Academic literature on the topic 'Koala habitat'

The Australian National Koala Conservation Strategy recognizes the importance of conserving Koalas in their existing habitat, particularly through the integration of Koala conservation into local government planning (ANZECC 1998). The aim of this study was to define, rank and map the distribution of Koala habitat in Port Stephens Shire, New South Wales. The procedure was to merge the results of two independent survey techniques, each of which was interpreted using a vegetation map specifically prepared for this study. A field survey used a plot-based sampling protocol to determine tree species preferences based on the presence/absence of Koala faecal pellets. Data were obtained on 8 764 trees comprising 19 eucalypt and 12 non-eucalypt species. A high-profile community survey obtained 2 756 Koala records. Koala habitat maps from both survey methods were examined as overlapping GIS layers. Combined Koala habitat categories were then devised, ranked and mapped across the Shire. This study provides a practical and repeatable means of identifying and conserving Koala habitat in existing remnant vegetation over which local government has planning jurisdiction.

The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) occupies a broad range of eastern and southern Australia, extending over tropical coastal, semiarid inland and temperate regions. In many areas koala populations are under threat, in particular from the direct and indirect effects of ongoing habitat destruction due to increased urbanisation and other anthropogenic processes. Climate change presents additional threats to the integrity of koala habitats because many species of food and non-food trees have narrow climate envelopes and are unable to adapt to altered temperatures and rainfall. Climate extremes also produce physiological stresses in koalas that may increase the likelihood of outbreaks of chlamydiosis and other diseases. Climate change–related increases in the relative content of toxic chemicals in leaves are further stresses to the koala after ingestion. In addition, populations that originated from a small number of founder individuals are at potential risk due to their relatively low genetic diversity. Strategies that maintain residual habitat fragments and promote the construction of new refugia are now being formulated. Modelling of the impact of habitat metrics on koala distribution is providing important information that can be used in the rehabilitation of koala refugia. In future these models could be augmented with metrics that describe koala homeostasis to inform local conservation strategies. These considerations are also relevant for the maintenance of other taxa in the wider ecosystem that are also at risk from habitat destruction and climate change.

In less than a century the ecological profile of koalas on Kangaroo Island has shifted from that of a species introduced for conservation purposes to one of pest status. Between 1923 and 1925, 18 koalas were released on Kangaroo Island. Their numbers increased rapidly and in 1997 a population-control program was implemented based on a population estimate of 5000 koalas. During the course of this program, it became clear that the koala population on Kangaroo Island was much greater and more widely distributed than previously thought, hence a more comprehensive population survey was carried out.In 2000–01 the koala population size was calculated using a stratified sampling approach based on five 'catchment units' and three habitat classifications that were known to support koalas. The koala population was estimated to be ~27 000 koalas in 2001. There were substantial differences in koala density in the low-, medium- and high-quality habitat within each catchment unit, and therefore large differences in the spatial distribution of koalas across Kangaroo Island. This revised population estimate has substantial ramifications for the Kangaroo Island Koala Management Program that was set in place in 1997.

Abstract Context At some sites in southern Victoria, browsing pressure caused by high-density koala populations can result in defoliation of preferred browse trees. In extreme cases, this over-browsing can lead to widespread tree death and starvation of koalas. To reduce the potential for mortality of trees and koalas, a management strategy that includes fertility control of females and translocation of healthy individuals (male and female) has been adopted. AimsTo compare the short- to medium-term survival and body condition of koalas translocated from over-browsed habitat and released into unoccupied (or nearly so) habitat with that of koalas left in situ in compromised habitat. Methods We monitored survival and body condition of 36 translocated koalas for 4–5 months after translocation relative to that of a control group (24 animals) left in situ. Koalas were recaptured and body condition measured (as a scaled body-mass index) ~40 and 137 days after translocation. Additionally, GPS loggers were used to investigate patterns of koala movement. Key resultsSurvival rates of translocated koalas were not different from those of controls and females in both groups showed slightly higher survival rates than did males. After 137 days, control animals had lower scaled body mass, whereas translocated animals, after an initial reduction, had mostly regained, or increased their scaled body mass. Translocated females regained their original scaled body mass faster than did translocated males. Male koalas in both control and translocated groups had higher rates of movement than did females, and translocated koalas had slightly higher rates of movement than did control koalas. Translocated koalas moved farther from their release location than control koalas. ConclusionsOn the basis of the scaled body-mass index, translocated koalas fared better than those left in situ in compromised habitat, even though the density of koalas in the over-browsed habitat had been reduced by a wider salvage translocation program. The process used to identify potential release sites, including a spatial koala-habitat index, accurately predicted suitable koala habitat. ImplicationsThe current management strategy of translocating koalas out of over-browsed habitat is supported and could be more widely applied.

Context Habitat thresholds are the critical point(s), below which the probability of occurrence of a species declines. Identifying thresholds assists land managers to decide how much habitat is needed to conserve a species. However, for any given species, a threshold may not exist, or might occur at one scale but not at others, and it may differ across regions. The use of critical habitat thresholds can negatively affect populations if simplified conservation targets for habitat retention are prescribed. This problem is relevant to the koalas where there is evidence of habitat thresholds in mesic regions, but no studies of thresholds in semiarid regions. Aims The aim of the present study was to investigate whether a threshold exists between the occupancy of a site by koalas and habitat variables at both the site and at four landscape scales in the semiarid Mulgalands Bioregion of Queensland, Australia. Methods We modelled habitat relationships using standard and piece-wise logistic regression, and an information-theoretic approach, to determine whether the best model that explained the occupancy–habitat relationships was linear or had a distinct threshold. The site-scale variable was the percentage of primary eucalypt species. The landscape-scale variables included the amount of primary and secondary habitat, and an interaction between them. Key findings There was a threshold relationship between the occurrence of koalas and the percentage of primary trees at the site scale. At the landscape scale, most threshold models failed to converge, and evidence pointed to a linear relationship between habitat amount and koala occupancy. Conclusions Conservation actions for koalas in the Mulgalands Bioregion should concentrate on protecting the primary tree resource for koalas, namely, river red gums (E. camaldulensis). However, the maintenance or restoration of primary and secondary habitat to distances of 1000 m from the creek is important because of the linear relationship between koala presence and habitat amount. Implications As habitat is lost in the semiarid Mulgalands Bioregion, koala occupancy declines. If known thresholds from mesic regions are used to define a minimum amount of habitat to be retained for koalas, conservation of local koala populations may well fail.

Context Mapping the habitat and distribution of a species is critical for developing effective conservation plans. Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus, Phascolarctidae) distribution is constrained by the nutritional and shelter requirements provided by a relatively small number of key tree species in any given area. Identifying these key species provides a practical foundation for mapping koala habitat and prioritising areas for conservation. Aims To determine key tree species for koalas in Noosa Shire (south-eastern Queensland, Australia) as a basis for mapping koala habitat quality. Methods We applied a faecal-pellet survey methodology in 1996/97 to assess evidence of use by koalas of 4031 trees from 96 randomly stratified survey sites across different eucalypt-forest and woodland communities. Results were compared with those from a later survey undertaken in 2001/02 involving 5535 trees from 195 sites that were distributed across broadly similar areas with the aim to investigate aspects of koala landscape ecology. Key results A total of 66.7% of the 1996/97 survey sites contained koala faecal pellets, recorded under 953 eucalypt trees (14 species) and 1670 non-eucalypt trees (27 species). The proportion of trees at a given survey site that had koala faecal pellets at the base ranged from 2.2% to 94.7% (mean = 31.13 ± 2.59% s.e.). For the 2001/02 dataset, koala pellets were found at 55.4% of sites, from 794 eucalypt and 2240 non-eucalypt trees. The proportion of trees with pellets ranged from 3% to 80% (mean = 21.07 ± 1.77% s.e.). Both the 1996/97 and 2001/02 surveys identified the same three tree species (forest red gum, Eucalyptus tereticornis, swamp mahogany, E. robusta, and tallowwood, E. microcorys) as the highest-ranked for koala use in the study area. Three additional species (red mahogany, E. resinifera, small-fruited grey gum, E. propinqua, and grey ironbark, E. siderophloia) were identified in the 1996/97 surveys as key eucalypt species. Of the non-eucalypts in the 1996/97 dataset, coast cypress pine (Callitris columellaris) and broad-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) ranked highest for use by koalas, followed by pink bloodwood (Corymbia intermedia) and brush box (Lophostemon confertus). White bottlebrush (Callistemon salignus), hard corkwood (Endiandra sieberi), M. quinquenervia and C. intermedia ranked highest in the 2001/02 dataset. The findings showed significantly greater use of larger eucalypts (i.e. 300-mm to >600-mm diameter at breast height). Conclusions The identified key eucalypt species, being the critical limiting resource for koalas, were used to assign koala habitat-quality classes to mapped regional ecosystem types to create a Koala Habitat Atlas (KHA) for Noosa Shire. The combined two highest quality classes based on abundance of the key eucalypt species comprised only 15.7% of the total land area of the Shire. Implications The KHA approach provides a practical and repeatable method for developing koala habitat-suitability mapping for national-, regional- and local-scale conservation and recovery planning purposes.

Koala surveys were used to determine the distribution and abundance of a threatened regional koala population in south-east Queensland to assist with the development of effective conservation management programs. Daytime systematic searches of strip transects were conducted twice yearly from 1996 to 1999 to determine koala density at a number of sites in urban, remnant bushland and bushland strata. Mean density estimates for 27 survey sites ranged from 0.02 to 1.26 koalas ha–1. Koala densities were generally higher in large tracts and remnant patches of eucalypt bushland towards the centre of the region with lower but significant densities in urban areas. Two estimates of population size were obtained: 7230 (±1668, 95% confidence limit) and 6246 (±1444, 95% confidence limit). The estimate of 6246 was considered to provide a better indication of actual population size as it reduced the variation within strata and took into account the distribution of koalas across the region. It is likely that determining habitat areas for conservation based on where koalas actually occur rather than identifying distributions of 'preferred' tree species or community reports, as has been promoted in other studies, is a better indicator of the conservation significance of remnant habitat areas. Future koala-management programs should ensure that the significance of eucalypt bushland areas towards the centre of the study area is not compromised by future urban development and associated threats to koalas.

In principle, conservation planning relies on long-term data; in reality, conservation decisions are apt to be based upon limited data and short-range goals. For the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), frequently reliance is made on the assumption that indirect signs can be used to indicate behavioural preferences, such as diet choice. We examined the relationship between the use of trees by koalas and the presence of scats beneath those trees. Tree use was associated with scat presence on 49% of occasions when koalas were radio-tracked in both central Queensland (n = 10 koalas) and south-east Queensland (n = 5 koalas), increasing to 77% of occasions when trees were rechecked the following day. Koala densities were correlated with scat abundance at sites with koala density between ~0.2 and 0.6 koalas per hectare. Our results confirm that scat searches are imprecise indicators of tree use by koalas, but demonstrate that these searches can be used, with caveats, to estimate koala population densities. We discuss how errors in estimating or applying predictive model parameters can bias estimates of occupancy and show how a failure to validate adequately the assumptions used in modelling and mapping can undermine the power of the products to direct rational conservation and management efforts.

Context Global climate change will lead to increased climate variability, including more frequent drought and heatwaves, in many areas of the world. This will affect the distribution and numbers of wildlife populations. In south-west Queensland, anecdotal reports indicated that a low density but significant koala population had been impacted by drought from 2001–2009, in accord with the predicted effects of climate change. Aims The study aimed to compare koala distribution and numbers in south-west Queensland in 2009 with pre-drought estimates from 1995–1997. Methods Community surveys and faecal pellet surveys were used to assess koala distribution. Population densities were estimated using the Faecal Standing Crop Method. From these densities, koala abundance in 10 habitat units was interpolated across the study region. Bootstrapping was used to estimate standard error. Climate data and land clearing were examined as possible explanations for changes in koala distribution and numbers between the two time periods. Key results Although there was only a minor change in distribution, there was an 80% decline in koala numbers across the study region, from a mean population of 59 000 in 1995 to 11 600 in 2009. Most summers between 2002 and 2007 were hotter and drier than average. Vegetation clearance was greatest in the eastern third of the study region, with the majority of clearing being in mixed eucalypt/acacia ecosystems and vegetation on elevated residuals. Conclusions Changes in the area of occupancy and numbers of koalas allowed us to conclude that drought significantly reduced koala populations and that they contracted to critical riparian habitats. Land clearing in the eastern part of the region may reduce the ability of koalas to move between habitats. Implications The increase in hotter and drier conditions expected with climate change will adversely affect koala populations in south-west Queensland and may be similar in other wildlife species in arid and semiarid regions. The effect of climate change on trailing edge populations may interact with habitat loss and fragmentation to increase extinction risks. Monitoring wildlife population dynamics at the margins of their geographic ranges will help to manage the impacts of climate change.

In 1995, the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, the Queensland Department of Main Roads and Redland Shire Council initiated the Koala Speed Zone Trial in the Koala Coast, south-east Queensland. The aim of the trial was to assess the effect of differential speed signs on the number of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) hit by vehicles in the Koala Coast from 1995 to 1999. On the basis of information collected by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service 1407 koalas were hit by vehicles in the Koala Coast during the five-year study (mean 281 koalas per year, range 251–315). Monitoring of vehicle speeds by the Queensland Department of Main Roads suggested that there was no significant reduction in vehicle speed during the trial period from August to December. Consequently, there was no evidence to suggest that a reduction in the number of koalas hit by vehicles occurred during the trial. Approximately 70% of koalas were hit on arterial and sub-arterial roads and approximately 83% did not survive. The location of each koala hit was recorded and the signed speed limit of the road was noted. Most koalas that were hit by vehicles were young healthy males. Pooling of data on koala collisions and road speed limits suggested that the proportion of koalas that survived being hit by vehicles was slightly higher on roads with lower speed limits. However, vehicle speed was not the only factor that affected the number of koalas hit by vehicles. It is suggested that habitat destruction, koala density and traffic volume also contribute to road-associated koala mortality in the Koala Coast.

The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution, density, health, condition, fertility, causes of mortality, home range size and tree preferences, of koalas in low density populations in the south of Sydney. This information was then used to make management recommendations; good management is needed because there is rapid human population growth and pressure for development of koala habitat in the Sydney region. State Environment Planning Policy 44(SEPP44) is New South Wales legislation that relates to developments affecting koala habitat. Problems in the application of SEPP44 in the Sydney region were found to exist, such as Sutherland Local Government Area (LGA) not being covered, and changes to this legislation are also recommended.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Overabundant species may have considerable impacts on their habitat, other species and their own populations, thereby threatening biodiversity. Koalas (Phascolarctoscinereus) are overabundant at a number of locations in southeastern Australia due to low mortality and the inability of individuals to emigrate. This has led to the over-browsing of their food resources. Active management is required in order to prevent habitat degradation and the starvation of koalas particularly in populations without Chlamydia-infection, a disease that can cause infertility in females. Predictive population modelling is required if we are to understand the dynamics of the overabundant populations and investigate the consequences and effectiveness of different management strategies. Accurate data for the parameters that contribute to population growth, such as age structure, sex ratio, and age-specific schedules of mortality and fecundity, are therefore needed. In this study, the values of these parameters were determined for overabundant koala populations at Snake Island, Framlingham, Mt Eccles and French Island (Victoria). Data from additional populations were used to ascertain some parameters. These data were used to build stage-structured models to predict population growth of one Chlamydia-free and one Chlamydia-infected koala population.

"The koala, Phascolarctos cinereus, has been introduced to several islands off the coast of Australia. On southern Australian islands the populations often increase rapidly and outstrip the carrying capacity of the habitat. Intriguingly, however, such overpopulation has not been observed in koala populations introduced to islands off the coast of Queensland, so a study of these may provide insights into the reasons for this difference, together with suggesting management strategies for all island populations of this marsupial. The Queensland race of the koala (P. c. adustus) was introduced to St Bees Island, central Queensland, during the early 20th century and has remained undisturbed for over 80 years. As such, St Bees Island offers the opportunity to study various aspects of the ecology and physiology of an apparently stable population of koalas. Furthermore, St Bees Island lies in the warm humid climate zone, where studies of koala physiology have not been performed and where water is likely to be plentiful, unlike most other koala habitats in Australia. To investigate factors that may be contributing to the varying response of koalas to island habitats, water turnover was determined by isotopically labelled water dilution in four seasons. Field metabolic rate was also studied in one season along with a number of environmental parameters that may affect water turnover rates. Water turnover was significantly higher in both winter 2000 and summer 2002 than in winter 2001 and spring 2002. Previous studies at Springsure and Blair Athol in central Queensland were of koalas from the same subspecies and similar latitude but from regions with contrasting rainfall regimes so were compared with the St Bees data to further investigate the proposed limiting nature of browse moisture to koala distribution. Water turnover at St Bees Island was significantly higher during summer than at Blair Athol and Springsure and, setting aside the winter 2000 determination on St Bees Island, no significant difference was found during other seasons. Differences in water turnover among sites appeared to be due to night-time conditions (minimum temperature and relative humidity) during the period of maximum koala activity and it is suggested that the distribution of the koala may be limited coastally by its ability to thermoregulate in conditions of high relative humidity. The high water turnover observed in winter 2000 on St Bees Island was unusual. Comparison of the water turnover and body water content of the two winter seasons (2000 and 2001) suggested that koalas were depositing fat. This area of koala physiology requires more research to investigate the relationship between body water and fat content and to identify conditions under which body fat is deposited and metabolised. Field metabolic rate was determined during October 2002 by the doubly labelled water method. The average metabolic rate was not significantly different to measurements from Springsure during July or Blair Athol during September. It appears that the average energy requirements of koala populations are reasonably constant across central Queensland. Food intake by koalas was estimated from both water turnover rates and field metabolic rates and compared. This comparison on St Bees Island, where access to free water was limited, the koalas diet of Eucalyptus leaves provided ample energy for metabolic demands and food intake was primarily determined by water requirements. Koalas on St Bees Island roosted in non-eucalypt trees on 54% of occasions over all seasons but during summer the use of non-eucalypts rose to 64%. This phenomenon has been noted elsewhere and it has been suggested that the trees provide shelter from the sun and predators. In an effort to quantify the advantage afforded to koalas by non-eucalypt roost trees, telemetry collars were developed that broadcast information about koala activity and the micro-environment. Data from this study indicated that koalas used two strategies to cope with the high summer temperatures experienced on St Bees Island. They either chose non-eucalypt roost trees, or greatly reduced their daytime activity. The second strategy would decrease energy demands and associated water loss." -- abstract

Over-abundant koala populations and resultant over-browsing of vegetation has presented an ongoing challenge for wildlife managers in many areas of south-eastern Australia for almost a century. In 1996 over-browsing by koalas became evident in many areas of Kangaroo Island, and in riparian areas where preferred tree species occurred; the majority of food trees were severely defoliated. This project was one of a number of concurrent research projects which focussed on key aspects of koala ecology in order to better inform development of koala management strategies on Kangaroo Island. The main focus of the project was to investigate: • koala foraging behaviour • tree response to extent and pattern of defoliation • habitat use and tree preference in preferred and non-preferred habitats • regenerative potential of over-browsed tree species, • effect of sterilisation and translocation of koalas on tree health. The first part of the project involved conducting observations of the foraging behaviour of free-ranging koalas to better understand the spatial pattern of tree defoliation. Ten individually tagged and radio-collared koalas were observed for 24- hour periods on 34 occasions between August 1997 and December 1998. Koalas were found to restrict feeding bouts to one or two locations within the outer canopy of each tree they visited. Feeding was concentrated at these locations with browsed branches being almost completely defoliated. Based on these results artificial defoliation experiments were developed and used to determine the effect that pattern and extent of defoliation had on leaf production and recovery of trees. Defoliation treatments were applied to 50 manna gum trees at Flinders Chase National Park and Victor Harbor. Manna gum trees showed strong compensatory growth following artificial defoliation. New leaf production was particularly high on trees that where subjected to canopy-wide defoliation. In contrast, branches which experienced localised damage produced comparatively fewer leaves than branches on trees which had experienced canopy-wide defoliation. It appears that manna gum can be highly tolerant of one-off defoliation of the entire canopy, even when substantial quantities of foliage are lost, but that branches may not be as tolerant of high levels of herbivory if defoliated in isolation. This is a crucial consideration when determining carrying capacities of riparian habitats both during the recovery phase of already heavily defoliated trees and the long-term carrying capacities of these habitats and suggests that carrying capacity may not correlate directly with the ‘standing crop’ of leaves on trees within a given area of habitat. Between 1997 and 2000 koala numbers and tree health were monitored at Mine Creek to determine the effectiveness of sterilisation and translocation in reducing koala numbers and improving tree condition. Mine Creek has been the site of an intensive koala population control program since 1997 and presented an opportunity to test the effect of koala management techniques on tree health. There was a decline in koala population density at Mine Creek; principally in response to translocation rather than sterilisation. The reduction in koala density at Mine Creek was short-term and did not reach the target density of 1 koala/ha. Subsequently, tree canopy condition, particularly for the preferred browse species Eucalyptus viminalis cygnetensis, did not improve substantially. Two years after the commencement of the management program 59% of E. viminalis cygnetensis trees at Mine Creek remained severely defoliated. An increase in the population size of koalas was observed from mid-1999 onward, representing a potential doubling in the population every three years. Immigration of animals from surrounding uncontrolled areas is a potentially important mechanism of localised population recovery. An increase in koala numbers subsequent to control was unlikely to be due to in situ breeding, but instead immigration from surrounding uncontrolled areas of habitat (or areas where only sterilisation was undertaken and population densities remained high). Eucalypts have a high capacity for compensatory growth and recovery if browse pressure is removed. Where over-browsing occurs the imperative for successful restoration of defoliated trees is to substantially reduce the density of koalas in the short-term and maintain reduced population levels in the long-term. Sterilisation may be usefully applied to maintain low koala densities after an initial population reduction via alternative control methods, but sterilisation alone is unable to affect much change in severely over-browsed habitats in the immediate term. Utilisation of habitat by koalas in preferred and non-preferred tree associations on Kangaroo Island was investigated using radio-telemetry. A total of 25 koalas were radio-collared and tracked between 1997 and 2000. Preferred areas of habitat comprised of vegetation associations containing E. viminalis cygnetensis and non-preferred habitat typically consisted of an E. baxteri, E.obliqua, E.cosmophylla tree association. Observations indicated that a potentially viable, low density population of koalas occupied non-preferred habitat on Kangaroo Island. Koalas were found to use a wide range of eucalypt species and many individual koalas survived solely on a diet of tree species that were previously considered to be non-preferred by koalas on Kangaroo Island. The results of this study indicate that non-preferred areas of habitat have significant conservation and management value, just as areas that sustain highdensity populations of koalas do. A comparison of estimated home range areas between koalas in preferred and non- preferred habitat showed that koalas in non-preferred habitat had significantly larger home ranges than koalas in preferred habitat. This was also the case within sexes with male koalas in non-preferred habitat having significantly larger home ranges than males in preferred habitat and females in non-preferred habitat having significantly larger home ranges than female koalas in preferred habitat. The presence of a resident population of koalas in non-preferred habitat on Kangaroo Island was generally discounted until the commencement of this study. Koala management targets on Kangaroo Island were originally based on a population estimate of 3000 - 5000 koalas and the understanding that the majority of koalas occurred in the Cygnet River valley and Flinders Chase National Park. Today, methods of estimating population size on Kangaroo Island incorporate populations of koalas within high-, medium- and low quality habitats according to composition of eucalypt species. The revised koala population estimate based on this more comprehensive stratified sampling approach is ~ 27,000. It is now estimated that over half the Island’s koala population resides in areas of low-quality habitat outside of Flinders Chase National Park and the Cygnet River catchment.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2011

The koala is both an Australian icon and an animal that has attained ‘flagship’ status around the world. Yet its history tells a different story. While the koala figured prominently in Aboriginal Dreaming and Creation stories, its presence was not recorded in Australia until 15 years after white settlement. Then it would figure as a scientific oddity, despatched to museums in Britain and Europe, a native animal driven increasingly from its habitat by tree felling and human settlement, and a subject of relentless hunting by trappers for its valuable fur. It was not until the late 1920s that slowly emerging protective legislation and the enterprise of private protectors came to its aid. This book surveys the koala’s fascinating history, its evolutionary survival in Australia for over 30 million years, its strikingly adaptive physiognomy, its private life, and the strong cultural impact it has had through its rich fertilisation of Australian literature. The work also focuses on the complex problems of Australia’s national wildlife and conservation policies and the challenges surrounding the environmental, economic and social questions concerning koala management. Koala embraces the story of this famous marsupial in an engaging historical narrative, extensively illustrated from widely sourced pictorial material.

Australasian biodiversity is facing immense challenges with losses of prime habitats and food sources through increased anthropogenic factors such as climate change, bushfires, and habitat modification. Wildlife species are requiring greater conservation intervention supported through numerous wildlife rescue and rehabilitation programmes in this region. It is important to record the physiological stress responses of rescued wildlife and currently available conservation physiology tools can certainly aid the conservation management and rehabilitation of rescued wildlife. In this chapter, we showcase the applications of minimally invasive stress hormone and immune response (haematological blood cell profiling) biomarkers using case studies of rescued koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) to quantify their physiological stress responses to environmental trauma and disease conditions, and clinical intervention. Applications of these physiological biomarkers can advance our understanding of how wildlife respond towards and cope with environmental challenges and support conservation goals of rescue centres to strengthen wildlife rehabilitation and release back to the wild once the proximate stressors have been eliminated.

Compared to a predator’s diet, plant food has two great advantages: it is abundant and it does not run away. ‘Herbivorous mammals’ explains how these advantages are matched by difficulties: plants are generally of low nutritional value and must be eaten in large amounts; leaves with protective abrasive particles can quickly wear down herbivores’ chewing teeth; and mammals cannot make their own cellulase enzymes for breaking down cellulose to sugars. The eating habits and the challenges of small herbivores (e.g. rodents, rabbits, and hyraxes) are considered, as well as those of large ungulates and elephants; marsupial herbivores (e.g. kangaroos, wombats, and koalas); and specialist herbivores (pandas, dugongs, and manatees).

There are about 2,000 entities in the world today that ethnologists call societies, each with distinct cultures. Perhaps the most obvious marker, and many argue the most important, is that each of these entities has its own language. Among the other societal attributes, besides language, that can make claims to human universality, or nearly so, is the cultural use of psychoactive substances— or what commonly are referred to as simply “drugs.” These range from mild stimulants such as coffee, tea, cacao, coca, and kola to stupeficients such as opium and alcohol, to hallucinogens found in mushrooms, cacti, and a number of flowering plants. Since the Mesolithic and perhaps before, the vast majority of the world’s peoples have used one or more such substances for religious and related purposes. Even in their most seemingly secular contexts, drugs are often used in ritual and habitual ways that exhibit their cultural embeddedness. Increasingly the world’s remaining indigenous peoples and many local folk are confronting questions and the consequences of the production, processing, trade, trafficking, and consumption of drugs deemed illegal and illicit by global agencies and national polities. Some of these substances, usually in their unrefined forms, have deep roots in local and indigenous cultures and economies. Often they serve important roles in constituting and maintaining cultural identity. With ever-increasing modernization and globalization, the circumstances and conditions under which indigenous and local peoples produce, trade, and use these substances continues to change. In turn, psychoactive substances—whether sanctioned, proscribed, or both—often serve as agents in the creation and defense of local and indigenous “moral” geographies. The concept of moral geography (as used here) refers to both the actual and symbolic terrain upon which traditional societies elaborate their customary livelihood and belief systems, and the cognate spaces in which they defend these practices and perceptions. For most indigenous peoples, the drugs in their culture, whether sacred or profane, are manifest in both their moral economies and geographies. For some groups, drugs become defining elements in their relations with dominant cultures and polities. For others, they are less than determinate, but still play significant roles in mediating exchanges—both symbolic and material. In either case, they can serve as mechanisms of subordination, or modes of resistance, or sometimes both.