagstuk. Hierdie analise verskaf inligting omtrent die struktuur van loonongelykheid onder werkendes en hoe Suid-Afrika internasionaal vergelyk. 'n Belangrike bydrae is die toepassing van formele armoedemaatstawwe op individue in die arbeidsmark, eerder as die konvensionele toepassing op huishoudings. Die uitgangspunt is natuurlik dat armoede of weerloosheid in die arbeidsmark op die vlak van die individu ervaar word, en dat dit daarna na die huishouding oorgedra word. Daarom is 'n groot deel van die proefskrif op die formele meting en modellering van die omvangvan armoede en weerloosheid in die Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsmark toegespits. Hierdie welsynsvraagstukke moet natuurlik nie net ontleed word nie, maar ook opgelos word. Daarom poog die laaste twee hoofstukke om die implikasies van twee onlangse beleidsvoorstelle te ontleed. Deur simulasietegnieke word probeer om die kostes en voordele van hierdie twee alternatiewe beleidsvoorstelle gemik op die vermindering van armoede, ongelykheid en weerloosheid in die samelewing te beraam.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Nearly five million South Africans were unemployed in 2002 and creating employment opportunities is a difficult challenge. Before this issue can be tackled, however, it is critical to understand the problem. This thesis opts to contribute to this understanding by considering aspects around the demand for labour. The analysis considers a selection of the theoretical literature on the demand for labour, estimates key labour market parameters and then undertakes a number of simulations using a structural model. There are many conflicting paradigms that can be used to analyse the issue: microeconomic versus macroeconomic; neoclassical versus structuralist; theoretical versus empirical and so forth. Some of these paradigms are considered as part of the attempt to build an empirical framework that can be used to analyse the issue. The empirical results of the thesis suggest that: • Higher real wages lead to lowering of the quantity demanded of labour. The thesis estimates an economy-wide wage elasticity of employment of approximately -0,67; • Higher output stimulates the demand for labour. The single equation estimate of the employment elasticity of output is between 0,66 and 0,75, whilst the economy-wide estimate is approximately 1,1. The latter takes into account feedback effects from other macroeconomic variables, such as productivity and wages; • There is little evidence to show that the efficiency wage hypothesis holds - higher productivity leads to higher wages, but the converse is not true; • Union power increases real wages, indirectly leading to a fall in the demand for labour. This suggests that the labour market has insiders and outsiders; and • The relative price of labour is also important, with a fall in the cost of capital leading to a decrease in the demand for labour. Simulations suggest that job creation can be achieved through policies that encourage wage moderation and increase economic growth. There is also a potential role, albeit limited, for fiscal incentives such as a mooted earned income tax credit.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Byna vyf miljoen Suid-Afrikaners was werkloos in 2002 en werkskepping is 'n moeilike uitdaging. Voordat hierdie kwessie aangepak kan word, is dit egter noodsaaklik om die probleem te verstaan. Hierdie tesis dra by tot hierdie begrip deur te fokus op punte rondom die vraag na arbeid. Die ontleding kyk na 'n verskeidenheid van teoretiese literatuur oor die vraag na arbeid en identifiseer sleutel-parameters vir die arbeidsmark. Daar is soveel teenstrydige paradigmas wat gebruik kan word om die kwessie te ontleed: Mikro-ekonomies teenoor makro-ekonomies; neoklassiek teenoor strukturalisties; teoreties teenoor empiries, ensovoorts. Sommige van hierdie paradigmas word bespreek as deel van die poging om 'n empiriese raamwerk te bou wat gebruik kan word om die kwessie te ontleed. Die empiriese resultate van die tesis toon: • Hoër reële lone lei tot 'n verlaging van die hoeveelheid arbeid aangevra. Die tesis beraam die ekonomiewye loonelastisiteit van indiensneming op sowat - 0,67; • Hoër uitset stimuleer die vraag na arbeid. Die enkelvergelyking-raming van die uitset-elastisiteit van indiensneming is tussen 0,66 en 0,75, terwyl die ekonomiewye raming sowat 1,1 is. Laasgenoemde neem terugvoerinvloede van ander makro-ekonomiese veranderlikes in ag, bv. produktiwiteit en lone. • Daar is min bewyse dat die doeltreffende loon-hipotese water hou: Hoër produktiwiteit lei tot hoër lone, maar die teendeel is onwaar; • Vakbonde se mag verhoog reële lone, wat indirek lei tot 'n daling van die vraag na arbeid. Dit dui daarop dat die arbeidsmark 'n binnekring en buitestaanders het; en • Die relatiewe prys van arbeid is ook belangrik: 'n Afname van die koste van kapitaal veroorsaak 'n daling van die vraag na arbeid. Simulasies toon dat werkskepping bevorder kan word deur beleid wat loonmatiging en ekonomiese groei bevorder. Daar is ook 'n rol, alhoewel beperk, vir fiskale insentiewe, b.v. 'n loonsubsidie.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil
The purpose of the study is to examine the functions of provinces in South Africa and their respective comparative advantages from 2013 to 2017, in terms of employment absorption. It is predicted or assumed that there are considerable spatial disparities in the functions and comparative advantage profiles among provinces, some of them performing highly sophisticated functions and being comparatively better in terms of labour market outcomes than others. It is also assumed that this comes as a result of spatial preferences in location of firms.

Magister Commercii - MCom
The following research paper is based on employment intensity, arguing the notion that an increase in economic growth alone does not necessary increase the rate of employment in South Africa. In fact, other additional macroeconomic factors determine changes in the rate of employment, along with economic growth. This research measured the employment numbers in each South African sector with reference to sector-specific gross value added, to determine the level of elasticity of employment in each sector. This was done by extracting quarterly data in-between the year 1995 to 2019. For each sector, a unit root test was estimated, an ARDL bound test for cointegration, an error correction model. A stability and diagnostic test were conducted to test the fluidity of each regression model. The coefficient of each sector modelled indicated no correlation between employment and economic growth. In “all sectors”, the results of GVA were not influential enough to implement positive change in the levels of employment, thus, leading to jobless growth.

One of the most definitive identifiers of socio-economic status within modern society is a person's salary. In South Africa, labour market income is the largest source of household income when compared to other income sources namely social grants, remittances, income from a business, and pensions (Stats SA, 2019). Labour income is thus the primary source of an individual's sustenance. It determines the lifestyle they can afford and ultimately also conveys their sense of worth to their employer organization and to society at large. Consequently, employees want to be compensated fairly in exchange for their employment contributions. They want to know that they are being paid well relative to others tasked with the same work and with the same level of experience and qualification irrespective of their gender and/or race. Through a quantitative approach with an explanatory research design using regression techniques, salary disparities by race and gender have been analysed in this study using the LMDSA 2018 data. The analyses of earnings distributed across race and gender revealed that females consistently across all racial groups earn less than their male counterparts. The regression results showed that females overall earn 14% less than males and amongst the four prominent racial groups in South Africa, Blacks earn the least followed by Indians, then Coloureds and Whites earning the most (23% more than Blacks). This puts Black females at the bottom of the labour earnings hierarchy and White males at the top. From this study, salary disparities based on race and gender can be seen very distinctly in South Africa's labour market. The reasons for these disparities are at the very least multidimensional, however the most prominent of these reasons is Education. Education is multifaceted because not only is the level of education completed by employees a cause of the salary disparities but the variance in quality of education received by employees. The variance in quality of education is distinguished by race in this country which at its root cause lies the history of apartheid, and consequently, the quality of education will have an adverse effect on the level of education completed. Income inequality is but one element to many moving parts which contribute to overall inequality in South Africa. Another element is unemployment, and another is the accessibility of quality education. With Blacks being on the lower end of the spectrum in terms of labour earnings, having the highest levels of unemployment amongst all other racial groups and again being on the lowest end of the spectrum in terms of access to quality education and the level of education completed, it comes 3 as no surprise that Blacks are the poorest in South African society and that overall inequality is steadily rising. We conclude this study by providing recommendations for future studies based on the limitations we encountered as well as policy recommendations to address the high levels of income inequality proven to be prevalent in South African labour market. These include revised HR practices, a rebalance to the tax system and an amendment to the BBBEE scorecard criteria.

This thesis consists of three substantive essays on the financial and banking sectors in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, each constituting a separate chapter. The first essay (Chapter 2) investigates the relationship between banking market concentration and competition levels and the soundness of Islamic and conventional banks operating in MENA. The study employs a dataset of 152 banks across 10 MENA countries (40 Islamic and 112 conventional) over 2004-2009. We find that MENA's banking concentration and competition levels are negatively related to banks' soundness. Our evidence also shows that Islamic banks are less sound than their conventional counterparts, and that the Islamic nature of banks results in higher return on assets, capitalisation and volatility of profits. However no significant differences in competiveness between the two segments were observed.

Recent studies have shown that graduates from historically White universities (HWUs) experience better labour market outcomes than graduates from historically Black universities (HBUs). This is a result of the legacy of apartheid which promoted racial inequality in all spheres of South African society, more especially in higher education and the labour market. Post-1994, government dedicated large amounts for the restructuring of the higher education sector of South Africa in order to level out the playing field. However, graduates from HWUs still experience better labour market success than graduates from HBUs. That said, there is limited information about the labour market outcomes and experiences of graduates from a former White university (especially graduates from Rhodes University). Therefore, the central aim of this dissertation is to show that graduates from a historically White university (Rhodes University) experience varying and unequal outcomes in the South African labour market on account of (among other factors) their chosen fields of study, race and sex. This study is informed by the heterodox labour market approach, which is partly inspired by the critical realist account of the labour market. As a result, this theoretical framework allowed the researcher to use the Labour Market Segmentation (LMS) theory as a tool to inform this analysis. The study has adopted a quantitative survey design and has incorporated some of the key methodological lessons learned from the collection of international graduate tracer studies. The findings from this study indicated that ‘field of study’ is a strong determiner of the outcomes of Rhodes graduates in the labour market. This was visible in the persistence of a skills bias towards commerce and science graduates. Evidently, even when we controlled for race and sex, graduates from the commerce and science faculties experience better labour market outcomes than humanities graduates. This is a result of a skills biased South African economy, which has a higher demand for certain skills over others. However, the findings from this study also show evidence of pre-labour market discrimination and inequality (based on race and sex) in the supply-side institutions such as the family, schooling and university. The findings also show continuities and discontinuities of labour market discrimination (based on race and sex) in the outcomes of Rhodes graduates in the South African labour market. More importantly, this dissertation indicates that Rhodes graduates experience varying outcomes in the labour market as a result of (among other factors) their chosen fields of study, race and sex.

This study employs the Human Capital Theory (HCT), which postulates that the education of women is positively related to the likelihood of their labour force participation, in order to investigate quarterly dynamics in the labour force. This approach is an advancement of knowledge gained from previous studies such as Serumanga-Zake and Kotze (2004) and Ntuli (2004) who investigated the annual dynamics in FLFP. Investigating quarterly dynamics in FLFP is prudent as the market economy is very dynamic particularly at a point when the world economy is experiencing recession. Data for the study are extracted from the 2008 Quarterly Labour Force Survey conducted by Statistics South Africa. Logistic regression analysis modeling was employed with the dependent variable, FLFP, as a binary outcome. Other variables controlled in the analysis are gender, population group, age, marital status, education status, sector, main industry, main occupation and province. The results show that there is association between education status and FLFP status. Findings from this research are expected to contribute to the knowledge about trends in FLFP in South Africa and aid in planning of interventions aimed at improving the status of women as one of the critical steps in achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

Magister Commercii - MCom
The transition of South Africa's political system from an apartheid administration to a democratic rule in 1994 resulted in the end of years of international sanctions imposed on the country. This move placed the country back on the global trading market. In addition, improvements in living conditions, education attainment, and labour market outcomes of societal groups who were previously disadvantaged by the apartheid administration were expected. Looking at the labour market in greater detail, government devised policies aimed at addressing, amongst others, the racial and gender inequalities in job access and remuneration as well as improving the employment conditions. Despite these attempts, women have been known to be subjected to different kinds of discrimination. As a result, they have been segregated, and in most case were over-represented in low income, less secure employment as well as over-represented in the unemployed pool of the labour force. Numerous South African studies in the past only derived the “trends” labour market activities by gender since the transition by comparing the 1995 October Household Survey (OHS) with the latest available Labour Force Survey (LFS), without taking into consideration the comparability issues of the datasets. Hence, this thesis uses all the South African labour survey data in 1995-2009 to investigate the trends in the performance of each gender in the labour market since the transition, specifically looking at the following: labour force participation likelihood, employment likelihood, remuneration and working conditions of the employed, characteristics of the unemployed, as well as whether gender discrimination in the labour market (with specific focus on employment probability gap and wage gap) still exists since the advent of democracy.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
Labour economists in South Africa have extensively researched on almost all aspects of the unemployment phenomenon, specifically, the levels and extent of unemployment as well as the causes of unemployment have received a lot of empirical attention. One category of the labour force, namely the underemployed, has mostly been ignored in empirical studies. An investigation into the prevalence and rate of underemployment is essential because unemployment alone underestimates the magnitude of a country’s available excess labour capacity. The study focuses on various conceptual and empirical issues, including the definition of underemployment, the extent of underemployment in South Africa, demographic characteristics of the underemployed, an empirical estimation of the total earnings effect of underemployment, the duration of underemployment, and the possible policy options to tackle underemployment. To achieve its research objectives, the study conducts various descriptive and econometric analyses, using the data from the 1995-2016 labour force surveys and the first four waves of NIDS conducted in 2008-2015.

Magister Commercii - MCom
Since the advent of democracy, one of the most serious economic problems facing the South African economy is the persistently high unemployment. Although employment has been increasing in general since the economic transition, the extent of such increase is not rapid enough to absorb the expanding labour force entrants, thereby causing both the level and rate of unemployment to increase. This is indicated by the fact that, despite the increase of employment number from 9.5 million in 1995 to 15.2 million in 2014, the number of unemployed increased from 2.0 million to 5.2 million during the same period, thereby causing the unemployment rate to rise from 17.6% to 25.4%. In fact, the labour market objective of the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa (ASGISA) to reduce the unemployment rate to 15% by the end of 2014 is not achieved. The government has been trying to solve the unemployment problem by means of various policies, ranging from the “big” policies like the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP), Growth, Employment and Redistribution Policy (GEAR), the aforementioned ASGISA, and the recently launched National Development Plan (NDP), to the more specific labour market policies such as the Expanded Public Works Program (EPWP), promotion of small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) to the implementation of the Employment Tax Incentives Bill (also known as the Youth Wage Subsidy) since 1 January 2014. This study first provides a theoretical framework on various models of unemployment, before the main causes of unemployment in South Africa are discussed. A critical evaluation of the pros and cons of various policy options to alleviate unemployment would be looked at. Some of the policy options have already been implemented in South Africa for years and hence the possible success of these policies would be investigated in detail. Few policies have only been recently implemented (e.g. the Employment Tax Incentives Bill), while other possible policy options have not yet been implemented in South Africa (e.g. job-seeking transport subsidy) but have been adopted in other countries. Hence, the feasibility of these options for South Africa would be investigated, by examining the outcome of these policies in the other countries.

The Public Employment Service of South Africa (PES-SA) registers unemployed work seekers and placement opportunities to enable the Department of Labour (DoL) to place as many of these work seekers as possible in work. The aim of the present study is to identify challenges in the implementation of PES-SA, and to identify and make recommendations on areas for improvement and strengthening. The study is restricted to two of the six main PES-SA service offerings: (a) Registration Services and (b) Recruitment and Selection Services. The study was partially a process evaluation and partially an impact evaluation. The process evaluation assessed the quality of PES-SA‟s systems, structures, capacity, management and strategic focus. The purpose of the impact evaluation was to understand the challenges and gaps in delivery and implementation, the reasons behind the low matching success, and the extent of uptake by users. The evaluation therefore had a technical data-evaluation component and a component which assessed the reasons behind statistical and other quantitative data patterns. The study was conducted in Mthatha Department of Labour, Eastern Cape. The sample of the study was drawn from workseekers that are in the database and the Researcher drawn 40 respondents and the use of quantitative method was done. A questionnaire was developed and issued out to respondents. The Public Employment Service staff in Mthatha, Department of Labour was also interviewed. All five Employment Service Practitioners and a Career Counsellor were interviewed. A qualitative study was used for these respondents. In the responses of both teams it was deduced that the intention of the service is good but up to this far it has not proven any impact on the reduction of unemployment. Reasons behind the failure of the service were outlined to be the reluctance of the employers to utilise the service and the IT systems that is failing. The staff also mentioned that they were never trained on the service and therefore finds it difficult to render some of the services. Another challenge that was picked up from staff members is that the service is not yet legislated.

The relatively stable overall wage inequality in South Africa between 2001 and 2011 has hidden two distinct trends. Strong growth above the median for high wage earners has increased inequality at the top of the earnings distribution, whilst similarly, strong growth below the median has decreased inequality at the bottom of the distribution. This paper uses the 'task' approach alongside a Recentred Influence Function decomposition framework to explore the factors associated with this pattern of change. The findings suggest that routine-biased technical change and minimum wage laws enacted over the decade have important roles to play in the changes.

South Africa is characterised by its high and persistent level of unemployment, in particular among the youth. The high youth unemployment is attributed to various reasons, ranging from their lack of work experience, skills mismatch to employment and wage rigidities. The South African government proposed the youth wage subsidy to be implemented in 2011, with the primary aim of solving the youth unemployment problem. This study starts by providing a literature review on the youth labour market trends since the transition; it emerged that there is a lack of studies focusing exclusively on how youths fare in the labour market. Next, the demographic and educational attainment characteristics of the youth narrow labour force, employed and narrow unemployed are analysed under the narrow or strict definition, using the 1995-1999 October Household Surveys (OHSs), the 2000-2007 Labour Force Surveys (LFSs) and the 2008-2011 Quarterly Labour Force Surveys (QLFSs). With regard to unemployed youths, it is found that they are more likely to be blacks, without Matric and have never worked before. The main causes of youth unemployment are then discussed in detail, before the thesis moves on to examine the various active and passive labour market policies that could help to address the youth unemployment problem. The possible pros and cons of the youth wage subsidy, one of the active policies and the focus of this study, are discussed in greater detail. In particular, the claim by institutions such as COSATU that the introduction of the subsidy would lead to elderly workers (who are not subsidised) being replaced by the youth workers (who are subsidised) is not entirely correct, as these two groups of workers could be complementary instead of substitutes, and the introduction of the subsidy programme could result in an increase of demand for both elderly and youth workers. It is concluded that, although the youth wage subsidy could be one of the feasible solutions to stimulate demand for youth labour, it is not sufficient to address youth unemployment. It needs to be complemented by the other policies, such as a job search subsidy (targeting discouraged work seekers) and public employment programmes (e.g. Expanded Public Works Programme); but it is most important to note that these policies could only be fully effective if the root causes of youth unemployment are addressed by the government.
Magister Economicae - MEcon

The study sought to investigate the perceptions of TVET students regarding vocational education and its relation to the labour market. It hoped to illuminate connections or disconnections between vocational education and employment. The research emanated from the prevailing view that TVET education by its very nature is work-oriented and therefore those who enroll in TVET colleges are able to find employment. Furthermore, that conceptually the TVET curriculum was and continues to be regarded as skills-based for labour market demands thereby enhancing national competiveness and economic growth. Qualitative questionnaires, which are open-ended in nature, were used to gather facts about students’ beliefs and experiences regarding certain engineering programmes and services offered at TVET colleges. Non-probability sampling was used to select one hundred and thirteen (113) participants who voluntarily completed qualitative questionnaires, which were structured to elicit the required information, and the results reveal divergent views shared by students. There are those who feel very strongly that a TVET qualification, in engineering in particular, leads to employment due to its demand and the fact that the institution generally assists students through the placement unit makes it even easier to find employment. Other students firmly believed that whatever qualifications one attained, the world of work cannot accommodate them, as they do not have work experience. They felt this was unfair because they are unable to find employment without being properly monitored and trained by the very same industry that hopes to employ them in the near future. They argue that the only problem pertaining to unemployment is job scarcity, rather than skills scarcity. The research is framed within the human capital theory. Research findings reveal the fact that there is no link between vocational education and the labour market and as a result employment is not easy. There are personal skills required but they are not available in our educational curriculum, which focuses on educational aspirations. The research further posits five distinct but necessary interventions that students are suggesting in order to increase their lack of experience in the job market.