Academic literature on the topic 'Kiwifruit'

In the present study, a kiwifruit aqueous extract was developed and used as a coagulant enzyme in cheesemaking. In detail, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was used to investigate the presence of actinidin, the kiwifruit enzyme involved in κ-casein hydrolysis, in different tissues (pulp, peel, and whole fruit) of ripe and unripe kiwifruits. Data revealed the presence of the enzyme both in the peel and in the pulp of the fruit. Although the aqueous extract obtained from the kiwifruit peel was able to hydrolyze semi-skimmed milk, it did not break down κ-casein. The aqueous extract obtained from the pulp showed a hydrolytic activity toward both κ-casein and semi-skimmed milk. The values for milk-clotting and proteolytic activity of the kiwifruit pulp extract were evaluated at different temperatures and pH parameters in order to obtain a high value of the MCA/PA ratio; we found that a temperature of 40 °C in combination with a pH value of 5.5 allowed us to obtain the best performance. In addition, the data revealed a higher hydrolytic activity of the enzymatic preparation from ripe kiwifruits than that from unripe ones, suggesting the use of the extract from pulp of ripe kiwifruits in the laboratory-scale cheesemaking. The data showed that 3% (v/v) of the ripe kiwifruit pulp extract determined a curd yield of 20.27%, comparable to chymosin yield. In conclusion, the extraction procedure for kiwifruit aqueous extract proposed in the present study was shown to be a fast, cheap, chemical-free, and ecofriendly technology as a plant coagulant for cheese manufacturing.

The aroma chemical composition of commonly planted kiwifruit cultivars in China was analyzed. The combination of 2-octanone with 3-octanone was the most suitable dual internal standard for quantitative analysis in GC-MS. A total of 172 aroma components in 23 kiwifruit cultivars were detected, and ethyl butanoate, (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, and (E)-2-hexenal could be considered the core aroma components in kiwifruit, but still need further confirmation using Sensomics. E-nose could effectively distinguish different cultivars of kiwifruit. Clustering based on GC-MS and E-nose results tends to be consistent and demonstrate a certain degree of similarity. Kiwifruit cultivars with different flesh colors cannot be effectively distinguished by their aroma chemical compositions. Different species of kiwifruit can be distinguished to some extent by their aroma chemical compositions, but the effect was not satisfactory. These results could prove valuable in the breeding, planting, and marketing of kiwifruits.

Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) is well known for its high vitamin C content and good taste. Various diseases, especially bacterial canker, are a serious threat to the yield of kiwifruit. Multiple organellar RNA editing factor (MORF) genes are pivotal factors in the RNA editosome that mediates Cytosine-to-Uracil RNA editing, and they are also indispensable for the regulation of chloroplast development, plant growth, and response to stresses. Although the kiwifruit genome has been released, little is known about MORF genes in kiwifruit at the genome-wide level, especially those involved in the response to pathogens stress. In this study, we identified ten MORF genes in the kiwifruit genome. The genomic structures and chromosomal locations analysis indicated that all the MORF genes consisted of three conserved motifs, and they were distributed widely across the seven linkage groups and one contig of the kiwifruit genome. Based on the structural features of MORF proteins and the topology of the phylogenetic tree, the kiwifruit MORF gene family members were classified into six groups (Groups A–F). A synteny analysis indicated that two pairs of MORF genes were tandemly duplicated and five pairs of MORF genes were segmentally duplicated. Moreover, based on analysis of RNA-seq data from five tissues of kiwifruit, we found that both expressions of MORF genes and chloroplast RNA editing exhibited tissue-specific patterns. MORF2 and MORF9 were highly expressed in leaf and shoot, and may be responsible for chloroplast RNA editing, especially the ndhB genes. We also observed different MORF expression and chloroplast RNA editing profiles between resistant and susceptible kiwifruits after pathogen infection, indicating the roles of MORF genes in stress response by modulating the editing extend of mRNA. These results provide a solid foundation for further analyses of the functions and molecular evolution of MORF genes, in particular, for clarifying the resistance mechanisms in kiwifruits and breeding new cultivars with high resistance.

Climate changes occurring today require detailed research of the effects of increasing temperatures on photosynthesis in different species and cultivars. Temperature variability is a crucial determinant of the yield and quality of plants, particularly when high-temperature episodes coincide with their growth and fruit development. The effect of high temperature (HT) on higher plants primarily concerns photosynthetic functions, but the sensitivity of photosynthesis to high temperature is not well-understood in kiwifruits. In this study, we designed a new environmental monitoring system to evaluate the effects of environmental factors on the photosynthetic physiology of different kiwifruit species and cultivars. A significant positive correlation was determined between the main photosynthetic indices of kiwifruits, such as transpiration rate and net photosynthetic rate. The net photosynthetic rate of commercial kiwifruit cultivars was strongly inhibited when the temperature exceeded 44.5 °C, and the leaves of kiwifruits were irreversibly damaged when the temperature increased to 52 °C. Kiwifruit cultivars with different ploidy levels (diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid) were found to be sensitive to high temperature, whereas tetraploids had higher HT resistance and hexaploids had the highest net photosynthetic rate. Further research showed that the HT tolerance of kiwifruits existed not only between species but also among cultivars. A. eriantha had the highest net photosynthetic rate at more than 44.7 °C, but those of A. deliciosa and A. arguta declined sharply as the temperature exceeded 43.5 °C. As a result, it was determined that high temperatures have important effects on the photosynthetic activities of kiwifruit plants with different ploidy levels, and that these effects can significantly change their development according to how they differ among different species/cultivars.

In order to study the physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of kiwifruit varieties, 14 kiwifruits from different species with different flesh colors were selected for research. The pectin content was significantly higher in green-fleshed kiwifruits than those in red-fleshed and yellow-fleshed kiwifruits. Red-fleshed kiwifruits had the highest total flavonoid content, and green-fleshed kiwifruits in A. eriantha had the highest chlorophyll a content, chlorophyll b content and total carotenoid content. The energy and carbohydrate contents of yellow-fleshed kiwifruits were significantly lower than those of red-fleshed kiwifruit. Moreover, the protein contents in A. chinensis and A. chinensis var. deliciosa were higher than those in other species. The content of vitamin C in A. eriantha was far higher than in other kiwifruits. Red-fleshed kiwifruits had a significantly higher vitamin E and vitamin B1 content than green-fleshed kiwifruits. In addition, 1-pentanol, trans-2-hexen-1-ol, n-hexane and styrene presented only in red-fleshed kiwifruits. Therefore, these could be used as a characteristic fragrance for red-fleshed kiwifruits. Moreover, the varieties were ranked comprehensively by principal component analysis (PCA), among which the top four highest-ranking kiwifruits among the 14 varieties were ‘Huate’, ‘MHYX’, ‘Jinkui’ and ‘Xuxiang’, respectively. This study provides a reference for consumers and markets on quality improvement and processing.

The quality of kiwifruit with three different packaging films were studied on the storage days. These kiwifruits were stored at 0±0.5°Cfor 120 days. Results showed that the kiwifruits with PVC films can keep a relative good quality during the storage life.

The kiwifruit is cultivated globally due to its diversity of phytochemicals, especially phenolic compounds, which have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer medical effects. However, only the pulp of the kiwifruit is consumed, while the peels and cores—which are also rich in phytochemicals—are usually wasted. Meanwhile, detailed information on the comparison among the three parts is still limited. In this study, the antioxidant potentials in the core, pulp, and peel of the three most commercialized kiwifruit cultivars (Australian-grown Hayward kiwifruit, New Zealand-grown Zesy002 kiwifruit, and New Zealand-grown organic Hayward kiwifruit) were selected. Their antioxidant capacities were tested, and their phenolic profiles were identified and characterized by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS). The antioxidant results showed that the peel of New Zealand-grown organic Hayward kiwifruit contained the highest total phenolic content (9.65 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) mg/g) and total antioxidant capacity (4.43 mg ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE) mg/g), respectively. In addition, the antioxidant capacity of the peel is generally higher than that of the pulp and cores in all species, especially ABTS (2,2-Azino-bis-3ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging ability), ranging from 13.25 mg AAE/g to 18.31 mg AAE/g. The LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS tentatively identified the phenolic compounds present in the three kiwifruit species, including 118 unique compounds in kiwifruit peel, 12 unique compounds in the kiwifruit cores, and three unique compounds in kiwifruit pulp. The comprehensive characterization of the phenolics in the kiwifruits’ parts indicates the importance of their waste part as a promising source of phenolics with antioxidant properties. Therefore, this study can guide the industry with meaningful information on kiwifruit waste, and can provide it with the utilization of food and pharmacological aspects.

Kiwifruit bruise damage is a common postharvest disorder that substantially reduces fruit quality and marketability. Fruit bruise cause tissue softening and make them more susceptible to undesired agents such as diseases-inducing agents. Factors that affect kiwifruit bruise susceptibility such as impact properties and fruit properties were investigated. Two bruise prediction models were constructed for the damage susceptibility of kiwifruit (measured by absorbed energy) using multiple linear regression analyses. Kiwifruits were subjected to dynamic loading by means of a pendulum at three levels of impact. Significant effects of acoustic stiffness, temperature and the radius of curvature and some interactions on bruising were obtained at 5% probability level.

In this study, the effects of bagging treatment on fruit appearance and internal quality, including fruit shape index, single fruit weight, fruit vitamin C, soluble solids, titratable acid, chlorophyll and carotenoid content, were studied by using ‘Donghong’ kiwifruit as experimental material. Meanwhile, the pesticide residues of bagged and non-bagged (NB) kiwifruit were compared and analyzed. Results showed that the pericarp color of bagged kiwifruit is lighter in green than that of NB group, with uniform color, cleaner appearance and no scabs and spots. Single fruit weight and transverse meridians of bagged kiwifruits were significantly increased. Interestingly, we found single bagging treatment had little effect on the internal quality of ‘Donghong’ kiwifruit. After pesticide treatment, the fruit shape of kiwifruit was rounder, significantly increased the weight, chlorophyll content of fruit, and decreased the content of vitamin C and carotenoids. In addition, bagging + pesticide treatment had additive effect on these characters. After bagging, the residues of pyraclostrobin and β-cypermethrin in ‘Donghong’ kiwifruit were significantly lower than those in the control. However, the residue of difenoconazole residues did not show significant difference. Bagging treatment has the ability to improve the appearance and reduce the residue of some pesticides. Meanwhile, the application of some pesticides can improve the single fruit weight and fruit quality. Therefore, bagging is a scientific and effective cultivation method in the green production of ‘Donghong’ kiwifruit.

Oxidation damages cells and muscles, and thus, causes injuries and fatigue, which negatively affect the conditioning of athletes. Thus, in this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of high-antioxidant fruits (kiwifruit) intake on oxidative stress level (d-ROMs) and antioxidant activity (BAP) in male middle- and long-distance runners routinely exposed to oxidative stress. This study was performed from May to July 2017 (Study 1) and October to December 2018 (Study 2). The subjects in Study 1 were 30 male runners, of which 15 consumed two yellow kiwifruits (Zespri® SunGold Kiwifruit) per day for one month of the survey period (Intake group). The subjects of Study 2 were 20 male runners who had high d-ROMs from preliminary testing. These runners consumed two yellow kiwifruits (Zespri® SunGold Kiwifruit) per day for two months. d-ROMs and BAP were measured using a free radical analyzer. In study 1, the d-ROMs decreased while the potential antioxidant capacity (BAP/d-ROMs ratio) increased in the Intake group. In study 2, BAP/d-ROMs ratio was higher after one and two months compared to that at pre-intervention. Study findings suggested that consumption of kiwifruits may reduce oxidative stress levels and increase antioxidant activity, resulting in improved potential antioxidant capacity.

Quantify the magnitude, sources and distribution of variation in fruit quality traits within kiwifruit populations and identify opportunities for the management of this variation. Near-infrared (NIR) grading was used as a tool for monitoring fruit quality, and measurements combined with orchard/vine information to investigate opportunities for the management of the variation in fruit quality traits with a particular focus on fruit DM. NIR enabled non-destructive assessment of the quality characteristics of individual fruit from 96 commercial orchards, comprising 550 fruit-lines, across four consecutive seasons, resulting in a dataset of measurements made on 146.7 million individual fruit. The distribution of quality traits within fruit populations and the relationships between quality traits were examined. The spatial component of variation in fruit quality was investigated to assess the potential for zonal management practices. Finally, the effects of growth temperatures on fruit quality were studied. Significant variation in fruit quality was observed between-seasons, between-orchards, and between-vines within an orchard. From comparison of CVs between quality traits, cropload was more variable than fruit weight which varied more than fruit DM, independent of the production scale considered (between-orchard or between-vine). Across a hierarchy of fruit populations (individual vine, fruit-line and orchard), the majority of fruit quality distributions demonstrated significant deviations from normality. However, departures from normality can be tolerated for estimation of the proportion of fruit with specific quality criteria. The sources of variation in fruit weight and DM populations were investigated at both a between-orchard scale and a within-orchard scale. Between-orchard variation was significant, however, the majority of variation occurred within-fruitlines, within-orchards and within seasons. The within-fruitline component of variation was investigated separately. Both between-vine and within-vine variation were significant, but within-vine variation was dominant. The focus of management should be on reducing variation occurring within-fruitlines within-orchards, which is largely attributable to variation occurring within the individual vine. Higher croploads per vine have negative consequences for fruit weight but variable effects on DM. Increasing croploads reduce both FW and DW allocations for each fruit, therefore the effect of cropload on DM is dependent on the relative reductions in FW and DW. The DW allocations to fruit are not limited by DW production, at least up to the croploads observed in this study (≤65 fruit m-2). The potential for zonal management was investigated. Variation in fruit quality characteristics between-orchards across the Te Puke growing region, and between-vines within an individual orchard area were investigated using geostatistics. A spatial component to variation was identified both between-orchard and between-vine. However, the effect of spatial variation was diluted by that of non-spatial variation and therefore, zonation between orchards or between areas within-orchards should not be where the effort in managing variation is concentrated. Orchard altitude correlated with some aspects of fruit quality. Mean fruit weight declined 0.5g and within-orchard variation in fruit weight declined 0.25 units with a 25m increase in orchard altitude. Mean fruit DM was independent of orchard altitude and within-orchard variability in DM declined 0.023 units per 25m increase in orchard altitude. Differences in orchard altitude equated with differences in growth temperatures. Warm spring and cool summer temperatures favour the growth of high DM fruit. The effects of spring temperatures on canopy development and maturation were investigated to elucidate potential physiological mechanisms for temperatures effects on fruit growth. Higher spring growth temperatures increased the rate of total leaf area development and promoted development of leaf photosynthesis. Higher spring growth temperatures favoured a more positive carbon balance, which has beneficial effects on the development of fruit quality characteristics. Post-harvest, the traditional practice of grading fruit into count sizes generally also segregates for DM, and large count size fruit will often have higher DM than small sized fruit. Between fruit populations, a positive correlation was identified between fruit DM and acidity; therefore, segregation of the inventory by DM will also segregate for acidity. High DM fruit are also more acidic with a higher, more favourable brix/acid ratio when ripe. It is recommended that fruit DM status be managed in the inventory, not by maturity area as is the current practice, but by groups of similar count sizes within maturity areas.

A system has been developed to aid in the establishment of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation for new plant species. A series of binary vectors have been constructed that express a chimaeric β-D-glucuronidase (GUS) gene in plants cells but not in bacterial cells. This feature allows GUS activity from transformed plant cells to be assayed in the presence of Agrobacterium. Preliminary experiments examined the expression of these chimaeric GUS genes in transformed petunia leaf discs. GUS expression was detectable 2 days after inoculation, peaked at 3 – 4 days and then declined; if selection was imposed expression increased again after 10 - 14 days. The amount of expression observed 4 days after inoculation correlated well with stable integration as measured by kanamycin resistance, hormone independence, and gall formation. Histochemical staining of inoculated leaf discs confirmed the transient peak of GUS expression 3 - 4 days after inoculation. Surprisingly, GUS expression was concentrated in localized zones on the circumference of the disc; within these zones essentially all the cells appeared to be expressing GUS. These results suggest that the frequency of gene transfer from Agrobacterium is extremely high within localized regions of the petunia leaf explants, but that the frequency of stable integration is several orders of magnitude lower. A reliable Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system has been established for kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa cv. Hayward) by using transient expression of GUS to monitor gene transfer frequencies. In vitro culture of kiwifruit plants and conditions for regeneration of plants from leaf discs have been established. Several factors were found to improve gene transfer frequencies in kiwifruit: (i) healthy actively growing source tissue; (ii) the use of Agrobacterium strain A281; (iii) the presence of a layer of moistened filter paper between the leaf explants and the cocultivation media; and (iv) the presence of 20 μM acetosyringone in both the bacterial culture media and in the cocultivation media. Pre-culture of leaf explants significantly inhibited gene transfer, particularly at the cut edge of the explants. Using the optimized transformation system, at least one transgenic plant can be regenerated from each leaf inoculated. Stable transformation frequencies have been shown to vary significantly between different binary vectors. Phenotypic, PCR, and Southern analysis has confirmed the presence of stably integrated T-DNA in several transgenic kiwifruit plants.

The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was determined in three kiwifruit (Actinidia) species including A. deliciosa, A. chinensis, and A. arguta. Among the species tested, the highest SOD activity was found in crude extracts prepared from fruit tissues of A. deliciosa. The highest enzyme activity was localized in seed, followed by locules, core and outer pericarp (OP). SOD activity in crude extract of whole fruit remained stable for at least one month when stored at -20℃. The effect of synthetic protease inhibitors (PI) on SOD activity was investigated. Supplementing crude kiwifruit extracts with PI improved SOD activity in freshly prepared extracts, and in extracts stored at 4℃, but had no effect on those stored at -20℃. Among the PI used, iodoacetamide (an inhibitor of cysteine proteases, for example, actinidin which is a principal protease found in kiwifruit) and PMSF (an inhibitor of serine proteases), had the most and least influence on SOD activity in crude kiwifruit extracts, respectively. There was a significant increase in SOD activity in kiwifruit (that were relatively firm) when the fruits were stored at low temperature (4℃). An increase in SOD activity was also correlated with a decrease in fruit firmness. Staining fruit tissues with nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) provided evidence for stress-induced superoxide generation in kiwifruit tissues. Taken together, the changes in SOD activity and the capacity for stress-inducible superoxide production in post-harvest kiwifruit suggest that SOD might play a fundamental role in the storage life/ripening of kiwifruit.

El consum habitual de fruita (com el kiwi) en la dieta té un efecte molt beneficiós per a la salut. No només és una excel·lent font de vitamines, fibra i minerals, sinó que a més posseeix compostos fitoquímics que contribueixen a la salut. D'altra banda, cada dia més els consumidors demanen d'aliments de preparació ràpida, amb una alta qualitat nutritiva, sensorial i el mínim d'additius per a la seva conservació. RESUM La primera impressió que els consumidors reben de les fruites és l'aparença o aspecte extern, sent la més important per a la seva acceptació i decisió de compra. La forma i mida és un dels aspectes més fàcilment discernibles, tot i que generalment no és un caràcter de qualitat decisiu. Només en cas de malformacions o defectes morfològics podria ser-ho. Durant i després de la collita del kiwi, un cert percentatge de la collita no pot ser destinat a la seva distribució ja que no arriba als estàndards de comercialització. D'altra banda, hi ha un sector de població que necessita de facilitats a l'hora d'incentivar el consum de fruites, i en concret de kiwis, com són els nens, els ancians i certs sectors per las quals, per motius de treball o pràctics, és un inconvenient el rentar, pelar i tallar certes fruites fora de casa. En base a aquest plantejament, a la present Tesi ens hem proposat estudiar l'aplicació d'una tecnologia no tèrmica, com són les Altes Pressions Hidrostàtiques (HHP) per a l'obtenció d'un puré de kiwi segur, saludable (amb les seves propietats nutritives) i desitjable (sense perdre propietats organolèptiques). En la primera fase d'aquesta Tesi es van determinar les condicions de pressió, temperatura i temps del tractament HHP per reduir la seva càrrega microbiana endògena i estudiar l'evolució dels supervivents. A més es van inocular diferents indicadors de patògens, obtenint letalitats i capacitat de recuperació dels supervivents. A més a més, es van monitoritzar paràmetres que poguessin influir en la supervivència o creixement dels microorganismes, com pH, sòlids solubles, temperatures. En una segona fase, es van estudiar els paràmetres de qualitat fisicoquímica (color instrumental, degradació de les clorofil·les, reologia), nutritius (Vitamina C) i sensorials (panell de tastadors), en aquelles condicions que prèviament havien demostrat una seguretat microbiològica inicialment i al llarg del seu emmagatzematge. A mena de resum, destaquem els següents resultats obtinguts, respecte a la inactivació d'aerobis mesòfils (AM) totals es van observar reduccions de 2 i 3 Log a 300 MPa / 0.1 min i resta de condicions, respectivament. Els supervivents en els AM van ser esporulats (SP), ja que van coincidir amb els recomptes de supervivents. Però en cap cas hi va haver proliferació durant el seu emmagatzematge a 30 dies. Els microorganismes patògens inoculats (S. aureus i E. coli), van resultar ser molt més sensibles, ja que a partir de 500 MPa a qualsevol temps i temperatura assajades, no es observar supervivents, amb reduccions de 5 i 7 Log, respectivament. Les menors diferències de color entre les mostres pressuritzades enfront del control (ΔE) van ser les tractades a 10 °C, 5 minuts i 300 < 700 < 500 MPa. A més a més, el contingut de clorofil·les a i b, amb els tractaments de HHP assajats es va mantenir de l'ordre del 50-70% per a clorofil·la a i 60-80% per a clorofil·la b. Amb el tractament tèrmic de pasteurització aplicat només va quedat al 0 i 10% de clorofil·la a i b, respectivament. Per contra, la formació de feofitines (a i b) en les mostres tractades per HHP gairebé no va variar respecte al control, mentre que les mostres pasteuritzades van doblar el seu contingut. Es va poder observar que el contingut total de Vitamina C en les mostres tractades per HHP, tot just es va reduir respecte al seu control, durant el seu emmagatzematge. Només al dia 60, la diferència respecte al seu control va oscil·lar entre un 50-70% menor. A nivell d'anàlisi sensorial, els panelistes van distingir clarament les mostres tractades tèrmicament de les pressuritzades i control. Cal destacar que dels tractaments assajats, les mostres de 300 i 500 MPa a 15 min, van ser les que els panelistes van col·locar més pròximes al control Amb els resultats obtinguts en el present treball es demostra que els tractaments per HHP, són una alternativa per augmentar la vida útil del puré de kiwi, mantenint la seguretat microbiològica i unes característiques reològiques, organolèptiques i nutritives satisfactòries per als consumidors, com a mínim fins al dia 30 de conservació en refrigeració.
El consumo habitual de fruta (como el kiwi) en la dieta tiene un efecto muy beneficioso para la salud. No sólo es una excelente fuente de vitaminas, fibra y minerales, sino que además posee compuestos fitoquímicos que contribuyen a la salud. Por otro lado, los consumidores demandan cada día más de alimentos de preparación rápida, con una alta calidad nutritiva, sensorial y el mínimo de aditivos para su conservación. RESUMEN La primera impresión que los consumidores reciben de las frutas es la apariencia o aspecto externo, siendo la más importante para su aceptación y decisión de compra. La forma y tamaño son unos de los aspectos más fácilmente discernibles, aunque generalmente no es un carácter de calidad decisivo. Solo en caso de malformaciones o defectos morfológicos podría serlo. Durante y después de la cosecha del kiwi, un cierto porcentaje de la recolección no puede ser destinado a su distribución ya que no alcanza los estándares de comercialización. Por otro lado, existe un sector de población que precisa de facilidades a la hora de incentivar el consumo de frutas, y en concreto de kiwis, como son los niños, los ancianos y ciertos sectores para los cuales, por motivos de trabajo o prácticos, resulta un inconveniente el lavar, pelar y cortar ciertas frutas fuera de casa. En base a este planteamiento, en la presente Tesis nos hemos propuesto estudiar la aplicación de una tecnología no térmica, como son las Altas Presiones Hidrostáticas (HHP) para la obtención de un puré de kiwi seguro, saludable (con sus propiedades nutritivas) y apetecible (sin perder propiedades organolépticas). En la primera fase de esta Tesis se determinaron las condiciones de presión, temperatura y tiempos del tratamiento HHP para reducir su carga microbiana endógena y estudiar la evolución de los supervivientes. Además se inocularon diferentes indicadores de patógenos, obteniéndose sus letalidades y capacidad de recuperación de los supervivientes. A su vez, se monitorizaron parámetros que pudieran influenciar en la supervivencia o crecimiento de los microorganismos, como pH, sólidos solubles, temperaturas. En una segunda fase, se estudiaron los parámetros de calidad fisicoquímica (color instrumental, degradación de las clorofilas, reología), nutricional (vitamina C) y sensoriales (panel de catadores), en aquellas condiciones que previamente habían demostrado una seguridad microbiológica inicialmente y a lo largo de su almacenamiento. A modo de resumen, destacamos los siguientes resultados obtenidos, respecto a la inactivación de aerobios mesófilos (AM) totales se observaron reducciones de 2 y 3 Log a 300 MPa/0.1 min y resto de condiciones, respectivamente. Los supervivientes en los AM fueron esporulados (SP), ya que coinciden con los recuentos de supervivientes. Pero en ningún caso hubo proliferación durante su almacenamiento a 30 días. Los microorganismos patógenos inoculados (S. aureus y E. coli), resultaron ser mucho más sensibles, ya que a partir de 500 MPa a cualquier tiempo y temperatura ensayadas, no se observaros supervivientes, con reducciones de 5 y 7 Log, respectivamente. Las menores diferencias de color entre las muestras presurizadas frente al control (ΔE) fueron las tratadas a 10 °C, 5 min y 300 < 700 < 500 MPa. A su vez, el contenido de clorofilas a y b, con los tratamientos de HHP ensayados se mantuvo del orden del 50-70% para clorofila a y del 60-80% para clorofila b. Con el tratamiento térmico de pasteurización aplicado solamente quedó 0 y 10% de clorofila a y b, respectivamente. Por el contrario, la formación de feofitinas (a y b) en las muestras tratadas por HHP apenas varió respecto al control, mientras que las muestras pasteurizadas doblaron su contenido. Se pudo observar que el contenido total de Vitamina C en las muestras tratadas por HHP, apenas se redujo respecto a su control, durante su almacenamiento. Sólo al día 60, la diferencia con respecto a su control osciló entre un 50-70% menor. A nivel de análisis sensorial, los panelistas distinguieron claramente las muestras tratadas térmicamente de las presurizadas y control. Cabe resaltar que de los tratamientos ensayados, las muestras de 300 y 500 MPa a 15 min, fueron las que los panelistas colocaron más cercanas al control. Con los resultados obtenidos en el presente trabajo se demuestra que los tratamientos por HHP, son una alternativa para aumentar la vida útil del puré de kiwi, manteniendo la seguridad microbiológica y unas características reológicas, organolépticas y nutricionales satisfactorias para los consumidores, como mínimo hasta el día 30 de conservación en refrigeración.
Regular consumption of fruit (including kiwi) in the diet has a beneficial effect on health. It is not only an excellent source of vitamins, fiber and minerals, it also has phytochemicals that contribute to health. On the other hand, more and more consumers demand for fast food with high nutritional quality, sensory and minimum of additives for conservation. ABSTRACT The first impression consumers have from fruit it is the appearance or external aspect, being the most important for acceptance and purchase decision. The shape and size are among the most easily discernible aspects, but generally it is not a decisive quality character. Only if morphological abnormalities or defects could be a cause of reject. During and after kiwi harvest, a certain percentage of the harvest cannot be intended for distribution on not reaching marketing standards. On the other hand, there is a sector of the population that requires encourage for fruits consumption, specifically kiwis, such as children, the elderly and certain sectors whom for work or practical reasons, is a drawback to wash, peel and cut some fruits. Based on this approach, in this Thesis we intend to study the application of a non-thermal technology, such as high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), to obtain a kiwi puree safe, healthy (with its nutritional properties) and desirable (without losing organoleptic properties). In the first phase of this thesis the conditions of pressure, temperature and time of HHP treatment to reduce their endogenous microbial load and to study the evolution of the survivors were determined. Also, different indicators of pathogens were inoculated, obtaining their lethality rates and the resilience of the survivors. In turn, parameters that might influence the survival or growth of microorganisms such as pH, soluble solids, and temperature were monitored. In a second stage, physicochemical quality parameters (instrumental color, degradation of chlorophylls, rheology), nutritional (vitamin C) and sensory (taste panel), in the conditions that had previously shown a microbiological safety at the beginning and during storage, were studied. To summarize, we highlight the following results with respect to inactivation of aerobic mesophilic (AM) Total reductions Log 2 and 3 were observed at 300 MPa / 0.1 min and other conditions, respectively. The survivors were sporulated AM (SP), as they match survivors counts. In no case there was growth during storage at 30 days. For inoculated pathogenic microorganisms (S. aureus and E. coli), proved to be much more sensitive as from 500 MPa at any time and temperature tested, no survivors watch yourself, with reductions of 5 and 7 Log, respectively The lesser differences in color between pressurized samples versus control (ΔE) were treated at 10 °C, 5 min and 300 <700 <500 MPa. In turn, the content of pigment molecules with HHP treatments tested (300, 500 and 600 MPa and 0.1, 5 and 15 min) was maintained in the range 50-70% for chlorophyll a and 60-80% for chlorophyll b. With the pasteurization heat treatment remained just 0 and 10% for chlorophyll a and b, respectively. Conversely pheohytins formation in samples treated by HHP, hardly changed relative to the control, pasteurized samples doubled its contents. It was observed that the total content of Vitamin C in the samples treated by HHP, the gap narrowed just about control during storage, only at day 60 compared to control ranged between 50-70% lower. A level sensory testing, panelists clearly distinguished the samples heat treated and the pressurized control. It should be noted that the treatments tested, samples of 300 and 500 MPa for 15 min, were placed the closest to the control by panelists. With the results of this study demonstrated that treatment by HHP, are an alternative to increase the life of mashed kiwi, maintaining the microbiological safety and rheological, organoleptic and favorable to consumers nutritional characteristics, at least until the 30th day of storage.

The chlorophyll degradation pathway is central to a number of plant processes including senescence and fruit ripening. However, the regulation of the chlorophyll degradation pathway enzymes is not well understood. The aim of this thesis was to elucidate the genetic mechanisms that control changes in pigment composition leading to fruit flesh yellowing in kiwifruit. Actinidia deliciosa and A. chinensis fruit, which are green and yellow, respectively, provide an opportunity to study the regulation of chlorophyll levels. The expression of genes that code for enzymes of the chlorophyll and cytokinin metabolic pathways was measured using qRT-PCR. Candidates for chlorophyll degradation regulatory points were then characterised for functionality by transient transformation in N. benthamiana. The endogenous cytokinin levels were measured in kiwifruit and transient activation assays were carried out with the promoters of key candidate genes. Overall, expression of the chlorophyll degradation genes was elevated in yellow fruit and expression of biosynthetic genes was higher in green fruit. The chlorophyll degradation-associated protein, STAY-GREEN2 (SGR2), was more highly expressed in yellow fruit, and transient over-expression of SGR was sufficient to drive chlorophyll degradation. Expression of isopentenyl transferase (IPT), the rate-limiting step for cytokinin biosynthesis, showed an increase towards maturity in green fruit, but not in yellow fruit. However, both fruit had similar high levels of cytokinin nucleotides and free bases. A gene coding for O-glucosylation was also highly expressed in green fruit. Green fruit contained higher levels of cytokinin O-glucosides and ribosides towards maturity, suggesting differences in cytokinin signalling, which could lead to regulation of chlorophyll levels via activation of the SGR promoter by transcription factors. It is likely that the chlorophyll degradation pathway and cytokinin metabolism are linked. The differential expression of cytokinin response regulators could lead to differential regulation of cytokinin levels in the fruit of the two species, and possibly differential regulation of the chlorophyll degradation pathway. Progress towards elucidation of the control of chlorophyll levels provides knowledge of this key process in kiwifruit and potentially gene-based markers for breeding new kiwifruit cultivars.

Research in this thesis describes the characterisation of mRNA sequences coding for actinidin, a cysteine protease found in abundance in the fruit of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa). The first step in the characterisation required the isolation of mRNA from ripe kiwifruit tissue. The suitability of a number of RNA extraction procedures was investigated. The method finally adopted differed from that used for unripe fruit tissue, and was chosen as a result of the nature of the polysaccharide that contaminated nucleic acids prepared from extracts of kiwifruit fruit tissue. RNA extracted from ripe fruit was used to synthesis a partial cDNA library and clones for actinidin were isolated. A number of these cDNA clones were sequenced; three clones were almost full-length. The actinidin cDNA clones obtained fall into two broad sequence classes. The majority of them encode acidic proteins (pI˜4.7), with 97% homology to the published amino acid sequence of actinidin. The second class encode basic proteins (pI˜8.1), with 83% homology to the published amino acid sequence of actinidin. Both classes of actinidin cDNA sequence encode zymogens, which contain N- and C-terminal extensions not present in the mature form of the enzyme. The N-terminal extension of both sequence classes includes a putative signal peptide. Northern hybridization analysis was used to investigate the tissue specificity of actinidin mRNA expression, and the expression of mRNA for the two actinidin sequence classes during fruit ripening. Both actinidin sequence classes were expressed differentially during the latter stages of kiwifruit fruit development and through post-harvest fruit ripening. The expression of both sequence classes increased from just prior to fruit maturity through ripening and reached a maximum as fruit attained the stage of 'eating' ripeness. The level of expression of the sequences encoding acidic actinidin reached a plateau at this point, while the expression of the sequence encoding basic actinidin appeared to decrease slightly as fruit continued to ripen. The sequences encoding acidic actinidin were expressed during ripening at a much higher level than those encoding basic actinidin. No actinidin mRNA was detected in other tissues except for very low levels of the acidic form in kiwifruit leaf, and low levels of the basic form in senescing petals. A full-length, acidic, actinidin cDNA sequence was introduced into tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants via Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Using the binary vector pGA643, the sequence was introduced in both the sense and antisense orientation relative to the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and transgenic plants were obtained for both sequence orientations. The presence of the T-DNA cassette (containing the actinidin sequence) in the plant genomes was determined using PCR analysis, and confirmed by Southern hybridization. A number of the transgenic plants contained multiple insertions of the actinidin sequence, and most plants contained at least one intact copy of the T-DNA cassette. The transcription of the introduced actinidin sequence was investigated by Northern hybridization analysis. All of the plants containing actinidin in the sense orientation, and some of those incorporating the antisense construct, transcribed the actinidin sequence. Attempts to detect actinidin protein in the transgenic plants were unsuccessful. Acidic actinidin was identified as one of the most abundant bands in the total protein profile from ripe kiwifruit fruit tissue. The identity of the protein was confirmed by N-terminal sequence analysis. The electrophoretic mobility of actinidin, both in the total cell homogenate and when partially purified, suggested that the first step in post-translational processing of the zymogen may be the removal of the N-terminal extension. Actinidin was also partially purified and used to raise antibodies. Poor specificity of the antibody for actinidin led to preliminary evidence for the glycosylation of actinidin.

A new formulate containing citokinins, that is commercialized as Cytokin, has been introduced as dormancy breaking agents. During a three-years study, Cytokin was applied at different concentrations and application times in two producing areas of the Emilia-Romagna region to verify its efficacy as a DBA. Cytokin application increased the bud break and showed a lateral flower thinning effect. Moreover, treated vines showed an earlier and more uniform flowering as compared to control ones. Results obtained on the productive performance revealed a constant positive effect in the fruit fresh weight at harvest. Moreover, Cytokin did not cause any phytotoxicity even at the highest concentrations. Starting from the field observation, which suggested the involvement of cytokinins in kiwifruit bud release from dormancy, 6-BA was applied in open field condition and molecular and histological analyses were carried out in kiwifruit buds collected starting from the endo dormant period up to complete bud break to compare the natural occurring situation to the one induced by exogenous cytokinin application. In details, molecular analyses were set up on to verify the expression of genes involved in the reactivation of cell cycle: cyclin D3, histone H4, cyclin-dependent kinase B, as well as of others which are known to be up regulated during bud release in other species, i.e.isopenteniltransferases (IPTs), which catalyze the first step in the CK biosynthesis, and sucrose synthase 1 and A, which are involved in the sugar supplied. Moreover, histological analyses of the cell division rate in kiwifruit bud apical meristems were performed. These analyses showed a reactivation of the cell divisions during bud release and changes in the expression level of the investigated genes.

A radio frequency (RF) vacuum technology is proposed for drying kiwifruit slices using a 27.12 MHz, 3 kW RF-vacuum drying system. The results demonstrated that electrode gap, vacuum pressure and sample thickness had major effects on the RF-vacuum drying. The RF-vacuum drying was associated with internal heating and rapid drying, resulting in 65% reduction of hot air (60ºC) drying time. Moreover, kiwifruits dehydrated by RF-vacuum drying were associated with better color stability, higher vitamin C retention and higher rehydration capacity (P&lt;0.05). Overall, the RF-vacuum drying process may provide a more effective and practical method for high-quality dehydration of kiwifruits. Keywords: radio frequency-vacuum drying; hot air; moisture content distribution; moisture effective diffusivity; quality