Academic literature on the topic 'Kitchen middens'

Abstract. Melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) is accelerating and will contribute significantly to global sea level rise during the 21st century. Instrumental data on GrIS melting only cover the last few decades, and proxy data extending our knowledge into the past are vital for validating models predicting the influence of ongoing climate change. We investigated a potential meltwater proxy in Godthåbsfjord (West Greenland), where glacier meltwater causes seasonal excursions with lower oxygen isotope water (δ18Ow) values and salinity. The blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) potentially records these variations, because it precipitates its shell calcite in oxygen isotopic equilibrium with ambient seawater. As M. edulis shells are known to occur in raised shorelines and kitchen middens from previous Holocene warm periods, this species may be ideal in reconstructing past meltwater dynamics. We investigate its potential as a palaeo-meltwater proxy. First, we confirmed that M. edulis shell calcite oxygen isotope (δ18Oc) values are in equilibrium with ambient water and generally reflect meltwater conditions. Subsequently we investigated if this species recorded the full range of δ18Ow values occurring during the years 2007 to 2010. Results show that δ18Ow values were not recorded at very low salinities (< ~19), because the mussels appear to cease growing. This implies that M. edulis δ18Oc values are suitable in reconstructing past meltwater amounts in most cases, but care has to be taken that shells are collected not too close to a glacier, but rather in the mid region or mouth of the fjord. The focus of future research will expand on the geographical and temporal range of the shell measurements by sampling mussels in other fjords in Greenland along a south-north gradient, and by sampling shells from raised shorelines and kitchen middens from prehistoric settlements in Greenland.

Long viewed as ‘kitchen middens’, the shellmounds of the San Francisco Bay Area have -provided archaeologists of coastal California insight into the subsistence and ecology of precontact native groups. In this article, the authors develop a framework for understanding the cultural significance of these shellmounds which regards them as intentional cultural features, incorporates social context, and builds on earlier subsistence-focused studies of the shellmounds in order to better appreciate the meaning of the numerous human remains interred therein. A structural analysis is then used to show that the concepts of food and ancestors joined together at shellmounds, so much so that ritual attention to the ancestors was very likely regarded as essential to ensuring a continuing supply of food.

The large, edible, and near-cosmopolitan brown mussel Perna perna (Linné, 1758) has a history of few and infrequent occurrences in Portugal since the Atlantic “climatic optimum” of the Holocene. Moreover, it is likely that some previous citations of Mytilus spp. from other Holocene deposits, including kitchen middens, may represent true Perna specimens. The species was recently found by Lourenço et al. (2012) in the south Portuguese coastal localities of Ilha do Farol and Vila Moura. Here, we summarize these and other previously published occurrences of P. perna in the areas of Armação de Pêra, Lagos and Aljezur, discussing morphologic, ecologic and biogeographic aspects of this species in the Portuguese fauna. The brown mussel is also known from archaeological records from Padrão I (Sagres – Vila do Bispo, Ancient Neolithic) and Arrifana (Aljezur, XII century). These chronologies are contemporaneous with the climatic warming intervals of the Atlantic Period (circa 8000-5000 BP) and “Medieval Warm Period” (circa 1000- 1200 AD). During these and other related intervals of warmer coastal surface waters, it is very likely that this subtropical “warm guest” colonized open marine rocky areas of the South and Southwest Portuguese coast, with settlement of stable and permanent populations. Ocorrências do mexilhão castanho anfiatlântico Perna perna (Linné, 1758) (Mollusca, Bivalvia) no sul de Portugal desde o “ótimo climático” Atlântico - O mitilídeo Perna perna (Linné, 1758), espécie comestível de dimensão apreciável e repartição quase cosmopolita, apresenta um historial escasso de ocorrências em Portugal desde o “ótimo climático” Atlântico do Holocénico. É provável, também, que algumas das ocorrências publicadas de Mytilus spp. noutros depósitos holocénicos, incluindo concheiros, possam corresponder a espécimes de Perna. Recolhas recentes na costa sul de Portugal, mencionadas por Lourenço et al. (2012) ampliam as ocorrências conhecidas às localidades de Ilha do Farol e de Vila Moura, em paralelo com citações mais antigas para Armação de Pêra, Lagos e Aljezur. Estas ocorrências são sumariadas no presente estudo, assim como discutidos aspetos de ordem morfológica, ecológica e biogeográfica relativos à presença desta espécie na fauna portuguesa. No registo arqueológico, o mexilhão castanho é conhecido nos arqueossítios de Padrão I (Sagres – Vila do Bispo, Neolítico Antigo) e Arrifana (Aljezur, século XII). Estas cronologias são coevas com os intervalos de melhoria climática do período Atlântico (circa 8000-5000 BP) e de finais da IdadeMédia (circa 1000-1200 DC). Durante estes e outros intervalos comparativos de melhoria das condições hidroclimáticas das águas superficiais costeiras, considera-se bastante provável que este “warm guest” subtropical tenha atingido, por diversas vezes, áreas não restritas do litoral rochoso do sul e sudoeste dePortugal, com o estabelecimento de populações estáveis e permanentes.

Abstract The Xiantouling Culture featured sand dune sites and shell midden (kitchen midden) sites. Through an analysis of the faunal and floral remains and tools unearthed from these sites, with the relevant unearthed pottery wares and paleo-environmental research results taken into account, it can be evidenced that the subsistence types of these sites were mainly plant gathering supplemented by fishing and hunting, instead of relying on marine resources. The subsistence type of the sand dune sites was mainly plant gathering and occasionally rice gathering or farming; that of the earlier kitchen madden sites was gathering freshwater shells, and that of the later ones was more relying on marine resources. From the late phase of Xiantouling Culture, the archaeological cultures in the coastal areas of southeastern China began to utilize marine resources in a large scale.

Activity sites from the Ertebølle periodDyngby III and Sindholt Nord In order to understand the maritime culture of the Ertebølle period in Denmark (5600-4000 BC), it is necessary to take as many sources as possible into account. In the following, two new aspects of coastal Ertebølle finds, represented by the Dyngby III and Sindholt Nord sites, are described (Figs. 1 and 10). Dyngby III is located at the foot of a hill bordering an area which in the Stone Age was a small bay connected with Kattegat (Fig. 1). Several small sites have been excavated along this prehistoric coastline – both “Køkkenmøddinger” (shell middens), and coastal sites without any shell deposits; to these can now be added a new type of coastal site, which is the central issue of this article. The site is rather small (10 m x 10 m), and the culture layers were encapsulated by tufa deposited by fresh water. Charcoal powder, flint debris, and shells from oysters and cockles define the culture layers. No settlement structures were recorded, but the presence of charcoal, burnt flint, and burnt bones indicate the use of fire on the beach.The find material is very restricted. Apart from worked flint, it comprises just a few potsherds, “pot-boilers”, and small bone splinters. The number of artefacts and the range of types represented are limited (Figs. 4, 5, and 6). The most common artefact types are triangular or discoid flint pieces with irregular scars along the edges (Fig. 7) – types which are rare on other Ertebølle sites. The heavy wear indicates that they were used as hammers on a hard material such as bone or antler, but as there are no artefacts or waste in the find material to support these observations, the explanation for the use and occurrence of these tools at Dyngby III is open to discussion. In addition, the numerous core renovation flakes and blades demonstrate an extensive production of blades on this site. The absence or near-absence of blade-tools (scrapers and borers, as well as a very low frequency of burins, truncated pieces, transverse arrowheads and flake axes) is striking – both in absolute terms and in relation to the excavated area, as well as in comparison with other Ertebølle sites. Apart from this, a small fragment of an ornamented bone knife was found (Fig. 8).The artefacts demonstrate that the activities at Dyngby III were very restricted and specialized.The tool inventory and the few and fragmentary bones clearly distinguish this site from other contemporary and small settlements such as Aggersund (Andersen 1979) and Vængesø, which had a much wider artefact inventory (Andersen 1975b). Unfortunately, the few artefacts and bone splinters offer no clear interpretation as to the exact purpose of visiting this particular location on the coast.The culture layers also contained a thin scattering of marine molluscs, the dominant species of which are oysters, followed by cockles; other marine species are absent or extremely sparsely represented. The molluscs therefore reflect very selective collecting. In general, the shells lay singly and did not form a continuous horizon. In this respect, the Dyngby III site differs from the “Køkkenmødding” (shell midden) category. However, in some cases the shells formed small “heaps”, which probably reflect isolated disposal incidents (Fig. 9). An analysis of the oyster shells demonstrated that they were from very young oysters (2-3 years), and that they had been collected solely during a short period in late March and early April.Dyngby III is C-14 dated to 4840-4257 BC. The dating demonstrates that – despite the impression given by the scattered cultural remains – the site reflects a speci­fic, repeated behaviour, most probably a series of very short visits taking place during several centuries of the Ertebølle Culture (as otherwise one would expect a much thicker and more extensive accumulation of waste). Against this background, the limited number of cultural remains and the scattered distribution of the shells seem even more striking. The lack of settlement structures and the very limited range of tools demonstrate that Dyngby III was not an ordinary settlement, but rather a specialized site with a diffuse distribution of marine molluscs. The preliminary interpretation of the site is that it is a locality where access to good flint and blade production was important, and that the occupants collected marine molluscs during their short stays there in the spring. Dyngby III thus represents a coastal site of a type that has never previously been described in Danish archaeological publications.In connection with the excavations at Visborg (Fig. 10), the surrounding region was reconnoitred. During this process a very small concentration of flint debris and marine shells was discovered on the eastern slope of a shallow hill, which during the Stone Age had been a peninsula stretching towards a narrow sound connected with Mariager Fjord to the south (Fig. 10).The Sindholt site had been disturbed by ploughing, and a test excavation proved that no cultural horizon was left in situ. Only flints, some marine shells, and “pot-boilers” were preserved. All the finds lay on the surface and were later recorded. The area with finds turned out to form an oval (15 x 7 metres), with the most intense occurrence of material situated within an area measuring 10 x 7 metres (Fig. 12). From the investigation of the Stone Age settlement of Bro (S. H. Andersen 1973), we know that ploughing expands the horizontal distribution, but that the relationship between the objects largely remains unaltered. The distribution on the surface is therefore in a crude sense also represen­tative of the primary distribution of cultural remains. The Sindholt Nord site is very small. Settlement structures include a fireplace on the prehistoric beach, indicated by a concentration of “pot-boilers”, and higher up the hillside a concentration of shells, measuring 2 x 2 metres, along with a few “pot-boilers” (Fig. 12). The shell concentration was clearly delimited, and it consisted almost exclusively of oyster and cockleshells. The patch of shells was so limited in extent and contained so few shells that it could represent only a single “episode.” The number of worked flints and artefacts was also very limited (Figs. 13-15) and as in the Dyngby III case, the absence of blade tools (scrapers, borers and trunca­ted blades) was striking. The finds indicate that the production of blades and transverse arrowheads was of importance.The Sindholt site is dated from the tool inventory and a single C-14 dating to 4775-4625 BC, i.e. the early Ertebølle Culture.The few finds, the few settlement structures, and the very limited area involved indicate that the Sindholt site represents a single and very short occupation. The site therefore exemplifies a very small coastal settlement unit from the Ertebølle Culture. If this spot had been used repeatedly or continuously over a long span of time, the quantity of debris and of tool types would have been greater, and the shell layer would have been thicker and more extensive. Sindholt would then have incorporated all the different elements which constitute a typical Danish kitchen midden.The conclusion is that the two sites are unusually small and have a very restricted tool inventory. They thus demonstrate new aspects of the coast-linked activities of the Ertebølle Culture and should be labelled “activity spots” or “find spots” rather than settlements. The two sites have close parallels with the “dinnertime camps” known from ethnographic publications from Australia in particular. It is the restricted artefact inventory which especially distinguishes Dyngby III and Sindholt from other (published) small Ertebølle settlements. At both sites the production of blades seems to have been of major importance, and at Sindholt the repair of broken artefacts was also demonstrated. Dyngby III seems to have been used during a very long period of the Ertebølle Culture, while Sindholt seems to represent only a brief epi­sode, but of the same “specialized” nature. The collecting of marine species took place at both sites, but this activity was limited to oysters and cockles. Sindholt represents a very small kitchen midden, and if the site had been visited several times, it would have developed into a typical kitchen midden, whereas the collecting of molluscs at Dyngby III reflects activity of a much more sporadic character.Since the article was delivered to the editor (in the summer of 2003), the excavation of Dyngby III has been completed. This has in no way altered the above description of the site and its artefact inventory. However, the few animal bones have been identified, and the following species have been recorded: Pig (Sus sp.), Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), Red deer (Cervus elaphus), Oxen (Bos sp.), Oxen/Elk (Bos sp./Alces alces), Ourochs/Elk (Bos primigenius/Alces alces), Ourochs/Elk/Red deer (Bos/Alces/Cervus). The bones are badly preserved; only the most robust parts of the skeleton are present, and all parts are represented. The bone fragments do not give any information as to the season in which the animals were used. Søren H. Andersen Nationalmuseet

Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Glasgow, 1994.
Ph.D. thesis submitted to the Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, 1994. Includes bibliographical references. Print version also available.

This thesis sets out to examine issues of selectivity and availability in fishing and shellfish gathering by pre-European Maori at Triangle Flat in western Golden Bay. Faunal remains from four archaeological sites have revealed new and valuable information about economic subsistence practices in this region. It is proposed that exploitation of these important coastal resources was based on factors other than the availability of, proximity to resource patches. Evidence from the Triangle Flat sites is compared to that from Tasman Bay and the southern North Island to gain a regional perspective on fishing and shellfish gathering strategies. The most definitive evidence for selective targeting is provided by tuatua, an open beach species that has been found to dominate in sites based adjacent to tidal mud and sand flats. Also of interest is the dominance of mud snail in a site that is adjacent to large cockle and pipi beds. When regional sites were examined it was found that this pattern was also recorded for the site of Appleby in Tasman Bay. Selectivity in fishing strategies is also apparent with red cod and barracouta dominating the Triangle Flat assemblages. This pattern conforms to evidence from both eastern Golden Bay and Tasman Bay but does not reflect evidence from the southern North Island. Of particular interest is the apparent dearth of snapper in the sites at Triangle Flat, since snapper abounds in the area today. An explanation based on climatic change is considered to be the most feasible. This indicates that enviromentalal availability was at least in part responsible for the archaeological evidence of fishing. The consistency of the catch of red cod and barracouta in Golden Bay, and the pattern of shellfishing preferentially for tuatua suggests that cultural choice was also a significant selective factor.

Thesis (M.S. in Geology)--S.M.U., 2007.
Title from PDF title page (viewed Mar. 18, 2008). Source: Masters Abstracts International, Volume: 45-05, page: 2387. Adviser: Robert Gregory. Includes bibliographical references.

The Mesoamerican residential mound is a basic unit of archaeological analysis. The way mounds form has implications for reconstructing past social organization. Studies of formation processes assume that characteristics of refuse are the result of depositional history. Tracing the history of archaeological deposits is the first step toward understanding the social and economic milieu of the prehistoric household. The traces of mound formation processes particularly are evident in ceramics. This study examines measures such as density, mean size, and variation in size and wear, to determine their utility in ascertaining depositional history, including discard practices, erosion, and trampling. The measures are tested with the Exploratory Data Analysis method using visual inspection of the data for patterns and examination of exceptional cases. Density by weight and mean sherd size were found to be particularly useful and simple measures for differentiating archaeological deposits. The characteristics of artifacts in a deposit provide the basis for reconstructing the formation of mounds. Earthen residential mounds like those of Veracruz are low and broad and usually lack imperishable construction materials. Unlike Maya housemounds, which often use fill for mound construction, earthen mound formation resembles (on a smaller scale) the formation of tells, the remains of ancient villages and towns in Western Asia. For both tells and earthen mounds, the erosion of houses forms the bulk of mound sediments. Residential mound growth is more by gradual accretion than by deliberate construction, and is due to six main formation processes. These are: (1) the erosion of wattle-and-daub construction material, which contribute to mound sediments; (2) the gradual accretion of sediments and artifacts; (3) horizontal erosion of daub and artifacts; (4) secondary refuse deposition; (5) the occasional use of fill to expand or level the mound; and (6) the development of a humic topsoil layer commonly damaged by plowing. Through refuse characteristics it is possible to reconstruct mound growth, use of space, and the location of structures and refuse dumps. These formation processes distinguish earthen mound development in many parts of Mesoamerica.

South Africa contains many archaeological resources including shell middens from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA). These shell middens give researchers insight into the behaviour of modern humans where the first fossil evidence appears in Africa around 200 000 years ago (Klein, 2008). Research into shell middens is therefore vital to understand the origin of human kind. This study investigates whether Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a useful tool for predicting locations of unknown shell midden sites using the characteristics of known areas of modern human habitation. This was done using suitability analysis and expert mapping techniques. Ground truthing of the results of the desktop analysis revealed that GIS is not a useful tool for predicting sites of modern habitation as the characteristics that determine human habitation are too variable.