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Journal articles on the topic 'Krait venom'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Sunagar, Kartik, Suyog Khochare, R. R. Senji Laxme, Saurabh Attarde, Paulomi Dam, Vivek Suranse, Anil Khaire, Gerard Martin, and Ashok Captain. "A Wolf in Another Wolf’s Clothing: Post-Genomic Regulation Dictates Venom Profiles of Medically-Important Cryptic Kraits in India." Toxins 13, no. 1 (January 19, 2021): 69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13010069.

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The Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) shares a distribution range with many other ‘phenotypically-similar’ kraits across the Indian subcontinent. Despite several reports of fatal envenomings by other Bungarus species, commercial Indian antivenoms are only manufactured against B. caeruleus. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the distribution of genetically distinct lineages of kraits, the compositional differences in their venoms, and the consequent impact of venom variation on the (pre)clinical effectiveness of antivenom therapy. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted phylogenetic and comparative venomics investigations of kraits in Southern and Western India. Phylogenetic reconstructions using mitochondrial markers revealed a new species of krait, Romulus’ krait (Bungarus romulusi sp. nov.), in Southern India. Additionally, we found that kraits with 17 mid-body dorsal scale rows in Western India do not represent a subspecies of the Sind Krait (B. sindanus walli) as previously believed, but are genetically very similar to B. sindanus in Pakistan. Furthermore, venom proteomics and comparative transcriptomics revealed completely contrasting venom profiles. While the venom gland transcriptomes of all three species were highly similar, venom proteomes and toxicity profiles differed significantly, suggesting the prominent role of post-genomic regulatory mechanisms in shaping the venoms of these cryptic kraits. In vitro venom recognition and in vivo neutralisation experiments revealed a strong negative impact of venom variability on the preclinical performance of commercial antivenoms. While the venom of B. caeruleus was neutralised as per the manufacturer’s claim, performance against the venoms of B. sindanus and B. romulusi was poor, highlighting the need for regionally-effective antivenoms in India.

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2

Brunda, Ganneru, Beedu Sashidhar Rao, and Rajendra Kumar Sarin. "Quantitation of Indian Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) Venom in Human Specimens of Forensic Origin by Indirect Competitive Inhibition Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 89, no. 5 (September 1, 2006): 1360–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/89.5.1360.

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Abstract An indirect competitive inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was reported to detect krait venom in human specimens of forensic origin. Polyclonal anti-krait venom antibodies were characterized by indirect antibody capture assay. The calibration plot was constructed based on linear regression analysis (y = 72.85 12.29x, r2 = 0.98) with concentration ranges from 0.013 to 1000 ng/well of krait venom with a limit of detection of 0.2 ng/mL in the assay system. The IC50 (inhibitory concentration at 50% displacement) value of krait venom was observed to be 70 ng. Spiking studies indicated recoveries of 95100% and 94100% when various concentrations of krait venom were spiked to rat tissues (skin, liver, and kidneys) and pooled human serum, respectively. Polyclonal anti-krait venom antibodies showed no cross-reactivity with cobra and viper venom when tested in the assay system. The coefficient of variation of various concentrations of working range in intra-assay (n = 6) was <5%, whereas in interassay (n = 6) it was observed to be 7%. Further, the method was used to quantitate krait venom in human autopsy and biopsy specimens of forensic origin. Concentration of krait venom was found to be in the range of 4172 ng/100 mg skin or skin scrapings and 64378 ng/mL blood or serum. The methodology may find application in forensic laboratories to assess the cause of death in the cases of krait-bite victims.

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3

Chapeaurouge, Alex, Andreza Silva, Paulo Carvalho, Ryan McCleary, Cassandra Modahl, Jonas Perales, R. Kini, and Stephen Mackessy. "Proteomic Deep Mining the Venom of the Red-Headed Krait, Bungarus flaviceps." Toxins 10, no. 9 (September 13, 2018): 373. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10090373.

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The use of -omics technologies allows for the characterization of snake venom composition at a fast rate and at high levels of detail. In the present study, we investigated the protein content of Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) venom. This analysis revealed a high diversity of snake venom protein families, as evidenced by high-throughput mass spectrometric analysis. We found all six venom protein families previously reported in a transcriptome study of the venom gland of B. flaviceps, including phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), Kunitz-type serine proteinase inhibitors (KSPIs), three-finger toxins (3FTxs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), snaclecs, and natriuretic peptides. A combined approach of automated database searches and de novo sequencing of tandem mass spectra, followed by sequence similarity searches, revealed the presence of 12 additional toxin families. De novo sequencing alone was able to identify 58 additional peptides, and this approach contributed significantly to the comprehensive description of the venom. Abundant protein families comprise 3FTxs (22.3%), KSPIs (19%), acetylcholinesterases (12.6%), PLA2s (11.9%), venom endothelial growth factors (VEGFs, 8.4%), nucleotidases (4.3%), and C-type lectin-like proteins (snaclecs, 3.3%); an additional 11 toxin families are present at significantly lower concentrations, including complement depleting factors, a family not previously detected in Bungarus venoms. The utility of a multifaceted approach toward unraveling the proteome of snake venoms, employed here, allowed detection of even minor venom components. This more in-depth knowledge of the composition of B. flaviceps venom facilitates a better understanding of snake venom molecular evolution, in turn contributing to more effective treatment of krait bites.

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4

Gomes, Antony, Partha Pratim Saha, Shamik Bhattacharya, Sourav Ghosh, and Aparna Gomes. "Therapeutic potential of krait venom." Toxicon 131 (June 2017): 48–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.03.004.

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5

Tran, Thien V., Andrei E. Siniavin, Anh N. Hoang, My T. T. Le, Chuong D. Pham, Trung V. Phung, Khoa C. Nguyen, et al. "Phospholipase A2 from krait Bungarus fasciatus venom induces human cancer cell death in vitro." PeerJ 7 (December 3, 2019): e8055. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8055.

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Background Snake venoms are the complex mixtures of different compounds manifesting a wide array of biological activities. The venoms of kraits (genus Bungarus, family Elapidae) induce mainly neurological symptoms; however, these venoms show a cytotoxicity against cancer cells as well. This study was conducted to identify in Bungarus fasciatus venom an active compound(s) exerting cytotoxic effects toward MCF7 human breast cancer cells and A549 human lung cancer cells. Methods The crude venom of B. fasciatus was separated by gel-filtration on Superdex HR 75 column and reversed phase HPLC on C18 column. The fractions obtained were screened for cytotoxic effect against MCF7, A549, and HK2 cell lines using colorimetric assay with the tetrazolium dye MTT- 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide. The primary structure of active protein was established by ultra high resolution LC-MS/MS. The molecular mechanism of the isolated protein action on MCF7 cells was elucidated by flow cytometry. Results MTT cell viability assays of cancer cells incubated with fractions isolated from B. fasciatus venom revealed a protein with molecular mass of about 13 kDa possessing significant cytotoxicity. This protein manifested the dose and time dependent cytotoxicity for MCF7 and A549 cell lines while showed no toxic effect on human normal kidney HK2 cells. In MCF7, flow cytometry analysis revealed a decrease in the proportion of Ki-67 positive cells. As Ki-67 protein is a cellular marker for proliferation, its decline indicates the reduction in the proliferation of MCF7 cells treated with the protein. Flow cytometry analysis of MCF7 cells stained with propidium iodide and Annexin V conjugated with allophycocyanin showed that a probable mechanism of cell death is apoptosis. Mass spectrometric studies showed that the cytotoxic protein was phospholipase A2. The amino acid sequence of this enzyme earlier was deduced from cloned cDNA, and in this work it was isolated from the venom as a protein for the first time. It is also the first krait phospholipase A2 manifesting the cytotoxicity for cancer cells.

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6

Sunagar, Kartik, and Siju V. Abraham. "The Curious Case of the “Neurotoxic Skink”: Scientific Literature Points to the Absence of Venom in Scincidae." Toxins 13, no. 2 (February 3, 2021): 114. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13020114.

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In contrast to the clearly documented evolution of venom in many animal lineages, the origin of reptilian venom is highly debated. Historically, venom has been theorised to have evolved independently in snakes and lizards. However, some of the recent works have argued for the common origin of venom in “Toxicofera” reptiles, which include the order Serpentes (all snakes), and Anguimorpha and Iguania lizards. Nevertheless, in both these contrasting hypotheses, the lizards of the family Scincidae are considered to be harmless and devoid of toxic venoms. Interestingly, an unusual clinical case claiming neurotoxic envenoming by a scincid lizard was recently reported in Southern India. Considering its potentially significant medicolegal, conservation and evolutionary implications, we have summarised the scientific evidence that questions the validity of this clinical report. We argue that the symptoms documented in the patient are likely to have resulted from krait envenomation, which is far too frequent in these regions.

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7

Sutar, N. K., T. G. Tare, and D. M. Renapurkar. "A study of Snake Venom Yield by different Methods of Venom Extraction." Amphibia-Reptilia 7, no. 2 (1986): 187–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853886x00406.

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AbstractVarious methods of venom extraction including application of manual pressure to the glands, electric stimulation, and vacuum method were used for the extraction of venom from snakes maintained in captivity and in an open farm. The venom was collected from cobra (Naja naja), Russell's viper (Vipera russelli) and common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) snakes. The yield of venom with different methods was compared. It was observed that snakes maintained in open farm yield more venom in comparison to those maintained in captivity. Extraction of venom by application of hand pressure to the venom glands and the use of vacuum method produced highest venom yield.

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8

Kang, Tse Siang, Wan Chen, Leng Chuan Goh, and Manjunatha Kini. "Identification and characterisation of novel inhibitors on extrinsic tenase complex from Bungarus fasciatus (banded krait) venom." Thrombosis and Haemostasis 112, no. 10 (2014): 700–715. http://dx.doi.org/10.1160/th13-12-1063.

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SummarySnake venoms are excellent sources of pharmacologically active proteins and peptides, and hence are potential sources of leads for drug developments. It has been previously established that krait (Bungarus genus) venoms contain mainly neurotoxins. A screening for anticoagulants showed that Bungarus fasciatus venom exhibits potent anticoagulant effect in standard clotting assays. Through sequential fractionation of the venom by size exclusion and high performance liquid chromatographies, coupled with functional screening for anticoagulant activities, we have isolated and purified two anticoagulant proteins, termed BF-AC1 ( Bungarus fasciatus anticoagulant 1) and BFAC2. They have potent inhibitory activities (IC50 of 10 nM) on the extrinsic tenase complex. Structurally, these proteins each has two subunits covalently held together by disulfide bond(s). The N-terminal sequences of the individual subunits of BF-AC1 and BF-AC2 showed that the larger subunit is homologous to phospholipase A2, while the smaller subunit is homologous to Kunitz type serine proteinase inhibitor. Functionally, in addition to their anticoagulant activity, these proteins showed presynaptic neurotoxic effects in both in vivo and ex vivo experiments. Thus, BF-AC1 and BF-AC2 are structurally and functionally similar to β-bungarotoxins, a class of neurotoxins. The enzymatic activity of phospholipase A2 subunit plays a significant role in the anticoagulant activities. This is the first report on the anticoagulant activity of β-bungarotoxins and these results expand on the existing catalogue of haemostatically active snake venom proteins.

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9

Liang, Qing, Tam Minh Huynh, Yen Zhi Ng, Geoffrey K. Isbister, and Wayne C. Hodgson. "In Vitro Neurotoxicity of Chinese Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) Venom and Neutralization by Antivenoms." Toxins 13, no. 1 (January 11, 2021): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13010049.

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Bungarus multicinctus, the Chinese krait, is a highly venomous elapid snake which causes considerable morbidity and mortality in southern China. B. multicinctus venom contains pre-synaptic PLA2 neurotoxins (i.e., β-bungarotoxins) and post-synaptic neurotoxins (i.e., α-bungarotoxins). We examined the in vitro neurotoxicity of B. multicinctus venom, and the efficacy of specific monovalent Chinese B. multicinctus antivenom, and Australian polyvalent elapid snake antivenom, against venom-induced neurotoxicity. B. multicinctus venom (1–10 μg/mL) abolished indirect twitches in the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation as well as attenuating contractile responses to exogenous ACh and CCh, but not KCl. This indicates a post-synaptic neurotoxic action but myotoxicity was not evident. Given that post-synaptic α-neurotoxins have a more rapid onset than pre-synaptic neurotoxins, the activity of the latter in the whole venom will be masked. The prior addition of Chinese B. multicinctus antivenom (12 U/mL) or Australian polyvalent snake antivenom (15 U/mL), markedly attenuated the neurotoxic actions of B. multicinctus venom (3 μg/mL) and prevented the inhibition of contractile responses to ACh and CCh. The addition of B. multicinctus antivenom (60 U/mL), or Australian polyvalent snake antivenom (50 U/mL), at the t90 time point after the addition of B. multicinctus venom (3 μg/mL), did not restore the twitch height over 180 min. The earlier addition of B. multicinctus antivenom (60 U/mL), at the t20 or t50 time points, also failed to prevent the neurotoxic effects of the venom but did delay the time to abolish twitches based on a comparison of t90 values. Repeated washing of the preparation with physiological salt solution, commencing at the t20 time point, failed to reverse the neurotoxic effects of venom or delay the time to abolish twitches. This study showed that B. multicinctus venom displays marked in vitro neurotoxicity in a skeletal muscle preparation which is not reversed by antivenom. This does not appear to be related to antivenom efficacy, but due to the irreversible/pseudo-irreversible nature of the neurotoxins.

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10

V.S., Irshad, Parth Godhiwala, Sunil Kumar, Charan Singh Bagga, and Anusha Gupta. "Role of Neostigmine in Neurotoxic Snake Bite." Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 10, no. 15 (April 12, 2021): 1095–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2021/234.

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Snake bite is a major health concern in India. Common krait is one of the most dangerous and poisonous neurotoxic snakes. Snake bite is a medical emergency. India has the highest snake bite death rate in the world.1 Elapidae, viperidae, pit viper and hydrophiidae are the main poisonous snake families in India. Elapidae family includes common cobra, king cobra and common krait.2 Common Indian krait is about 10 times more poisonous than cobra. Snake toxins are neurotoxic or haematotoxic. Krait is neurotoxic, which interrupts neuromuscular transmission of impulse and causes paralysis of muscles. Neostigmine which is an anticholinesterase can reverse the neurological manifestations of the venom.3 Treatment of neurotoxic snake bite includes administration of anti-snake venom, neostigmine with atropine and invasive ventilation if there is respiratory muscle weakness or paralysis. Maximum dose of neostigmine to reverse neuromuscular blockade is 10 mg over 24 hours. 4 Here we report a case of a 60-years-old male who presented with a snake bite followed by respiratory distress and bilateral ptosis. The patient was treated as per standard protocol. However, his ptosis did not improve as per expectations. Hence, neostigmine was given for prolonged period to revert ptosis in neurotoxic snake bite. In this case study we are discussing about maximum dose of neostigmine given to revert ptosis in a neurotoxic snake bite, as their no case report regarding it.

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Sakthivel, G., Amitabha Dey, Kh Nongalleima, Murthy Chavali, R. S. Rimal Isaac, N. Surjit Singh, and Lokesh Deb. "In VitroandIn VivoEvaluation of Polyherbal Formulation against Russell’s Viper and Cobra Venom and Screening of Bioactive Components by Docking Studies." Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013 (2013): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/781216.

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The present study emphasizes to reveal the antivenom activity ofAristolochia bracteolataLam.,Tylophora indica(Burm.f.) Merrill, andLeucas aspera S.which were evaluated against venoms ofDaboia russelli russelli(Russell’s viper) andNaja naja(Indian cobra). The aqueous extracts of leaves and roots of the above-mentioned plants and their polyherbal (1 : 1 : 1) formulation at a dose of 200 mg/kg showed protection against envenomed mice with LD50doses of 0.44 mg/kg and 0.28 mg/kg against Russell’s viper and cobra venom, respectively. Inin vitroantioxidant activities sample extracts showed free radical scavenging effects in dose dependent manner. Computational drug design and docking studies were carried out to predict the neutralizing principles of type I phospholipase A2(PLA2) from Indian common krait venom. This confirmed that aristolochic acid and leucasin can neutralize type I PLA2enzyme. Results suggest that these plants could serve as a source of natural antioxidants and common antidote for snake bite. However, further studies are needed to identify the lead molecule responsible for antidote activity.

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Bala, Anju, Parul Bhardwaj, and Vipan Garg. "Autonomic Dysfunction Following Neurotoxic Snake Envenomation: Does Site of Bite Predispose?" International Journal of Science and Healthcare Research 6, no. 2 (May 3, 2021): 47–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.52403/ijshr.20210409.

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South Asian subcontinent is among the highest burden areas in respect of snake bite. India is commonest place in this subcontinent with mortality following snake envenomation. The four most important venomous snakes in India are cobra (Naja naja) and common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), which are neurotoxic, and the saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) and Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), which are hemotoxic1. Various autonomic dysfunction following neuro-paralytic envenomation with krait and cobra has been reported. Timely recognition and appropriate management of snake envenomation along with autonomic dysfunction helps to reduce morbidity and mortality. Keywords: Autonomic dysfunction, hypertension, antisnake venom, blood pressure.

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13

D. Mundhe, Priyanka, Balasaheb S. Pawade, Indrasen G. Waykar, Innus K. Shaikh, Prashant D. Ambawade, and Vrushali S. Kashikar. "ASSESSMENT OF SNAKE ANTIVENOM ACTIVITY OF TAMARINDUS INDICA SEED COAT EXTRACT." International Journal of Advanced Research 9, no. 09 (September 30, 2021): 489–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/13438.

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Snakebite is a life-threatening medical emergency, and globally responsible for millions of deaths. In snakebites accidents only deaths are not a concern, it leads to more morbidities. Due to scanty healthcare facilities in rural areas of India, many people seek alternative treatment available in ethnic practices. Tamarindus Indica (TI) plant is rich in medicinal value and used to treat many diseases including snakebite treatment traditionally. In view of this TI seed coat extract (TISCE) was evaluated for antivenom activity. The phytochemical screening of TISCE was performed to understand its chemical composition. TISCE was evaluated for antivenom activity against Indian cobra venom (ICV), common krait venom (CKV), Russells viper venom (RVV), and saw-scaled viper venom (SCV) for phospholipase A2 (PLA-2), haemorrhagic in vitro and in vivo, procoagulant, proteolytic activity, and lethality studies. TISCE majorly contains saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds. Minimum indirect haemorrhagic dose (MIHD) observed for ICV (12.5 Âµg), CKV (5.0 Âµg),RVV (10.0 Âµg), and SVV (12.5 Âµg). TISCE inhibits the procoagulant activity of all venoms at a concentration of 18.0 Âµg. It also shows the neutralization of proteolytic enzymes of venom in a dose-dependent manner. A pre-incubated mixture containing five lethal dose 50 (LD50) of venom and TISCE was injected intravenously, all mice survived as venom neutralized by TISCE. The present study demonstrates the ability of TISCE to neutralize snake venom using suitable in vivo and in vitro methods. Further studies required to unravelling the speciï¬c active chemical constituent of TISCE that may used as novel alternative snakebite treatment. TISCE was able to prolong the deaths during the simulation study and may be used in the topical pharmaceutical formulation that will reduce local venom reactions causing much morbidity, which will collectively with Anti-snake venom (ASV), used to treat envenomed patients more effectively.

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Tan, Nget-Hong, Chin-Hua Poh, and Chon-Seng Tan. "The lethal and biochemical properties of Bungarus candidus (Malayan krait) venom and venom fractions." Toxicon 27, no. 9 (January 1989): 1065–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(89)90159-1.

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15

a, Anju. "EFFECT OF LIGHT ON VENOM OF BUNGARUSCAERULEUS (INDIAN COMMON KRAIT)." International Journal of Advanced Research 5, no. 1 (January 31, 2017): 2074–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/2979.

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Hossain, Md Sakhawat, Md Abu Saeed, Md Farid Ahsan, Mohammad Firoj Jaman, Hasan Al Razi Chayan, Sabit Hasan, Sajib Biswas, and Md Asaduzzaman. "Present Status, Challenges and Prospects of Snake Farming in Bangladesh." Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 50, no. 1 (June 20, 2022): 121–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjz.v50i1.60096.

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Venomous snakes are one of the most dreadful animals globally that kill their victims by injecting venoms (toxic substances) using fangs. However, snakes are being used for numerous vital life-saving purposes, including antivenom and traditional medicines, pain killers, cancer treatment, cardiac arrest, paralysis, arthritis, anti-ageing, and cosmetics to leather products, foods, display and research. This study was conducted to investigate the current status, challenges and prospects of snake farming in Bangladesh using self-structured questionnaires surveys. In this study, in total, 281 snakes belonging to 12 species i.e., common krait Bungarus caeruleus, banded krait B. fasciatus, greater black krait Bungarus niger, monocled cobra Naja kaouthia, spectacled cobra Naja naja, king cobra Ophiophagus hannah, russell's viper Daboia russelii, indian python Python molurus, common sand boa Eryx conicus, common cat snake Boiga trigonata, common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus and rat snake Ptyas mucosa were observed. This study also showed that the largest snake farm was at Patuakhali, where about 231 venomous snake individuals were reared, while 35 snakes were reared in Rajshahi farm, eight and seven snakes were reared in Rajbari and Gazipur farms, respectively. These snakes were collected from snake catchers/charmers and rescued from several places and nature. Snakes were fed on natural feeds (toad, frog, rat, and snake) and chickens. These farms had small to medium tin-shed building infrastructure with minimal facilities and used tanks, cages, and vivaria for snake rearing, breeding, and displaying. Snake farmers had not received any training, but some skilled snake handlers operated these farms. These snake farms did not keep managemental activities records and lack of proper design. These were not collected and preserved snake venom and were mainly involved in snake displaying. Although this study did not explore much information but snake farming may have great potential in Bangladesh; thus, more research is warranted on proper snake farming facilities. However, the government could be initiated the establishment of a modern and sophisticated snake farm for research, development, conservation, and venom collection including antivenom production and pharmaceutical purposes. Hence, the existing snake resources and skilled professionals may assist the government in snake farming activities. Bangladesh J. Zool. 50 (1): 121-133, 2022

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Dhir., Anju. "EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VENOM OF BUNGARUS CAERULEUS(INDIAN COMMON KRAIT)." International Journal of Advanced Research 4, no. 11 (November 30, 2016): 546–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/2116.

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Choudhary, Mukesh, LalitPrakash Mali, Sweta Gupta, and Deepak Sharma. "Krait envenomation: Strong suspicion and judicious use of anti-snake venom." Medical Journal of Dr. D.Y. Patil University 8, no. 4 (2015): 517. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0975-2870.160823.

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19

Tan, NH, SY Fung, and G. Ponnudurai. "Enzymatic and immunological properties of Bungarus flaviceps (red-headed krait) venom." Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases 16, no. 1 (2010): 147–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1678-91992010005000009.

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Chanhome, Lawan, Visith Sitprija, and Narongsak Chaiyabutr. "Effects of Bungarus candidus (Malayan krait) venom on general circulation and renal hemodynamics in experimental animals." Asian Biomedicine 4, no. 3 (June 1, 2010): 421–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/abm-2010-0051.

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Abstract Background: Many studies have reported the occurrence of lethal acute renal failure after snakebites. Bungarus candidus (Malayan krait) is a medically important venomous snake distributed widely throughout Southeast Asia. The best known features of systemic envenoming by B. candidus are neurotoxic. Objective: Obtain more information on effects of B. candidus venom on changes in systemic and renal hemodynamics in experimental animals. Methods: Twelve adult male New Zealand white rabbits were used to study the effect of B. candidus venom on general circulation and renal hemodynamics. An anesthetized animal was intravenously injected with B. candidus venom at a dosage of 50μg/kg bodyweight. All changes of parameters were observed after initial post venom injection and recorded at 30 min intervals until 150 minutes after envenomation. Results: After envenomation, cardiovascular responses showed a marked decrease in mean arterial pressure within two minutes, afterwards gradually returning closely to baseline values. There were stepwise decreases in heart rate and cardiac output, while total peripheral resistance was slightly increased. The renal hemodynamics significantly decreased by glomerular filtration rate, effective renal plasma flow and effective renal blood flow, while the filtration fraction significantly increased. Envenomed animals showed a reduction in renal fraction, while renal vascular resistance stepwise increased. The plasma potassium level tended to increase. Animals showed stepwise decreases in urinary excretion of Na+, K+ and Cl-. A marked decrease in plasma calcium level was apparent at 120 minutes, while plasma creatine phosphokinase and lactate dehydrogenase levels increased at 30-120 minutes. Conclusion: A significant drop in blood pressure was attributed to a sustained fall in cardiac output, which would be associated with a reduction in heart rate. Sustained hypotension would contribute to reduction of renal blood flow, which results in decreased GFR.

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More, Veena, Abdullatif Bin Muhsinah, G. S. Latha, Abdulfattah Yahya M. Alhazmi, Osama Abdulaziz Ibrahim, Abdulkarim S. Binshaya, Mater H. Mahnashi, et al. "Evaluation of Anti-Venom Potential of Areca catechu Seed Extract on Bungarus caeruleus Venom." Separations 9, no. 11 (November 9, 2022): 360. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/separations9110360.

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Areca catechu seeds and their extract/s are currently used to treat various ailments and infections including snakebites. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the inhibiting/neutralizing effect of ethyl acetate and aqueous ethanolic seed extracts of A. catechu on Bungarus caeruleus (krait) venom. The enzyme activities and their inhibition were evaluated using standard procedures (in vitro). In vivo studies were conducted using chick embryos and murine models. The extracts inhibited hyaluronidase and phospholipase A2 activities. Protease activity was neutralized by the aqueous ethanolic extract only. The IC50 value of aqueous ethanolic extract for hyaluronidase was 0.001 g/mL, while that for the ethyl acetate extract for phospholipase A2 was 0.006 g/mL. In addition, both the extracts neutralized the indirect hemolysis and fibrinogenolytic activity induced by B. caeruleus venom. The LD50 for the chick embryos was 4.9 µg/egg. The 50 and 100 µg aqueous ethanolic extracts neutralized the LD50 and the challenging dose (3LD50) of venom effectively in the chick embryo model. The LD50 of B. caeruleus venom in mice was 0.1927 µg/kg; the extract extended the survival time of the mice from 25 min to 30 and 35 min in 1:10 and 1:20 ((w/w) venom:extract) ratios, respectively. The extract also neutralized myotoxic activity. The A. catechu seed extract showed promising inhibitory properties against B. caeruleus venom. In this regard, academia and industries should work collaboratively to develop and formulate a cost-effective first-aid drug.

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Verma, S., K. Kumar, S. Arvind, and A. Khadwal. "Unilateral lower motor neuron-type of facial palsy following snake bite presumably due to Krait (Bungarus Caeruleus)." Journal of Nepal Paediatric Society 32, no. 2 (October 1, 2012): 184–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jnps.v32i2.5824.

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We describe an unusual case of snake bite presumably due to Krait (Bungarus Caeruleus) in a 12-year-old child from Mohali, Punjab. He presented with a history of bite behind his left ear, while he was sleeping at night on floor. He had bilateral ptosis, dysphonia initially, which progressed gradually to cause respiratory paralysis. Child was managed with antisnake venom, ventilation and other supportive measures. He recovered gradually, but persisted to have lower motor neuron paralysis of left facial nerve, which was noted post extubation. This uncommon presentation could be because of exposure of the facial muscles to the venom, spreading directly from the injection site and destroying the nerve terminals of facial nerve in the muscle tissue. At three months follow-up, child showed complete recovery. Facial nerve involvement following snake bite, which usually has a good prognosis, remain an uncommon presentation in paediatric age group. J Nepal Paediatr Soc 2012;32(2):184-186 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jnps.v32i2.5824

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Samant, Lalit R., Mrunal Ghag-Sawan, Dipti Thatavarth, Nakul Shah, and Abhay Chowdhary. "In vitro Biochemical Characterization and Anti-cancerous Property of Common Krait Snake Venom." International Journal of Cancer Research 15, no. 1 (December 15, 2018): 29–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ijcr.2019.29.37.

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More, SS, KM Kiran, SM Veena, and JR Gadag. "Purification of an L-amino acid oxidase from Bungarus caeruleus (Indian krait) venom." Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases 16, no. 1 (2010): 60–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1678-91992010005000002.

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Sridharan, Sindhuja, and R. Manjunatha Kini. "Tail wags the dog: activity of krait natriuretic peptide is determined by its C-terminal tail in a natriuretic peptide receptor-independent manner." Biochemical Journal 469, no. 2 (July 6, 2015): 255–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj20150281.

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Gupta, Vivek, and M. S. Mustafa. "An outbreak of krait bite amongst people in the desert sands: the cryptic enemy within." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 8, no. 3 (February 24, 2021): 1476. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20210847.

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Background: Snake bite has been associated with high morbidity and mortality. Personnel are at high risk of snake bite. This investigation was carried out amongst residents with the purpose of identifying the factors that led to the bites and recommending preventive measures.Methods: Three cases bitten by a single snake were investigated retrospectively. Historical data was collected and area reconnaissance was done. The severity of envenomation was assessed using a graded scale. Local authorities were briefed on remedial measures to prevent snake bite cases in future.Results: The three cases of snake bite were rushed to the Primary health centre for first aid. Local signs of envenomation were absent in all cases. Two cases died before reaching the hospital. The third case managed to reach the hospital and was administered anti snake venom and put on ventilatory support, following which he recovered. Absence of local signs, along with the neurotoxic features led to the conclusion that the bite was caused by a krait. Environmental survey revealed that the village was surrounded with thick vegetation, waste disposal was being done too close to the cookhouse and snake trenches were not dug up.Conclusions: The key for preventing fatality in snake bite is the immediate transfer of the victim to the nearest hospital equipped with anti-snake venom and ventilatory support equipment.

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Chung, C., B. N. Wu, C. C. Yang, and L. S. Chang. "Muscarinic Toxin-Like Proteins from Taiwan Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) Venom: Purification, Characterization and Gene Organization." Biological Chemistry 383, no. 9 (September 17, 2002): 1397–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bc.2002.158.

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Abstract Two novel proteins, BM8 and BM14, were isolated from Bungarus multicinctus (Taiwan banded krait) venom using the combination of chromatography on a SPSephadex C-25 column and a reversephase HPLC column. Both proteins contained 82 amino acid residues including 10 cysteine residues, but there were two amino acid substitutions at positions 37 and 38 (Glu37Ala38 in BM8; Lys37Lys38 in BM14). CD spectra and acrylamide quenching studies revealed that the gross conformation of BM8 and BM14 differed. In contrast to BM8, BM14 inhibited the binding of [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate to the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine (mAchR) receptor subtype. Trinitrophenylation of Lys residues abolished the mAchRbinding activity of BM14, indicating that the Lys substitutions at positions 37 and 38 played a crucial role in the activity of BM14. The genomic DNA encoding the precursor of BM14 was amplified by PCR. The gene shared virtually identical structural organization with αneurotoxin and cardiotoxin genes. The intron sequences of these genes shared a sequence identity up to 84%, but the proteincoding regions were highly variable. These results suggest that BM8, BM14, neurotoxins and cardiotoxins may have originated from a common ancestor, and the evolution of snake venom proteins shows a tendency to diversify their functions.

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Grahadi, Rahmat, Fatchiyah Fatchiyah, and Nia Kurniawan. "Virtual prediction of potential immunogenic epitope of candoxin protein from Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus) venom." Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research 10, no. 6 (November 1, 2022): 1046–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.56499/jppres22.1469_10.6.1046.

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Context: Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus) is a snake that is considered highly venomous snake and widely distributed across Southeast Asia. Envenomation by this snake is characterized by facial weakness, paralysis, respiratory muscle weakness, and in most cases, it renders the victim dead. Unfortunately, there is only one antivenom for neutralizing venom that is only available from the Thai Red Cross Society. Aims: To predict the epitopes from candoxin protein of B. candidus venom that could be a candidate for vaccine-based antivenom. Methods: In this study, IEDB and SYFPHEITHI databases were utilized to predict candoxin epitope sequences and determine their immunogenicity, conservancy, and population coverage. Next, the epitopes were modeled, and the binding interactions between epitopes and MHC-II were analyzed. The epitope that binds into the active site of human and murine MHC-II proceeded to the next step. Then, the allergenic properties of the chosen epitope were assessed to ensure its safety. Lastly, the physicochemical characteristics prediction and molecular dynamics simulation were conducted to verify the epitope’s stability when produced in vivo. Results: The results showed that epitope 47-CFKESWREARGTRIE-61 has the best binding interaction when compared to others. This epitope was confirmed that did not show potential allergenic properties. The physicochemical properties and molecular dynamics simulation demonstrated that this epitope was stable. Conclusions: The results of this study will be useful in developing a novel antivenom for Bungarus candidus using a vaccine-based method.

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Hia, Yi Lin, Kae Yi Tan, and Choo Hock Tan. "Comparative venom proteomics of banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus) from five geographical locales: Correlation of venom lethality, immunoreactivity and antivenom neutralization." Acta Tropica 207 (July 2020): 105460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105460.

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Chang, Long-Sen, Charling Chung, Jau-Cheng Liou, Chia-Wei Chang, and Chen-Chung Yang. "Novel neurotoxins from Taiwan banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus) venom: purification, characterization and gene organization." Toxicon 42, no. 3 (September 2003): 323–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00151-x.

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Hirebail, Supriya Kumari, Nagabushan H., and Prakash G. M. "A prospective observational study of drug usage in the management of snake bite patients and their outcome in a tertiary care teaching hospital." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 6, no. 12 (November 23, 2017): 2836. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20175204.

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Background: The objectives of the study were to assess the pattern of management of snakebite especially with respect to use of anti- snake venom and other supportive treatment given and to assess the effect of anti-snake venom on different types of snakebite and to assess their outcome.Methods: A prospective observational study was conducted over a period of 6 months, after getting approval from Institutional Ethics committee. Total of 144 snake bite patients were analysed for six months duration for use of anti-snake venom and other supportive treatment in their management and were assessed for their outcome like recovery, morbidity and mortality.Results: Out of 144 snake bite patients analysed, 71.5% had poisonous type and 28.4% had non- poisonous type of snake bite. Among the total number of snakebites, 47.2% were unknown type and among the known type 25% were viper, 13.2% cobra, 7.6% krait, 6.3% sea snake and 0.7% green snake. Anti-snake venom (ASV) was given to 62 patients depending on severity, of which, 22 patients developed reaction to ASV. Patient with reaction to ASV were treated with corticosteroid and antihistamine injection. Morbidity was seen in 29.1% of patients who developed either cellulitis or gangrene of bitten area, which was more commonly seen among viper bite patients (54.7%).Conclusions: Snakebite is one of the commonest tropical diseases leading to envenomation and poisoning especially in rural areas of tropical countries which has to be treated as early as possible to prevent complications. Majority of the cases in our study were of viper bite and most of them have recovered after treatment.

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Pande, Rohendra, Vijaya Prasad Paudel, and Kalyan Sapkota. "Clinical Profile and Outcome of patients with Snake Envenomation at Bharatpur Hospital Nepal." International Journal of Health Sciences and Research 12, no. 7 (July 20, 2022): 189–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.52403/ijhsr.20220728.

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Background: Snake bites are well-known medical emergencies requiring hospital admission. Krait and Cobra are common snakes leading to envenomation in Nepal. Timely identification of the envenomation leads to prompt treatment and decrease the morbidity and mortality. We aimed to study the clinical profile and outcome of patients with snake envenomation at Bharatpur Hospital, Nepal. Materials and Methods: The Study was a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted in the Department of Medicine in Bharatpur hospital from April 2018 to September 2018. The patients of snake bites admitted with signs of neurological, hematological, local or regional envenomation were enrolled in the study. Clinical profile, duration of hospital stay and outcomes were noted and analyzed in the study. Results: Out of 63 patients of snake bite, majority of snakes responsible for envenomation was due to Krait (38.1%) followed by Cobra (9.5%) and only 4 cases (6.3%) were due to Viper envenomation. The most common sign of presentation was Ptosis (69%) followed by difficulty in protruding tongue (42.9%). Mean number of Anti Snake Venom (ASV) vials required was 26.03. The mean duration of hospital stay in neuroparalytic cases was 46.8 hours while 60.5 hours in hematotoxic cases. There was a fatality rate of 11.1%. Conclusion: Snakebite is a common life-threatening emergency in the study area. Majority of the patients were victims of Krait or Cobra bite. Early administration of ASV prevents respiratory paralysis after neuroparalytic snakebite. Timely intubation and mechanical ventilation in respiratory paralysis cases is life saving. The development of new and more effective Antivenom that better targets the species responsible for bites in the region would help in improving future patients’ outcome. Key words: Envenomation, snakebites, emergency, Clinical profile .

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Whitaker, Romulus. "Snakebite Mitigation Project of the Madras Crocodile Bank/Centre for Herpetology, India: background and a brief summary of activities." Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 113, no. 12 (December 14, 2018): 818–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/trstmh/try130.

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Abstract Snakebite is a serious problem in rural India where several highly venomous species are commonly found in and around agricultural areas where prey such as rodents and amphibians are abundant. Four snake species, referred to as the Big Four, are responsible for the most serious and fatal bites: spectacled cobra (Naja naja), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus). A polyvalent antivenom is made to treat these bites but public awareness and distribution of this life-saving drug is inadequate. The Madras Crocodile Bank and its partners are conducting a snakebite project which includes venom sampling and research, snake and snakebite treatment centre mapping, and a nationwide awareness campaign for snakebite mitigation.

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34

Nanayakkara, DP, RMP Ratnayake, and JG Shirani Ranasinghe. "Histopathological Changes in Brain, Kidney and Liver of Mice following Intramuscular Administration of Krait Venom." Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 38, no. 1 (November 13, 2009): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/cjsbs.v38i1.1321.

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35

TORRES, Allan M., R. Manjunatha KINI, Nirthanan SELVANAYAGAM, and Philip W. KUCHEL. "NMR structure of bucandin, a neurotoxin from the venom of the Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus)." Biochemical Journal 360, no. 3 (December 15, 2001): 539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/0264-6021:3600539.

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36

TORRES, Allan M., R. Manjunatha KINI, Nirthanan SELVANAYAGAM, and Philip W. KUCHEL. "NMR structure of bucandin, a neurotoxin from the venom of the Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus)." Biochemical Journal 360, no. 3 (December 10, 2001): 539–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj3600539.

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A high-resolution solution structure of bucandin, a neurotoxin from Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus), was determined by 1H-NMR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics. The average backbone root-mean-square deviation for the 20 calculated structures and the mean structure is 0.47 Å (1 Å = 0.1nm) for all residues and 0.24 Å for the well-defined region that spans residues 23–58. Secondary-structural elements include two antiparallel β-sheets characterized by two and four strands. According to recent X-ray analysis, bucandin adopts a typical three-finger loop motif and yet it has some peculiar characteristics that set it apart from other common α-neurotoxins. The presence of a fourth strand in the second antiparallel β-sheet had not been observed before in three-finger toxins, and this feature was well represented in the NMR structure. Although the overall fold of the NMR structure is similar to that of the X-ray crystal structure, there are significant differences between the two structures that have implications for the pharmacological action of the toxin. These include the extent of the β-sheets, the conformation of the region spanning residues 42–49 and the orientation of some side chains. In comparison with the X-ray structure, the NMR structure shows that the hydrophobic side chains of Trp27 and Trp36 are stacked together and are orientated towards the tip of the middle loop. The NMR study also showed that the two-stranded β-sheet incorporated in the first loop, as defined by residues 1–22, and the C-terminus from Asn59, is probably flexible relative to the rest of the molecule. On the basis of the dispositions of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic side chains, the structure of bucandin is clearly different from those of cytotoxins.

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Tan, Choo Hock, Kin Ying Wong, Kae Yi Tan, and Nget Hong Tan. "Venom proteome of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina from Bali: Insights into subvenomic diversity, venom antigenicity and cross-neutralization by antivenom." Journal of Proteomics 166 (August 2017): 48–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2017.07.002.

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38

Nirthanan, S., E. Charpantier, P. Gopalakrishnakone, M. C. E. Gwee, H. E. Khoo, L. S. Cheah, R. M. Kini, and D. Bertrand. "Neuromuscular effects of candoxin, a novel toxin from the venom of the Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus )." British Journal of Pharmacology 139, no. 4 (June 2003): 832–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0705299.

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39

Ahmed, Mushtaq, João Batista T. Rocha, Cinthia M. Mazzanti, André L. B. Morsch, Denise Cargnelutti, Maísa Corrêa, Vânia Loro, Vera Maria Morsch, and Maria R. C. Schetinger. "Malathion, carbofuran and paraquat inhibit Bungarus sindanus (krait) venom acetylcholinesterase and human serum butyrylcholinesterase in vitro." Ecotoxicology 16, no. 4 (March 16, 2007): 363–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10646-007-0137-1.

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40

Liu, C. S., J. M. Chen, C. H. Chang, S. W. Chen, I. H. Tsai, H. S. Lu, and T. B. Lo. "Revised amino acid sequences of the three major phospholipases A2 from Bungarus fasciatus (banded krait) venom." Toxicon 28, no. 12 (January 1990): 1457–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(90)90159-5.

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41

Yang, C. C., and H. J. Lee. "Selective modification of tyrosine-68 in ?1-bungarotoxin from the venom ofBungarus multicinctus (Taiwan banded krait)." Journal of Protein Chemistry 5, no. 1 (February 1986): 15–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01025581.

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42

Murakami, M., R. Kini, and R. Arni. "Crystal Structure of Bucain, a Three-Fingered Toxin from the Venom of the Malayan Krait (Bungarus candidus)." Protein & Peptide Letters 16, no. 12 (December 1, 2009): 1473–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986609789839304.

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43

Liu, Chen-Sheng, Jyh-Phen Chen, Chen-Shying Chang, and Tung-Bin Lo. "Amino Acid Sequence of a Short Chain Neurotoxin from the Venom of Banded Krait (Bungarus fasciatus)1." Journal of Biochemistry 105, no. 1 (January 1989): 93–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a122626.

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44

Siang, Ang, Robin Doley, Freek J. Vonk, and R. Manjunatha Kini. "Transcriptomic analysis of the venom gland of the red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps) using expressed sequence tags." BMC Molecular Biology 11, no. 1 (2010): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2199-11-24.

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45

Lee, Chi-Hsin, Yu-Ching Lee, Sy-Jye Leu, Liang-Tzung Lin, Jen-Ron Chiang, Wei-Jane Hsu, and Yi-Yuan Yang. "Production and Characterization of Neutralizing Antibodies against Bungarus multicinctus Snake Venom." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 82, no. 23 (September 23, 2016): 6973–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.01876-16.

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ABSTRACTThe venom of the banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus), one of the major venomous species in Taiwan, contains neurotoxic venom proteins (B. multicinctusproteins) that pose a serious medical problem in tropical and subtropical countries. Even though horse-derived serum is an efficient therapy against snake venom, it is associated with a high cost and side effects. Therefore, developing a more cost-effective alternative treatment option is highly envisaged. In this study, chickens were immunized withB. multicinctusproteins, and polyclonal immunoglobulin Y (IgY) antibodies were purified from eggs. IgY showed a binding activity toB. multicinctusproteins that was similar to horse antivenin, and its titer in chickens lasted for at least 6 months. We constructed two antibody libraries by phage display antibody technology, which contain 1.0 × 107and 2.9 × 108transformants, respectively. After biopanning, a phage-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) indicated that specific clones were enriched. Thirty randomly selected clones expressing monoclonal single-chain variable-fragment (scFv) antibodies were classified into four groups with a short linker and two with a long linker. These selected scFv antibodies showed specific binding activities toB. multicinctusproteins but not to the venomous proteins of other snakes. Most importantly, polyclonal IgY demonstrated a similar neutralization efficiency as did horse-derived antivenin in mice that were injected with a minimum lethal dosage (MLD) of venom proteins. A mixture of several monoclonal anti-B. multicinctusscFv antibodies was also able to partially inhibit the lethal effect on mice. We profoundly believe that IgY and scFv antibodies can be applied in developing diagnostic agents for wound exudates and as an alternative treatment for snakebite envenomation in the future.IMPORTANCESnake envenomation is one of the global medical issues of concern. Horse-derived antivenin is an effective way to treat snakebites, but it is costly and occasionally causes severe side effects. In this study, we first generated and characterized IgY antibodies with neutralization activity in chickens. Subsequently, we generated a panel of monoclonal scFv antibodies using phage display antibody technology. A mixture of scFv antibodies was able to partially inhibit the lethal effect in mice that were injected with lethal dosages of venom proteins and prolong their survival time. We believe that chicken-derived IgY and scFv antibodies have great potential for the development of diagnostic agents for wound exudates and therapeutic agents against snake envenomation in the future.

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46

Liu, C. S., P. W. Hsiao, C. S. Chang, M. C. Tzeng, and T. B. Lo. "Unusual amino acid sequence of fasciatoxin, a weak reversibly acting neurotoxin in the venom of the banded krait, Bungarus fasciatus." Biochemical Journal 259, no. 1 (April 1, 1989): 153–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2590153.

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A weak reversibly acting neurotoxin, fasciatoxin, was found in the venom of Bungarus fasciatus. The sequencing was completed by manual and automated Edman analyses of the reduced and carboxymethylated protein and of the peptides obtained from enzyme digestions. It is composed of 63 amino acid residues with four disulphide bonds and a unique sequence at the C-terminal end. According to the criteria set by Ryden, Gabel & Eaker [(1973) Int. J. Pept. Protein Res. 5, 261-273], fasciatoxin lacks all of the five functionally invariant residues of neurotoxins. The hydropathy index indicates that fasciatoxin is devoid of a strong hydrophilicity domain for binding to the receptor site. Structural comparison with some typical neurotoxins also reveals the uniqueness of fasciatoxin in that the extent of similarity is only about 30%.

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Utkin, Yu N., I. E. Kasheverov, D. S. Kudryavtsev, T. V. Andreeva, V. G. Starkov, R. H. Ziganshin, D. V. Kuznetsov, et al. "Nonconventional three-finger toxin BMLCL from krait Bungarus multicinctus venom with high affinity interacts with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors." Doklady Biochemistry and Biophysics 464, no. 1 (September 2015): 294–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1607672915050099.

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48

Bhavya, J., M. S. Vineetha, P. M. Sundaram, S. M. Veena, B. L. Dhananjaya, and Sunil S. More. "Low-molecular weight hyaluronidase from the venom of Bungarus caeruleus (Indian common krait) snake: Isolation and partial characterization." Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies 39, no. 4 (February 25, 2016): 203–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826076.2016.1144203.

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49

Liu, Chen-Sheng, Po-Yao Kuo, Jin-Mei Chen, Chen-Hsien Chang, Chiu-Chen Tseng, Mu-Chin Tzeng, and Tung-Bin Lo. "Primary Structure of an Inactive Mutant of Phospholipase A2 in the Venom of Bungarus fasciatus (Banded krait)1." Journal of Biochemistry 112, no. 5 (November 1992): 707–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a123962.

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50

Oh, Angeline Mei Feng, Kae Yi Tan, Nget Hong Tan, and Choo Hock Tan. "Proteomics and neutralization of Bungarus multicinctus (Many-banded Krait) venom: Intra-specific comparisons between specimens from China and Taiwan." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology 247 (September 2021): 109063. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109063.

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