Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Kinetoplasts'

The parasitic protist Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of human African trypanosomiasis. The parasite undergoes a complex life cycle involving stages within the mammalian bloodstream and its tsetse fly vector. The fundamental differences between energy metabolism in the procyclic insect form (PCF) and long slender bloodstream form (BSF) T. brucei involve a switch in the directionality of the F1Fo- ATPase. In PCF, the need for oxidative phosphorylation in low glucose conditions requires the enzyme to generate ATP. In the slender BSF, the enzyme uses ATP from glycolysis to drive proton pumping to maintain the essential mitochondrial membrane potential. Fo-ATPase subunit 6 (A6) is critical for proton translocation in either direction and is encoded in the mitochondrial DNA (kDNA). The parasite’s kDNA is therefore essential in the slender BSF, and also in PCF where it encodes multiple subunits of the respiratory chain complexes that constitute the oxidative phosphorylation pathway. Specific point mutations in the nuclearly encoded γ subunit of the mitochondrial F1Fo-ATPase allow survival in the absence of kDNA in the slender BSF T. brucei (Dean et al., 2013). These mutations, even in the heterozygous genotype, cause an increase in resistance to multiple drugs in vitro (Gould and Schnaufer, 2014). This thesis investigates two questions: (1) What is the molecular mechanism of compensation for kDNA loss? (2) Are kDNA and a functional FoF1-ATPase required for life cycle progression? Slender BSF T. brucei were generated expressing ATPase L262Pγ. The effects of this γ mutation and kDNA loss, respectively, on structure/function of the F1Fo- ATPase were probed. Cells expressing L262Pγ show decreased sensitivity to Fo inhibitor oligomycin compared to WT cells, suggesting that the L262Pγ mutation functionally uncouples the enzyme. The impact of the L262Pγ mutation on the structure of the enzyme was probed by high resolution clear native electrophoresis. This shows there are dramatic consequences to F1Fo structure in the presence of the L262Pγ mutation. The apparent selection for cells that no longer express intact F1Fo suggests that L262Pγ uncouples the enzyme, resulting in a lethal proton leak. Pleomorphic T. brucei with and without kDNA were also generated by expressing mutant γ in strain AnTat1.1 90:13. Differentiation studies demonstrate kDNA0 cells can differentiate to insect-transmissible stumpy forms. These cells show a decreased lifespan, suggesting a critical role for a kDNA-encoded product in the stumpy form. Tsetse fly infections show kDNA is indispensable for progression to the PCF. Unexpectedly, parasites homozygous for L262Pγ can establish a midgut infection, while they do not infect the salivary glands. Heterozygous parasites, on the other hand, can form animal-transmissible metacyclics in the salivary glands, providing a potential mechanism for spreading decreased sensitivity to multiple drugs.

Human African trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis are caused by parasites belonging to the genera Trypanosoma and Leishmania, respectively. Significant numbers of people are affected by these diseases worldwide, which are fatal if untreated. Animals can also be infected, posing agricultural and economic hindrances, especially in poor countries. Although chemotherapy can be used for treatment, many problems are associated with it, including drug toxicity, resistance, lack of guaranteed supply, and high treatment cost. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new treatment approaches. Here, we aim to examine the in vitro efficacy of curcumin and phosphonium compounds against these parasites, assay their toxicity to human kidney cells in vitro, and investigate the mechanism of antiparasite activity of curcumin. The Alamar blue assay was used to test 158 curcumin analogues against Leishmania major promastigotes and Leishmania mexicana promastigotes and axenic amastigotes to obtain in vitro EC50 values. Many curcumin compounds such as AS-HK122 and AS-HK126 exhibited anti-leishmanial activities similar to or better than the current clinical drug pentamidine. Similarly, EC50 values of 83 phosphonium compounds against Trypanosoma brucei brucei bloodstream forms were determined. More than 20% of the tested compounds were found to be more active than the standard veterinary drug diminazene aceturate. Multi-drug resistant strains were used to determine that there is no cross-resistance between the tested compounds and the diamidine or melaminophenyl arsenical classes of trypanocides. Structure activity relationship (SAR) analysis revealed that mono-O-demethylated curcumin compounds showed 10-fold higher activity against the parasites than curcumin. The addition of one or two pentyl pyridinium (C10H15N) groups on specific positions of the aromatic ring also increased the activity of these compounds. Furthermore, curcumin compounds with an isoxazole ring instead of the diketo motif showed higher activity and the lowest EC50 values. Similarly, pentyl bromide (OC5H10Br) substitutions on the phenyl rings improved the antiparasitic activity. Curcuminoids with trienone linkers showed increased antiparasitic activity against all parasites tested. Eighty-three phosphonium analogues were tested against T. brucei brucei. SAR analysis indicated that the bulky substituents surrounding the bisphosphonium cations led to strong antiparasitic activity while the nature of the linker had less effect on the activity. Some monophosphonium analogues registered the lowest EC50 values of all the phosphonium compounds. The toxicity of the curcumin and phosphonium analogues to HEK cells was analysed in vitro. All curcumin and phosphonium compounds demonstrated lower toxicity to HEK cells than to the parasites. Of the 83 phosphonium compounds, 60 displayed >200-fold in vitro selectivity index (SI). We also investigated the mode of antiparasitic activity of curcumin compounds. Preliminary toxicity tests had revealed that AS-HK014 caused rapid depletion of glutathione content in rat hepatocytes. Therefore, we tested AS-HK014 activity in the presence of different concentrations of L-glutathione, and AS-HK014 activity was found to decrease with increased L-glutathione concentrations, strongly suggesting that glutathione reacted with the active compound. Indeed, a chemical adduct was observed between the two compounds and identified through mass spectrometry. A trypanosome cell line (TA014) adapted to AS-HK014 was produced. TA014 and wild-type T. brucei brucei were treated with AS-HK014 and compared with each other and with untreated controls. The glutathione and trypanothione levels were lower in the treated WT cells than in the untreated cells. However, there was no change in the glutamate, ornithine, or spermidine levels, providing no evidence for the inhibition of trypanothione synthesis, suggesting that the effect is probably not metabolic but chemical. AS-HK014 did not significantly affect thiol levels in TA014; this might reflect a higher level of trypanothione synthesis through increased glutathione synthetase (GS) and/or γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS) expression. Therefore, we analysed the protein levels using western blotting, and sequenced the encoding genes in both WT and TA014 to identify any mutations in the open reading frames (ORFs). However, we found no changes in the GS and γ-GCS protein levels in resistant trypanosomes and no mutations were found in the GS and γ-GCS ORFs. It is clear that the resistance is to the reactive enone motif of AS-HK014 rather than to curcumin and curcuminoids in general, since TA014 only displayed resistance to AS-HK014 analogues bearing the enone motif while sensitivity to curcumin remained unchanged, confirming that this motif is responsible for the higher activity of AS-HK014 compared to curcumin. The effects of bisphosphonium analogues on T. brucei brucei bloodstream forms were investigated to identify the target. All tested analogues rapidly reduced the T. brucei brucei mitochondrial membrane potential Ψm and decreased the intracellular ATP level after one hour of incubation, suggesting that the compounds may be targeting the mitochondria. The intracellular Ca2+ levels increased gradually after eight hours, suggesting that the damaged mitochondria are unable to retain the stored Ca2+ as their membrane potential dissipates. We also studied the trypanosome cell cycle after incubating the parasites with bisphosphonium compounds. The cell cycle defects became apparent after eight hours of incubation: DNA synthesis could not be initiated, leading to a dramatic reduction of cells in the S phase. This result was also confirmed by fluorescence microscopic assessment of DNA configuration. After eight hours of incubation with the bisphosphonium compound CD38, the number of 2K1N cells significantly decreased as compared with the control. There may be a causal relationship between mitochondrial damage and cell cycle defects. Transmission electron microscopy images of the cells obtained after 12 h of exposure to CD38 also revealed the presence of mitochondrial damage. We tested whether bisphosphonium compounds can induce programmed cell death in trypanosomes. A TUNEL assay was used to detecting DNA fragmentation; the results showed increased DNA fragmentation after 24-h treatment with two different bisphosphonium compounds, CD38 and EFpI7. This result indicates is consistent with apoptosis occurring in treated cells but there was no evidence suggesting that bisphosophonium-induced cell death in trypanosomes is dependent on new protein synthesis. In conclusion, curcumin and phosphonium analogues exhibit promising antiparasitic activity, and some analogues could be optimised for in vivo evaluation. Further investigations on the site of action of phosphonium compounds in the mitochondrion are in progress.

An in-depth study of the kinetoplast DNA of the human-infecting parasite Leishmania panamensis was conducted with the following objectives: • To find out how many minicircle sequence classes are present in the kinetoplast, and the relative abundance of each class; • To use this information to develop and test a kDNA-based diagnostic test specific for this species of parasite; • To investigate whether minicircle sequence data can be meaningfully used to infer phylogenetic relationships between Leishmania species; • To also investigate RNA editing in this parasite and compare it with previous results in a lizard-infecting Leishmania. Kinetoplast DNA from L. panamensis was cloned and investigated in detail by restriction enzyme typing and sequence analysis, and three other species of the braziliensis complex of New World Leishmania were analysed in a similar way. It was found that the minicircle component of the kinetoplast DNA is highly complex, and is comprised of at least 35 classes of minicircle per kinetoplast, with each class having a varying level of abundance. A kDNA probe and primers specific for L. panamensis were designed from an abundant minicircle class, and were subsequently field-tested in Medellin, Colombia. The sequence data generated during this study was used to infer phylogenetic relationships between the species of New World Leishmania. A variety of different approaches were used, and the suitability of this type of sequence data for phylogenetic analysis is discussed. The sequence data was also screened for potential guide RNA genes, and a total of 26 possible genes were identified. Comparison of the maxicircle gene sequence for the ATPase subunit 6 gene between L. panamensis and L. tarentolae (lizard-infecting) together with an analysis of previous work revealed that the RNA editing process is remarkably similar between Leishmania species. This study extends the little known about the organisation and function of minicircle DNA in pathogenic Leishmania species.

The class kinetoplastida include parasites responsible for devastating diseases like African sleeping sickness, Chagas’s disease and Leishmaniases, mainly effecting people in the developing world. Current treatments are highly toxic and inefficient, leading to an urgent need of novel anti-parasitic compounds. This thesis focuses on the structural characterisation of potential drug targets against these parasites, namely adenosine kinase from Trypanosoma brucei (TbAK), thymidine kinases from T. brucei (TbTK) and Leishmania major (LmTK) and the leucyl aminopeptidases from T. brucei (TbLAP-A), T. cruzi (TcLAP-A) and L. major (LmLAP-A). Structures of TbAK were solved in two conformations, open (apo) and closed (in complex with adenosine and ADP), both to 2.6 Å. Comprised of a big α/β-domain and a small lid domain, the structures confirm the large conformational change of the lid domain upon substrate binding. The structures of C-terminally truncated versions of LmTK and TbTK were determined as ligand-bound complexes with resolutions up to 2.4 Å and 2.2 Å, respectively. They show high similarity to structures of homologues in the PDB. The structures solved in this thesis give valuable information about ligand binding and aid rational drug design. Leucyl aminopeptidase (LAP-A) was evaluated as a potential drug target in T. brucei parasites. It is not essential for T. brucei parasites grown in vitro, shown by generation and analysis of LAP-A-depleted parasites. Although this does not support LAP-A as a drug target in T. brucei, no conclusions can be drawn about the potential in T. cruzi and L. major. Several structures of the LAP-As were solved, the highest resolution ones to 2.3 Å, 2.3 Å and 2.5 Å for TbLAP-A, TcLAP-A and LmLAP-A, respectively. These enzymes are hexameric and show the typical two-domain architecture of M17 LAPs. Although the physiological function remains elusive, the work in this thesis provides a firm basis for future studies.

Pyrimidine uptake has previously been investigated in Trypanosoma brucei procyclics and partly investigated in promastigotes of Leishmania major; however, no such study has been performed using bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma or promastigotes of Leishmania. Here we report a comprehensive study of pyrimidine salvage and metabolism in bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma and promastigotes of Leishmania species. In T. b. brucei bloodstream forms, the uptake of 3H-uracil and 3H-tymidine each appeared to be mediated by a single transporter, designated TbU3 and TbT1, respectively. The procyclic uracil transporter,TbU1, has a high affinity for uracil, with a Km value of 0.46 ± 0.09 μM and Vmax of 0.65 ± 0.008 pmol (107cell)-1 s-1. These values were similar for TbU3 (Km = 0.54 ± 0.11 µM; Vmax = 0.14 ± 0.03), but the main differences between TbU1 and TbU3 are their sensitivity to uridine and 4-thiouracil. Thymidine uptake is detectable at 10 μM over a period from 5 to 30 minutes. This uptake was not inhibited by uracil which indicates that TbT1 is a novel thymidine transporter. The uptake of other pyrimidines, including uridine and 2’-deoxyuridine, by BSF are investigated here but these substrates were also transported by TbU3, and no additional pyrimidine transport activities were found. In L. mexicana and L. major, the uptake of 3H-uracil and 3H-uridine was mediated by separate transporters, designated as follows; for uracil uptake LmexU1, LmajU1; and for uridine uptake LmexNT1, LmajNT1 and LmajNT2, respectively. LmexU1 is a uracil transporter with high affinity to uridine and 2’deoxyuridine, and the LmexNT1 is a nucleoside transporter with broad specificity for purine and pyrimidine nucleosides. L. major uracil transporter (LmajU1) has already been reported by others; and here we report that there are also two distinct uridine transporters expressed in L. major. LmajNT1 is a high affinity uridine transporter which is also inhibited by uracil, inosine and adenine; LmajNT2 is low affinity uridine transporter, with very poor affinity for uracil, inosine and adenine. However, both transporters are inhibited by 2’-deoxyuridine, thymidine and adenosine. Several fluorinated pyrimidine analogues were assessed against kinetoplastid cells, the most effective compounds, which displayed EC50 values at micromolar level, are 5-FU, 5F-2’dUrd, 5-FOA (only against T. brucei BSF) and 5F-Urd (only against L. major). We induced resistance to 5-FU, 5-F2’dUrd and 5-FOA by in vitro exposure of Tbb-BSF and promastigotes of L. mexicana and L. major. The resistance was performed by stepwise increase concentration of the drugs. For T. b. brucei BSF, the resistance factors of clonal lines were 131, 825, and 83-fold, respectively. For L. mexicana and L. major, the resistance factor for 5-FU were 147 and 17-fold, and for 5F-2’dUrd were >3500 and 381-fold, respectively. We also measured 3H–pyrimidine uptake in these cell lines; the resistant bloodstream form strains showed no changes in pyrimidine uptake, with one exception, which is a 76% reduction in 5-FU uptake. In contrast, each resistant strain of Leishmania spp had lost its natural pyrimidine transporter. For example, Leishmania cells resistant to 5-FU had lost uracil transport activity, and cells that were resistant to 5F-2’dUrd had lost uridine transport activity. In addition, we identified kinetoplastid genes that appeared to be associated with resistance to fluorinated pyrimidines. Based on these findings, metabolomic analysis of fluorinated pyrimidines in T. b. brucei resistant cell lines was performed in comparison with parental wild-type; for Leishmania species we only investigated the metabolism of fluorinated pyrimidine in wild type cells, as the fluorinated analogues were simply not taken up in the resistant clones. The metabolomic analysis data showed that, in T. b. brucei, 5-fluorouracil and 5-fluoro orotate are incorporated into a large number of metabolites, but likely act through incorporation into RNA. 5F-2’dUrd and 5F-2’dCtd are not incorporated into nucleic acids but act as prodrugs by inhibiting thymidylate synthase after conversion to 5F-dUMP. Cells treated with 5-fluoro-2’deoxyuridine showed an increase of dUMP, which suggest a block in thymidylate synthase or possibly thymidylate kinase. We also present the most complete model of pyrimidine salvage in T. brucei to date, supported by genome-wide profiling of the predicted pyrimidine biosynthesis and conversion enzymes. The effect of fluorinated pyrimidine analogues in the two Leishmania species was almost identical. Each of the tested drugs (5-FU, 5F-2’dUrd and 5F-Urd) produced a limited number of fluorinated metabolites, and their common mode of action was inhibition in thymidylate synthase by 5F-dUMP and thymidine kinase by 5F-2’dUrd. Interestingly, we found that the cause of L. mexicana resistance to 5F-Urd was due to the absence of the 5F-2’dUrd metabolite, as a result of the rapid conversion of 5F-2’dUrd to 5F-dUMP; also we suggest that, in L. mexicana, but not in L. major the high affinity salvage of thymidine is sufficient to provide the cells with thymidine deoxynucleotides. It has been found that pyrimidine salvage is not an essential function for Leishmania cells in vitro conditions. However, it is not known whether either, pyrimidine salvage or biosynthesis, or both of these systems are essential to the trypanosomes in vitro and in vivo study. As T. b. brucei bloodstream forms grew unimpeded in vitro in the complete absence of pyrimidines, uptake is clearly not essential. Disruption of the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway by deletion of the OMPDCase/OPRTase gene resulted in pyrimidine auxotrophic trypanosomes that were unable to grow in the absence of added pyrimidines. The phenotype was rescued by addition of uracil, and to a lesser extent by some pyrimidine nucleosides. Pyrimidine starvation led rapidly to DNA fragmentation. Adaptations to low pyrimidine availability included upregulation of uracil transport capacity and of uridine phosphorylase expression. However, pyrimidine auxotrophic T. brucei were able to establish a high parasitemia in mice. We therefore conclude that pyrimidine salvage was not an essential function for bloodstream T. b. brucei. However, trypanosomes lacking de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis are completely dependent on an extracellular pyrimidine source, strongly preferring uracil, and display reduced infectivity and strongly increased sensitivity to fluorinated pyrimidines. As T. brucei are able to salvage sufficient pyrimidines from the host environment, the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway is not a viable drug target, although any interruption of pyrimidine supply was lethal.

The mitochondrial genome (kinetoplast or kDNA) of Trypanosoma brucei is highly complex in terms of structure, content and function. It is composed of two types of molecules: 10-50 copies of identical ~23-kb maxicircles and 5,000-10,000 highly heterogeneous 1-kb minicircles. Maxicircles and minicircles form a concatenated network that resembles chainmail. Maxicircles are the equivalent of mitochondrial DNA in other eukaryotes, but 12 out of the 18 protein-coding genes encoded on the maxicircle require post-transcriptional RNA editing by uridylate insertion and removal before a functional mRNA can be generated. The 1-kb minicircles make up the bulk of the kDNA content and facilitate the editing of the maxicircle-encoded mRNAs by encoding short guide RNAs (gRNAs) that are complementary to blocks of edited sequence. It is estimated that there are at least hundred classes of minicircle, each class encoding a different set of gRNAs. At each cycle of cell division the contents of the kDNA genome must be faithfully copied and segregated into the daughter cells. Mathematical modelling of kDNA replication has shown that failure to segregate evenly will eventually result in loss of low copy number minicircle classes from the population. Depending on the type of minicircle that is lost this can result in immediate parasite death or, if the loss occurred in the bloodstream stage, render the cells unable to complete the canonical life-cycle in the tsetse fly vector. In order to investigate minicircle complexity and replication in T. brucei further we i) first established the true complexity of the kDNA genome using a Illumina short read sequencing and a bespoke assembly pipeline, ii) annotated the minicircles to establish the editing capacity of the cells, iii) analysed expression levels of predicted gRNA gene cassettes using small RNA data, and iv) carried out a long term time course to measure how kDNA complexity changes over time and compared this to preliminary model predictions. The structure of this thesis follows these steps. Using these approaches, 365 unique and complete minicircle sequences were assembled and annotated, representing 99% of the minicircle genome of the differentiation competent (i.e. transmission competent) T. brucei strain AnTat90.13. These minicircles encode 593 canonical gRNAs, defined as having a match in the known editing space, and a further 558 non-canonical gRNAs with unknown function. Transcriptome analysis showed that the non-canonical gRNAs, like the canonical set, have 3' U-tails and showed the same length distribution. Canonical and non-canonical sets differ, however, in their sense to anti-sense transcript ratios. In vitro culturing of bloodstream form T. brucei for ~500 generations resulted in loss of ~30 minicircle classes. After incorporating parameters for network size and minicircle diversity determined above, model fitting to longitudinal kDNA complexity data will provide estimations for the fidelity of kDNA segregation. The refined mathematical model for kDNA segregation will permit insight into time constraints for transmissibility during chronic infections due to progressive minicircle loss. It also has the potential to shed light on the selective pressures that may have led to the apparent co-evolution of the concatenated kDNA network structure and parasitism in kinetoplastids.

Poverty stricken areas of the world are affected by Neglected Tropical Diseases, with an estimated 1 billion sufferers. As well as inadequate living conditions and healthcare, there has been very little pharmaceutical incentive to tackle these diseases. As a result, the diseases are still spreading. Drugs available on the market suffer from poor efficacy, high toxicity, increasing resistance and inappropriate dosing for rural treatment. The nature of many NTDs prevents the use of vaccinations. Therefore, more efficacious and safe treatments are sought after. The folate pathway has been extensively studied in a number of organisms, with its essentiality exploited in a number of drugs and drug targets. The same cannot be said for the kinetoplastids. Drug discovery programmes have focused on targeting enzymes of the folate metabolism with very little clinical success. Despite showing significant inhibition of the parasitic enzymes, potency is seen to decrease in cellular and animal models. Understanding how the folate pathway operates in these organisms could provide insight into where and how anti-folate compounds bind. This information could then be used to facilitate better drug treatments for the kinetoplastids. This thesis describes a number of approaches undertaken to better understand folate metabolism in kinetoplastids. Clinical and literature anti-folate compounds were immobilized onto resins, followed by chemical proteomics, utilizing novel techniques (iTRAQ), to allow for target identification. Using competition studies, specific and non-specific targets were identified in parasitic lysate (T. brucei and L. major) for each anti-folate compound. This method was further exploited by creating a folate resin (Folate beads). The resin had the potential to pull down 9 proteins from the “folate-ome”. In future studies, the resin can be used to enrich for the folate proteins in kinetoplastids and related organisms. Alongside the studies of the folate proteins, it was also desired to study proteins involved in the essential pterin pathway. This pathway has not been extensively studied in kintoplastids, with the exception of PTR1 (by-pass protein for DHFR). The failure to synthesise pterin derivatives for bead coupling led to a fragment screening campaign being carried out on QDPR in leishmania major. Working through a triage workflow, two moderately potent fragments were identified, showing inhibition against LmQDPR. Through structure-free optimization strategies, greater than 100 optimized fragments were synthesised in a bid to understand SAR. Although this work remains incomplete, LmQDPR has been successfully crystalized with 23 hit fragments, which are awaiting further biophysical analysis to understand binding.

This work expands the knowledge on phospholipid metabolism in the kinetoplastid parasites: T. brucei, T. cruzi, Leishmania spp. that cause neglected tropical diseases and the related non-human pathogenic Crithidia fasiculata. As a close relative of parasitic kinetoplasts, specifically Leishmania, it is hypothesised that Crithidia fasiculata possesses a similar lipid biosynthetic capability and therefore represent an attractive model organism. Database mining the Crithidia genome revealed the ability to biosynthesise all of the main phospholipid species. Utilising various lipidomic techniques, a high level of an ω-6 18:3 fatty acid was observed, alongside an uncommon Δ19:0 fatty acid that was later identified to be exclusive attributed to PE species. Sphingolipid metabolism was shown to resemble that of Leishmania and T. cruzi, given the exclusive production of inositol-phosphoceramide species and no sphingomyelin species being observed. Using labelled precursors, Crithidia were seen to uptake and incorporate extracellular inositol into both phosphatidylinositol and inositol-phosphoceramide species. Crithidia were also shown to utilise both the Kennedy pathway and methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine to form phosphatidylcholine. The phospholipidome of T. cruzi revealed several phosphatidylserine species for the first time, suggesting a functional phosphatidylserine synthase. Current knowledge of T.cruzi sphingolipid biosynthesis was also confirmed as only inositol xxxi phosphoceramide species were observed. The identification and subsequent characterisation of novel phosphonolipid species are reported for the first time. Utilising lipidomic methodologies and labelled precursors, the relative contribution of the intracellular inositol pools within bloodstream and procyclic T. brucei towards PI biosynthesis was examined. This highlighted that the synthesis/turnover rates for specific phosphatidylinositol and inositol-phosphoceramide species are unequal. Efforts to optimise media conditions highlighted that under reduced levels of serum/glucose/inositol, bloodstream T. brucei unexpectedly adjusts its inositol metabolism. The procyclic parasite exemplifies this fact, as under inositol/glucose deficient media conditions they appear to have adapted to utilising glucogenesis and inositol de-novo synthesis. This work highlights that these parasites are rapidly dividing, their unique features of lipid metabolism may be exploitable for drug discovery purposes.

Les kinétoplastides sont un groupe de protozoaires, et qui menace plus de 400 millions de personnes dans le monde entier. Ils possèdent des segments d'expansion d'ARNr (SE) inhabituellement plus larges dans les sous-unités 40S. Ici, nous avons purifié à partir de lysats de cellules de T. cruzi des complexes d'initiation natifs (48S IC) et des sous-unités de 40S natives que nous avons ensuite analysées par cryo-ME. La structure des 48S IC révèle certains des aspects spécifiques de la traduction aux kinétoplastides, tels qu'un réseau d’interaction complexe entre eIF3 et SEs. En outre, notre structure met en évidence le rôle de DDX60 dans l'initiation de la traduction chez les kinétoplastides. La structure d'une sous-unité 40S native révèle l'existence d'un facteur non caractérisé (appelé ηF). Le site de liaison de ηF suggère un rôle dans le contrôle de la traduction. De plus, nous avons rapporté́ la structure d’une nouvelle protéine ribosomale (-r) spécifique des kinétoplastides (KSRP). Notre travail pose les premières bases structurales des aspects spécifiques de l'initiation de la traduction chez les kinétoplastides
Kinetoplastid is a group of flagellated protozoans, which threatens more than 400 million people world-wide. They possess unusual large rRNA expansion segments (ES) in the 40S, such as ES6S, ES7S and ES9S and their location suggests an involvement in the initiation process. Furthermore, all mature mRNAs possess a conserved 5’ spliced-leader. Here, we purified from T. cruzi cell lysates native initiation complexes and native 40S subunits that we then analysed by cryo-EM. The structure of native initiation complexes reveals several kinetoplastid-specific aspects of translation, such as an intricate interaction network between eIF3 and ES6S and ES7S. Furthermore, it reveals the role of DDX60 in translation initiation in kinetoplastids. The structure of native 40S subunits reveals the existence of an uncharacterized factor (termed ηF) bound at platform of the 40S. The binding site of ηF suggests a role in translational control. Moreover, we reported a novel kinetoplastid-specific ribosomal (r-) protein (KSRP) bound to the 40S subunit. Our work represents the first structural characterization of kinetoplastids-specific aspects of translation initiation

The membrane trafficking system mediates delivery of macromolecules and metabolites to discrete intracellular compartments from their site of uptake or synthesis. For many pathogens the trafficking system has a special relevance as it is responsible for maintaining the host-pathogen interface, i.e., the cell surface. Both the surface and the underlying trafficking apparatus are intimately connected with immune evasion in many parasites including those belonging to the highly divergent order Kinetoplastida. Kinetoplastid parasites are etiological agents of several neglected tropical diseases such as African sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, and Leishmaniasis. Newly available sequences of many kinetoplastid genomes were used to reconstruct evolution of trafficking across this lineage, using three central paralogous trafficking families: Rabs, SNAREs and Rab-GAPs, which have defined roles in specific trafficking events. Further, proteomics was used to analyse a representative SNARE complex to explore compositional conservation between kinetoplastids and Opistokhonts. Overall there is little evidence for large scale expansions or contractions of these protein families, excluding a direct association with parasitism or changes to host range, host immunosophistication or transmission mechanisms. The data indicate a stepwise sculpting of the trafficking system where the large repertoire of the basal bodonids is mainly retained by the cruzi group, while extensive lossses characterise other lineages, particularly the African trypanosomes and phytomonads. Kinetoplastids possess several lineage-specific Rabs but all retain a core canonical Rab set; by contrast there is little novelty within the SNARE family even though certain canonical endosomal SNAREs appear to show a considerable degree of sequence divergence. Proteomics suggests that SNARE complex composition is largely conserved. The major changes in Rab and SNARE repertoires are associated with endosomal and late exocytic pathways, which is consistent with the considerable evolution of surface proteomes. Therefore, despite the absence of a transition per se associated with parasitism, adaptation of membrane trafficking is likely under active selection where it meets the host environment.

Umas das principais formas biológicas de incorporação do selênio é na forma de um aminoácido denominado selenocisteína (Sec, U), que é incorporado co-traducionalmente ao polipeptídio nascente em posições específicas do códon UGA, que normalmente é reconhecido como códon de parada. A incorporação de selenocisteína em E. coli já está completamente esclarecida, com a participação dos genes que codifica para selenocisteína sintase (SELA), seril-tRNA sintetase (SerRS), um tRNASec específico (SELC), selenofosfato sintetase (SELD) e um fator de elongação próprio (SELB). Entretanto em eucariotos não há homólogos para SELA e existem evidências de haver a necessidade de dois passos enzimáticos que substituem a atividade desempenhada por SELA, com uma fosforilação da serina seguida de uma selenilação através das enzimas Fosfo-Seril-tRNASec Kinase (PSTK) e Sep-tRNA:Sec-tRNA sintase (SepSecS), respectivamente. A via de biossíntese e incorporação de selenocisteína é muito estudada em alguns organismos, mas ainda pouco explorada em Kinetoplastida. Nesse sentido, realizaram-se estudos moleculares das enzimas envolvidas nessa via, mais especificamente em Trypanosoma brucei e Leishmania major. Foram identificados o elemento SECIS na região 3´ do mRNA que atua no reconhecimento do códon UGA interno e, em fase de leitura na inserção de selenocisteína em Leishmania major e Leishmania infantum; a incorporação de Se75 em proteínas de Leishmania; a ocorrência do tRNASec em Trypanosoma e Leishmania e, adicionalmente todos os genes necessários para a síntese de selenocisteína: SELB, SELD, PSTK e SECp43. Foram obtidos clones dos genes selB e selD em vetor de expressão pET28a(+) e as proteínas foram expressas em bactérias Escherichia coli cepa BL21 (DE3). A proteína recombinante SELD foi purificada em cromatografia de afinidade e seu pI e massa molecular foram determinados usando as técnicas de sistema Phast de eletroforese e gel nativo. As proteínas SELB, SELD, SECp43 e Seril tRNA sintetase foram imunolocalizadas no citoplasma de células nativas de T. brucei. Uma nova metodologia \"PTP tagging\" foi utilizada para estudos de interação protéica com uso de proteínas alvos SECp43, SELB e PSTK na busca de novas proteínas ligantes na via de selenocisteínas em T. brucei. Futuras investigações moleculares e estruturais das enzimas envolvidas na via de selenocisteína em Kinetoplastida poderão trazer informações relevantes no entendimento da biossíntese desse aminoácido, assim como possibilitar o desenvolvimento de inibidores específicos visando o tratamento de doenças causadas pelos parasitas Trypanosoma brucei e Leishmania major.
One of the main biological forms of the selenium incorporation is the amino acid form named selenocysteine (Sec, U), which is incorporated co-translationally at the emerging new polypeptide in the specific positions at the UGA codon, that is usually recognized as stop codon. The incorporation of the selenocysteine in E.coli is already solved with the involvement of the genes that codify to selenocysteine synthase (SELA), seryl tRNA synthetase (SerRS), a specific tRNASec (SELC), selenophosphate synthetase (SELD) and a selenocysteine-specific translation elongation factor (SELB). However, in eukarya there is no SELA homologue, but there are evidences about the requirement of the two enzymatic steps that replace the activity performed by SELA, the fosforilation of the serine followed by selenocysteylation through the phosphoseryl-tRNASec kinase (PSTK) and Sep-tRNA:Sec-tRNA synthase (SepSecS) enzymes, respectively. Currently, the selenocysteine synthesis and its incorporation is more studied in many organisms, but less explored in Kinetoplastid. Subsequently, the molecular studies were done with the enzymes involved in this pathway, especially in Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania major. The SECIS element was identified in the region 3´ of the mRNA, that acts in the recognition of the UGA codon positioned within a gene\'s open reading frame on the insertion of the selenocysteine in Leishmania major and Leishmania infantum; the incorporation of 75Se into Leishmania proteins, the occurrence of selenocysteine-tRNASec in both Leishmania and Trypanosoma; in addition, the finding of all genes necessary for selenocysteine synthesis, such as: SELB, SELD, PSTK, and SECp43. Clones were obtained from the selB and selD genes in the pET28a(+) expression vector and the enzymes were expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The recombinant SELD protein was purified by affinity chromatography and its pI and molecular mass were determined using: isoeletrophocusing electrophoresis and native gel. The proteins SELB, SELD, SECp43, and sery-tRNA synhetase were immune located in the cytoplasm in T. brucei native cells. A new methodology \"PTP tagging\" was utilized for protein interaction studies by using target proteins SECp43, SELB and PSTK to search new tagged proteins in selenocysteine T. brucei synthesis. Future molecular and structural investigation of the enzymes involved in Kinetoplastida selenocysteine biosynthesis will provide relevant information for understanding of the synthesis of this amino acid as well as the development of the specific inhibitors, focusing the treatment of the disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei e Leishmania major parasites.

O estudo do processo de tradução no metabolismo celular atrai o interesse de vários grupos, em particular, o estudo do 21o aminoácido, a selenocisteína. A incorporação da selecisteína foi descrita em Escherichia coli e recentemente em eucariotos. O primeiro passo desta via é iniciado pela Seril-tRNA Sintetase que aminoacila o Ser-tRNASec (SelC) com uma serina. Em E. coli, o segundo passo é realizado pela Sec-sintetase (SelA) que remove o grupo hidroxil da cadeia lateral da serina, formando um intermediário aminoacrilil. Este serve como aceptor de seleno-fosfato gerando a selenocisteína. Em eucariotos, o processo análogo é realizado pela PSTK e pela SepSecS, que fosforila e seleniza a serina respectivamente. Interessados nesta parte da via, iniciamos estudos moleculares das enzimas Fosfoseril-tRNA Kinase de Trypanosoma brucei e Leishmania major e Seril-tRNA Sintetase de Trypanosoma brucei. Para o gene da enzima Fosfoseril-tRNA Kinase de T. brucei não foi possível obter um clone sem mutação. Já o gene da enzima Fosfoseril-tRNA Kinase de L. major foi clonado em vetor pET28 e a enzima foi expressa em células de E. coli porém com baixo rendimento impedindo a continuidade dos experimentos planejados. Portanto passou-se a investigar a enzima envolvida no primeiro passo da via, no caso, a Seril-tRNA Sintetase de T. brucei. Esta já se encontrava clonada e expressando em E. coli na fração solúvel. A proteína recombinante foi purificada com precipitação com 60% de sulfato de amônio e resinas de hidrofobicidade e de afinidade por níquel. Experimentos de gel nativo, DLS e fluorescência de anisotropia revelaram que, após a purificação, a enzima permanece estável e livre de agregações, possuindo um raio hidrodinâmico de 4,32nm e massa molecular de 110kDa. Acima de 150nM de proteína, ela encontra-se inteiramente na forma dimérica. Estabelecidos estes parâmetros, informações sobre a ligação com o Ser-tRNASec poderão ser obtidos a partir da técnica de anisotropia de fluorescência visto que experimentos iniciais realizados com a SerRS adicionando-se o Ser-tRNASec mostraram-se promissores.
The translation process study is central role in the cellular metabolism and attracts the interest of several groups, in particular, the study of the 21º amino acid, the selenocystein. The selenocystein incorporation pathway was described in Escherichia coli and recently in eukaryotes. The first step of this pathway is initiated by Seryl-tRNA Synthetase that aminoacilates the Ser-tRNASec (SELC) with serine. In E. coli, the second step is performed by the Sec-synthase (SELA) that removes hydroxyl group of the serine side chain, forming an aminoacrylil intermediary. This serves as an acceptor of seleno phosphate generating the selenocystein. In eukaryotes, the similar process is performed by PSTK and SepSecS, which phosphorylate serine and adds the selenium, respectively. Interested in this pathway, we performed initial molecular studies of the Phosphoseryl-tRNA synthetase of Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania major and Seryl-tRNA synthetase of Trypanosoma brucei. The gene that encodes T. brucei Phosphoseryl-tRNA synthetase was obtained with several mutations. However, the gene encoding the T. brucei Phosphoseryl-tRNA synthetase was cloned into pET28 vector and the enzyme was expressed in E. coli cells, however at low amounts hampering the intended experiments. Therefore we initiated the investigation of the enzyme involved in the first step of this pathway, the Seryl-tRNA Synthetase from T. brucei. The enzyme was already cloned and expressing in the soluble fraction of E. coli. The recombinant protein was purified using 60% ammonium sulfate precipitation, hydrophobic and nickel affinity chromatography. Native gel experiments, DLS and anisotropy fluorescence was performed and allowed to conclude that, after purification, the enzyme remains stable and free of aggregation, with a hydrodynamic radius of 4.32 nm, molecular weight of 110kDa. Above 150nM protein its entirely in the dimeric form. Information about Ser-tRNASec binding can now be obtained from the technique of anisotropy seen that initial experiments with SerRS add Ser-tRNASec be shown to be promising.

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Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.
As leishmanioses formam um grupo de doenças que afetam 350 milhões de pessoas atualmente, atingindo 88 países em todo o mundo com uma estimativa de 1-2 milhões de novos casos por ano. O desfecho da infecção causada por Leishmania depende tanto de fatores do patógeno como do hospedeiro, embora a virulência de Leishmania possa ser modulada por fatores ambientais e genéticos relacionados aos hospedeiros mamíferos e vetores, os determinantes moleculares são elementos-chave no estabelecimento da infecção, ou seja, são os fatores que determinam a virulência. A KMP-11 é uma glicoproteína que está presente em todos os cinetoplastideos. O presente estudo avaliou a expressão do gene de KMP-11 de L. amazonensis ao nível de RNA e ao nível de proteína, durante passagens sucessivas de promastigotas de fase estacionária através de cultivo in vitro, investigando se há associação entre a sua expressão e a virulência dos parasitos. A avaliação da virulência dos parasitos mantidos em cultura foi realizada através do acompanhamento da evolução da infecção experimental murina (modelo in vivo) durante um período de dez semanas, juntamente com a observação do surgimento de ulceração. A quantificação da carga parasitária foi realizada nos linfonodos drenantes das lesões, através da através da técnica de diluição limitante A avaliação também foi realizada pela infecção de macrófagos murinos (modelo in vitro). Os resultados de medição de pata foram analisados pelo teste não paramétrico ANOVA 2 fatores, seguido do pós-teste de Bonferroni. Além disso, foi realizada a determinação da proporção de metacíclicas nos promastigotas de fase estacionária mantidos em cultura, através da técnica de lise pelo complemento. Nossos resultados mostraram que há um decréscimo da virulência dos promastigotas de fase estacionária ao longo do número de passagens, pois os camundongos infectados com as passagens iniciais desenvolveram lesões maiores do que aqueles com os promastigotas mantidos em cultura por mais tempo. Quanto ao surgimento de ulcerações, na 10a semana pós-infecção, todos os animais infectados com promastigotas de 1a passagem apresentavam lesões ulceradas, enquanto que nenhum dos camundongos infectados com promastigotas de 20a passagem apresentava lesão ulcerada. Na infecção in vitro, a carga parasitária nos macrófagos testados diminuiu em função do número das subculturas, o que foi demonstrado através do decréscimo da porcentagem média de macrófagos infectados e pela quantidade média de amastigotas a cada 100 macrófagos infectados. A quantificação da carga parasitária foi realizada nos linfonodos drenantes da lesão dos camundongos infectados, confirmando a diminuição da virulência dos promastigotas. A quantificação da proporção de promastigotas metacíclicas demonstrou que a porcentagem diminui ao longo do tempo de subcultivo. A avaliação da expressão de KMP-11 na superfície de promastigotas por citometria de fluxo demonstrou um decréscimo na expressão da proteína proporcional ao número de subculturas. Verificou-se, portanto, uma associação entre a expressão da proteína KMP-11 e a virulência de promastigotas de L. amazonensis. Os resultados dos ensaios de PCR em tempo real demonstraram que não há diferença estatisticamente significativa na quantidade de transcritos do gene da proteína KMP-11 entre as passagens analisadas. Entretanto, a perda da virulência associada com a diminuição da expressão da proteína KMP-11 indica que esta molécula possua uma função na infectividade dos promastigotas de Leishmania amazonensis, atuando possivelmente como um fator de virulência.
The leishmaniases are a group of diseases that currently, affects 350 million people reaching 88 countries throughout world with an estimated incidence of 1-2 million new cases per year. The outcome of the infection caused by Leishmania depends on factors from the pathogen and from the host. Although Leishmania virulence can be modulated by environmental and genetic factors related to mammalian hosts and vectors, molecular determinants are key elements in the establishment of infection and for the determination, of virulence. KMP-11 is a glycoprotein which is present in all kinetoplastids. This study evaluated the gene expression of KMP-11 in L. amazonensis at RNA level and at protein level, during successive passages of in vitro culture, investigating a possible correlation between KMP-11 expression and virulence of parasites. The evaluation of the virulence of cultured parasites was performed by monitoring of the progression of the lesions in experimental murine infection (in vivo model) during ten weeks, along with the emergence of cutaneous ulcers. The quantification of parasite load was performed on draining lymph nodes using the limiting dilution analysis. The assessment of parasite virulence was also performed by the infection of murine macrophages (in vitro model). The paw measurement results were analyzed by nonparametric test ANOVA 2 way, followed by Bonferroni post-test. Furthermore, the metacyclic promastigotes proportion in stationary growth phase from cultures with different numbers of passages was evaluated by complement lysis. Our results showed a decrease in promastigotes of stationary phase virulence that correlated with the increase of the number of passages, as mice infected with the early passages developed larger lesions than those infected with promastigotes cultured for longer periods and higher numbers of passages. Concerning the development of ulcers, at 10th week post-infection, all animals infected with promastigotes of first passage presented ulcerated lesions, whereas none of the mice infected mice with promastigotes of the 20th passage showed an ulcerated lesion. Analyzing the in vitro infection, the parasite burden in macrophages decreased with the number of subcultures, as demonstrated by the decrease in the percentage of infected macrophages and in the number of amastigotes per 100 infected macrophages. The quantification of parasites in draining lymph nodes of the infected mice confirmed the decrease in the virulence of promastigotes from cultures with more passages. The estimation of the metacyclic promastigote proportions showed that the percentages decline through the time of subculture. The evaluation of KMP-11 expression on the surface of promastigotes by flow cytometry showed a decrease in protein expression proportional to the number of subcultures. Therefore, there was an association between the expression of KMP-11 protein and the virulence of L. amazonensis promastigotes. The results of real-time PCR assays showed that there is no statistically significant difference in the amount of gene transcripts of KMP-11 protein in the analyzed passages. However, the loss of virulence associated with decreased protein expression of KMP-11 indicates that this molecule may have a role in promastigotes infectivity of Leishmania amazonensis, possibly acting as a virulence factor.

Orientador: Maria Isabel Nogueira Cano
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia
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Resumo: LaRbp38 e uma proteína exclusiva de protozoários tripanosomatideos, entre os quais está os agentes etiológicos da leishmaniose, uma doença endêmica presente em diversas regiões do Brasil. LaRbp38 e codificada por um gene nuclear, que parece exercer diferentes funções nas maquinarias de replicação nuclear e mitocondrial. Foi primeiramente descrita como proteína estabilizadora de RNA mitocondrial e parece estar envolvida com a replicação de DNA mitocondrial. Em Leishmania, LaRbp38 também interage in vivo com DNA mitocondrial, com sequencias ricas em GT e com DNA telomerico simples e dupla fita. Nesta tese mostramos estudos que nos levaram a caracterizar novas propriedades estruturais e biológicas desta proteína. Na primeira parte da tese mostramos, que a LaRbp38 inteira e mutantes truncados da proteína são capazes de interagir com diferentes tipos de DNAs: DNA simples e dupla fitas telomericos e kDNA, porem com diferentes afinidades. Desta forma, foi possível mapear a vizinhança de um domínio de interação desta proteína aos diferentes tipos de DNA (DBD). Como este domínio não compartilha similaridade estrutural com nenhum domínio descrito em outras proteínas, isto sugere que este pode ser um novo domínio presente exclusivamente em tripanosomatideos. Estes resultados estão compilados no artigo entitulado: "Mapping the boundaries of the DNA-binding domain of Leishmania amzonensis Rbp38 (LaRbp38)". Na segunda parte da tese, mostramos a localização subcelular da proteína e como ela e capaz de translocar por diferentes compartimentos celulares utilizando um sinal de localização mitocondrial presente no N-terminal e um sinal de localização nuclear, presente no Cterminal da proteína. Embora a proteína esteja presente de forma mais abundante no cinetoplasto, e possível visualizá-la no núcleo quando o ciclo celular do parasita e sincronizado ou quando este e submetido a um estresse genotoxico. Baseado nesses achados também foram realizados ensaios de interação proteina-proteina, onde foi possível determinar a interação entre LaRbp38 e a proteína importina ?, uma proteína que esta diretamente ligada ao transporte de proteínas ao núcleo via NLS. Estes resultados também foram compilados em um artigo, que esta em fase de preparação, entitulado: "The protein LaRbp38 translocates between the nucleus and the kinetoplast in Leishmania (L.) amazonensis promastigotes". Outro estudo que realizamos para compreender a função da LaRbp38, o qual também esta na forma de um artigo: "LaRbp38 can form part of a shelterin-like complex in L.amazonensis telomeres", mostramos evidencias sobre a interação entre as proteínas LaRbp38 e a LaTRF de L.amazonensis. Aqui, uma analise in silico pela busca de motivos conservados em LaRbp38, nos levou a descobrir que esta proteína contem um motivo do tipo TRFH docking encontrado em proteínas telomericas que interagem com as proteínas da família das TRFs no complexo shelterina de vertebrados e mamíferos (ex: TIN2, PINX1 e APOLLO). Juntas, as TRFs e suas interatoras tem a função na manutenção dos telomeros. Sendo assim, utilizando ensaios de interação proteina-proteina, conseguimos mostrar que LaRbp38 interage fisicamente com a LaTRF, usando um motivo TRFH docking diferente daquele que foi primeiramente encontrado in silico. Nossos resultados mostram que a LaRbp38 interage com a LaTRF usando o motivo ALKTL, que compartilha similaridade de sequencia, com motivos descritos em proteínas interatoras de TRFs e bastante conservado entre as Rbp38 de tripanosomatideos. Estes resultados podem indicar que a LaRbp38 cumpre função análoga a uma das proteínas de vertebrados descritas como interatoras de TRFs, a proteína TIN2, que a exemplo de LaRbp38, também tem função nas mitocôndrias
Abstract: LaRbp38 is a trypanosomatid protein found exclusively in these protozoa, among which are the etiological agents of leishmaniasis, an endemic disease present in several regions of Brazil. LaRbp38 is a protein encoded by a nuclear gene, which probably plays different roles in both mitochondrial and nuclear replication machineries. It was first described as a mitochondrial RNA stabilizing protein involved in the replication of mitochondrial DNA. In Leishmania, LaRbp38 also interacts in vivo with mitochondrial DNA, GT-rich sequences and single- and double-stranded telomeric DNA. Here we show the results that led us to characterize some new biological and structural features of this protein. In the first part of the thesis we show that the entire LaRbp38 and its truncated mutants are able to interacts with different GT-rich DNAs and were possible to map the boundearies of a DNA-binding domain (DBD). This domain doesn't share any sequence or structural similarities with the domains described in other proteins suggesting that it could be a new domain present exclusively in trypanosomatids. These results are compiled in the article entitled: "Mapping the boundaries of the DNA-binding domain of Leishmania amzonensis Rbp38 (LaRbp38)." The second part of the thesis shows the subcellular localization of the protein and how it is able to translocate to different cellular compartments using an N-terminal mitochondrial localization signal (MLS) and a nuclear localization signal (NLS) present in the C-terminus of the protein. Although the protein is seem more abundantly in the mitochondria associated with kinetoplast DNA, its nuclear localization seems to be cell cycle dependent and enhanced at the end of S phase or when parasites are subjected to genotoxic stress. In order to confirm that the protein is able to translocate to the nucleus, we used different in silico approaches. The results strongly suggest the existence of a non-classical and also non-bipartite NLS at the C-terminus of LaRbp38. Based on these findings we did protein-protein interaction assays and verified that LaRbp38 can associate in vitro with importin ?, which is directly linked to protein transport to the nucleus via a NLS. These results were also compiled in an article, which is in preparation, entitled: The LaRbp38 protein translocates between the nucleus and the kinetoplast in Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes. Another study that was carried out and present in the third part of the thesis shows evidence about the interaction between LaRbp38 and the telomeric L.amazonensis LaTRF protein. These results are presented as an article entitled: "LaRbp38 can form part of a shelterina-like complex in L.amazonensis telomeres," Here, an in silico analysis search for conserved motifs in LaRbp38, showed that this protein contains a motif, the TRFH-docking-like typically found in proteins that associate with the TRF paralogue proteins (TRF1 and TRF2) in the shelterin complex of vertebrates and mammallian telomeres (eg.TIN2, PINX1 and APOLLO). TRFs and their interactors work together to regulate the dynamics of telomeric chromatin and telomere length maintenance. By using protein-protein interaction assays we show that LaRbp38 physically interacts with LaTRF. This interaction, however, seems to occurs via a new TRFH docking motif, which is different from the conserved core motif [FY]xLxP. This new TRFH-docking-like motif (ALKTL) aligns and share similarities with the TRH-docking motif described in the shelterin protein TIN2. This motif is also very conserved among the Rbp38 orthologues of other trypanosomatids. Curiously, TIN2 is a telomeric protein that shows nuclear and mitochondrial localization
Doutorado
Genetica de Microorganismos
Doutora em Genética e Biologia Molecular

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CNPq e PEC-PG
Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.
As leishmanioses formam um grupo de doenças antropozoonóticas, endêmicas em 88 países e presentes em quase todos os estados brasileiros. O desenvolvimento de uma vacina contra das leishmanioses é altamente desejável já que a terapia e as características biológicas e ecoepidemiólogicas dos parasitos e seus vetores associados não facilitam o controle da doença. Kinetoplastid Membrane Protein-11 (KMP-11) é uma molécula candidata a vacina contra as leishmanioses. Utilizando ferramentas in vitro e in silico, foi avaliada a antigenicidade de 13 peptídeos sintéticos abrangendo a sequência inteira de KMP-11. Para os estudos in vitro foram usadas células mononucleares de sangue periférico (PBMC) de pacientes com leishmaniose cutânea (LC) do estado do Rio de Janeiro. Estas células foram empregadas para testar a antigenicidade dos 13 peptídeos individualmente e da proteína integral KMP-11 recombinante, através de ensaios de ELISA e ELISPOT. Na dosagem de citocinas por ELISA observamos que a proteína KMP-11 recombinante estimulou respostas de citocinas quase sempre superiores às induzidas pelos peptídeos isolados. No que se refere a IFN-, dois dos 13 peptídeos (P9 e P10) estimularam níveis desta citocina significativamente (p<0,05) mais baixos do que os observados com a proteína inteira. Dez peptídeos (P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, P10, P11, P12 e P13) apresentaram níveis de IL-10 e TNF-α significativamente inferiores aos observados com a proteína inteira. KMP-11 mostrou-se um potente indutor de IL-10 em PBMC de pacientes com LC, confirmando resultados anteriormente publicados, mas também foi capaz de induzir a produção de IFN-γ e altos níveis de TNF-α, em níveis superiores aos dos peptídeos estudados. Na avaliação da razão IFN-γ/IL-10 observou-se um acentuado contraste entre a maioria dos peptídeos e a proteína KMP-11. As respostas a 11 dos 13 peptídeos mostraram um claro viés de resposta de tipo 1 (IFN-γ>IL-10), a exceção dos peptídeos P1 e P10 (IFN-γLeishmaniases are a group of antropozoonotic diseases, endemic in 88 countries and present in almost all Brazilian states. The development of vaccines against leishmaniasis is highly desirable because neither the therapy nor the biological and ecoepidemiologic characteristics of parasites and their associated vectors facilitate the disease control. Kinetoplastid Membrane Protein-11 (KMP-11) is a vaccine candidate molecule against leishmaniasis. Using in vitro and in silico tools, we evaluated the antigenicity of 13 synthetic overlapping peptides covering the entire sequence of KMP-11. For the in vitro experiments we used peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis (LC) from Rio de Janeiro State. These cells were employed to test the antigenicity of the 13 peptides individually, using ELISA and ELISPOT. By using ELISA we observed that recombinant KMP-11 induced higher cytokine responses than most of the individual peptides. Concerning IFN-γ two peptides (P9 and P10) induced cytokine levels significantly lower (p<0.05) than the entire protein. Ten peptides (P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, P10, P11, P12 e and P13) induced significantly lower IL-10 and TNF-α levels than those observed with the entire protein. KMP- 11 was a potent inducer of IL-10 production in PBMC cultures from LC patients, confirming previously published observations. It was also capable of inducing higher levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α as compared to the studied peptides. In the evaluation of the IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio, we observed a marked contrast between most of the peptides and KMP-11. The responses to 11 out of 13 peptides presented a clear type 1 bias (IFN-γ>IL-10), except P1 and P10, which showed a type 2 response (IFN-γ