Journal articles on the topic 'Juvenile delinquents Rehabilitation Australia'

This article reports an evaluation of an archaeology project carried out by the University of South Alabama (USA) Center for Archaeological Studies to complement an Intensive Aftercare Program for juvenile delinquents in Mobile, Alabama. The project was an eight-week field school for 14 adjudicated youth. The goals of the project were to teach archaeology, provide job skills, improve pro-social attitudes of delinquents, improve delinquents' attitudes toward their local community, and reduce recidivism among delinquents. The evaluation was completed using a mixed methods approach including pre- and post-project questionnaires, weekly evaluations, comparisons with a matched sample, observations, and focus groups with staff. Findings are that students learned archaeology and formed positive relations with staff. There is no evidence that pro-social attitudes, ties to the community, or recidivism were altered. The quality of archaeology performed by the participants was high and the project beneficial to the Center. Such programs promise to be valuable components of juvenile intervention programs, adding education and job skills opportunities, but should not be expected to work as stand-alone interventions.

The study examined the influence of educational programmes on the rehabilitation and management of juvenile delinquents in Lagos State juvenile homes. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The population for the study comprised a total of 332 people. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 20 juveniles from each of the juvenile homes. The managers and members of staff of the two selected juvenile homes were selected using total enumeration sampling technique and this made a total of two managers and 33 members of staff. Three research instruments were used to collect data for the study. (i) An interview guide titled “Rehabilitation of Juvenile Delinquents” (RJD) (ii) An interview guide titled “Management of Educational Programmes in Juvenile Homes” (MEPJH) (iii) A questionnaire on the “Influence of Educational Programmes on Rehabilitation of Juvenile Delinquents” Percentage scores and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to analyse the data collected. Results showed that majority of the respondents 77.5% alluded that educational programmes were made available at the juvenile homes also, 55% said that academic, counselling and vocational education were the only educational programmes available at the homes. Respondents claimed that the juvenile homes were managed by the Lagos State Ministry of Youth and Social Development, the educational programmes and teacher recruitment were handled by the State Ministry of Education. The study concluded that educational programmes had positive and very notable influence on the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents in Lagos State juvenile correctional homes. Based on the findings of this research, it was recommended among others that: Literacy and life skills training should be included as part of educational programmes in the juvenile homes. Expansion of available accommodation facilities to cater for current population of juveniles and also future increase and that in the Juvenile homes, the children offenders should be separated from those who have not committed offenses, those who are just in need of care and protection.

There is a growing concern with the growth and prevalence of Juvenile delinquents (JD) in rehabilitation centres in Kenya. Juvenile delinquency has become an intricate social problem that significantly influences all members and processes of a social structure. In January 2016, Eldoret Juvenile Remand Home alone had 155 juveniles which is its full capacity. It is against this background that this study examined psychotherapeutic interventions in behaviour modification of JD and recommended measures that would increase the effectiveness of psychotherapeutic interventions in rehabilitation centers of JDs in Kenya. The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of counseling on behaviour modification of JD in Eldoret and Kakamega rehabs. The area of study was Eldoret and Kakamega rehabs. The study adopted Merton Functional Theory of Juvenile Delinquency as the theoretical framework. The study adopted the descriptive and explanatory research survey designs. The target population was comprised of delinquents in Kakamega and Eldoret Rehabs, administrators, trainers and counselors in the rehabs and probation officers. A sample size of 149 respondents comprising of 127 JD, 13 trainers, 5 probation officers, 2 counselors and 2 administrators of the Eldoret and Kakamega rehabs participated in the study. Saturated sampling catered for the delinquents, probation officers, rehab administrators and trainers. Research instruments that were used in this study included questionnaires, interview schedule and document analysis. A Pilot study was carried out to ascertain validity and reliability of the instruments and a reliability coefficient of 0.7 was deemed acceptable. Descriptive statistical tools and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Study findings showed that counseling had a significant effect on behaviour modification. This implies that counseling is an important tool in bringing discipline among juvenile delinquents and for overall rehabilitation programmes which can enhance behaviour modification. There is therefore need for psychotherapeutic intervention at both individual and group level for delinquents so that they can change their behaviour.

An integral part of modern criminal policy is criminal procedure policy regarding juvenile delinquents, aimed at resolving a criminal law conflict in the ways that are most beneficial for these persons and that lead to their re-integration in the society. The purpose of juvenile criminal proceedings is connected with special educational tasks and requires special procedures. In Russian criminal proceedings, the court can substitute criminal punishment with compulsory educational measures as part of such procedures. Russian system of compulsory educational measures is complicated, and a special place is held by the most severe sanction — directing a juvenile guilty of a grave crime or a crime of medium gravity into a special residential correctional school. The authors note that the legislation does not fully regulate the application of this sanction, which hinders its use by courts. They also present statistical data on the number of juveniles who the courts place into special residential correctional schools and analyze the reasons why this measure is seldom used. As there is no service of probation in Russia, the courts have no opportunity to find good solutions to the problems connected with a delinquent’s stay in a residential correctional school. The authors support the initiative of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation to transfer these problems to the sphere of administrative court procedure, which should both benefit the court system and promote the rights of minors. They argue for the development of two strategic spheres of state criminal procedure policy for juveniles — that criminal court procedure should no longer deal with resolving socio-pedagogical, rehabilitation and medical problems of a juvenile's stay in a residential correctional school, and that there should be a detailed procedure for placing a juvenile into such an institution.

This study sought to determine rehabilitation centre administrators’ preparedness for adequate teaching and learning for effective management of formal education in juvenile centres—the case of Kabete and Dagoretti in Nairobi and Kiambu counties, Kenya. The study used a case study research design. The target population was 144 juvenile delinquents, 13 welfare officers, 18 class teachers and 4 school administrators. The data collection instruments were questionnaires, interview schedules and personal observations piloted at the Shikusa rehabilitation centre in Kakamega. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The findings showed that the majority of the administrators had no training in leadership and management, the majority of the teachers had not undergone training on curriculum implementation and workshops on improvisation of teaching and learning resources, there were inadequate classrooms and libraries, and none of the centres had all textbooks for all subjects. It is hoped that the findings of the study might be useful to the staff working in the juvenile rehabilitation centres, parents of juvenile delinquents, curriculum developers and the Ministry of Education, science and technology as it reveals the specific factors related to effective management of formal education in the juvenile centres in Kenya.

The purpose of the study was to analyse the influence of authoritative parenting style on the self-esteem of delinquents at the rehabilitation centers in Nakuru. The theories that were identified for this study included Baumrind Theory on parenting styles, Adult Attachment theory by John Bowlby and Carl Rogers Theory in Self Theory on Personality Development. The study adopted a descriptive survey design while using a quantitative method. The study had a target population of sixty-seven delinquents in Nakuru Juvenile Remand and Probation Hostels for Girls. The entire population (census) was used for this study meaning that all the 67 delinquents at the time of study participated. The study used a descriptive data analysis technique and inferences pointing out the relationship between the dependent and independent variables were analyzed using the Pearson Correlation. The study found out that there is a significant strong relationship between the Authoritative parenting style and the self-esteem of delinquents at the Nakuru rehabilitation centers (P<0.05). The study recommends that future researchers should conduct studies that differentiate between the maternal and paternal parenting styles on the self-esteem of adolescent delinquents.

A systematic strength training and structured leisure counseling program was investigated to determine the effects on self-esteem, leisure attitudes, leisure behaviors, and muscular fitness of institutionalized juvenile delinquents. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups: strength training and leisure counseling (STLC), strength training and informal discussion (STD), or a no-treatment control group (NT). The experimental groups met 3 times a week, 90 minutes per session for 7 weeks. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that there were no significant differences among the three groups on measures of self-esteem, leisure attitudes, or leisure behaviors. Analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated that there were no significant differences between the STLC and STD groups on muscular fitness, although both had significant pre- to posttest gains. The STLC and STD groups rated their treatments high on an attitude toward treatment measure, but neither group was significantly more positive about it than the other.

Progressive Era campaigns to establish juvenile courts maintained that police and criminal courts failed to distinguish between children and adults. They suggested that law enforcement agencies either sentenced juveniles as if they were adults, imposing excessive punishments, or let kids go, failing to discipline them and encouraging them to commit further crimes. However, this case study of juvenile arrests in turn-of-the-century Detroit indicates that, before the creation of juvenile court, criminal justice institutions had more complex interactions with delinquent youth than has been recognized previously. Boys typically were arrested for very different offenses than were adults, and the police and courts often segregated children and adolescents from the harshest elements of the criminal justice system. The police sought every opportunity to decide the outcome of juvenile arrests themselves, without a court hearing, particularly if boys had committed only status offenses such as truancy or if crime victims decided not to prosecute. When juveniles did appear in criminal courts, judges found ways to soften their experiences, rarely jailing younger boys and instead sentencing some to reform school for ostensible rehabilitation. After 1900, efforts to protect young offenders from criminal justice institutions expanded as specially assigned police officers increasingly sought to discipline delinquents prior to arrest and the courts introduced an unofficial form of probation. Rather than constituting a break from the past, the creation of Detroit’s juvenile court in 1907 mainly made official juvenile offenders’ growing separation from the criminal justice system.

Purpose Delinquency as well as juvenile recidivism cuts across all nations in the world with its negative consequences on individuals, social and economic phases of life. Despite various interventions, strategies, the rate of recidivism has been on the increase. This calls for concern and a need to find a solution to the menace. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the nexus between early release of inmates and juvenile recidivism using Barnawa Borstal Training Institute, Kaduna, as case study and to identify other pre-disposing factors that contribute to juvenile recidivism in the society. Design/methodology/approach The study adopted a survey research design and used the questionnaire as the main instrument of data collection. The sample for the study consisted of 210 juvenile inmates from the Institute. Simple percentile and frequency distribution were used to analyze the data collected from the juvenile, while χ2 was used to test the only hypothesis formulated for the study. The χ2 result ( χ c 2 =1.409; df=3; α level=0.05; χ t 2 =7.815) showed that there is no significant relationship between early release and juvenile recidivism, and rather lack of proper reformation, stigmatization and lack of parental care are some of the important factors causing juvenile recidivism in Nigeria. Findings Based on the findings, it was recommended that government should, through the Borstal homes all over the country, ensure proper and adequate rehabilitation of inmates and provide adequate public enlightment for the safe and total re-absorption of inmates without stigmatization. Research limitations/implications The major limitation of the work is the fact that the Borstal Institute in Kaduna has only male inmates, so there is no opportunity to consider the effect of gender on juvenile recidivism. Practical implications The practical implications is that the result of this study can be added to the field of criminal justice in Nigeria. The result also bring to the fore the fact that rehabilitation and success rate of re-integration of juvenile delinquents back into the society is everybody’s business. Social implications The social implication of the study is that the study will go a long way in assisting policy makers in government and the prison authority to design and implement policies that will bring about proper reformation and rehabilitation of inmates. Originality/value The research was carried out among juvenile delinquents, some of who have been in and out of the Borstal home many times. So the researchers were able to collect first-hand information from the delinquents that serve as the respondents for this research. Moreover, the research setting was located in the northern part of Nigeria, whereas some of the earlier studies were carried out in the southern part of the country.

Delinquency in adolescence is rooted in a complex multifaceted system that comprises several factors such as personal characteristics, family, school, peers, and community, all of which are embedded in the sociocultural context in which they are present. There is a paucity of research on juvenile delinquency and its risk factors across many regions, especially low- and middle-income countries, including Arab countries. This study aimed to develop an understanding of the personal, familial, and behavioral characteristics of Arab juvenile delinquents in the distinctive sociocultural context of Jordan. All juveniles who were incarcerated at the time of data collection (N = 197) were targeted using a convenience sampling approach from a total of 11 juvenile rehabilitation centers distributed over the northern, middle, and southern regions of the country. Anonymous surveys were used to collect data on juvenile delinquents’ personal, familial, psychosocial, and behavioral characteristics. A total of 186 juvenile delinquents completed the study questionnaire (9.7% females). About 52% were not attending school regularly, 32% had divorced, separated, or deceased parents, 6% reported receiving a diagnosis of mental illness, and 91% reported they never sought psychological support of any kind. Regarding substance consumption, 70% were smokers, 26% were alcohol consumers, and 15% were on drugs. About 12% spent more than 7 h on their cellphones, and 43% reported dedicating no time for physical activity. Theft was the most frequently reported offense (35%), followed by quarreling with peers (25%), and possession of drugs (9%). Approximately 42% reported that their friends encouraged them to cause trouble, while the majority (74%) reported that their school had no positive or negative influence on their behavior. Several behavioral problems were detected, with females showing significantly higher scores in impulsivity, inattention, emotional lability, and social problems compared to their male counterparts. Severity of the conduct problems was negatively associated with the length of engagement in physical activities, while both impulsivity and inattention scores were positively associated with the length of engagement in watching TV and using cellphones (all p < 0.05). Overall, these juvenile delinquents have unsatisfactory academic and schooling experiences, engage in unhealthy lifestyles and exhibit several behavioral problems. Differences in juvenile delinquency risk factors across different sociocultural contexts can influence prevention efforts. Comprehensive prevention strategies that reduce risk and develop protective factors need to target juveniles early in their development and consider factors related to their families, schools, peers, and communities.

Delinquent minors are offered special services intended to prevent them from entering the juvenile justice system. Through productive activities, delinquents are trained to acquire socially acceptable behavior with the help of social workers. This phenomenological study explored the social workers' experiences in handling juvenile cases. The study focused on 10 social workers from rehabilitation facilities of children in conflict with the law in the Zamboanga Peninsula Region, Philippines. The result of the study revealed that working with the juvenile's case, social workers have encountered positive and negative experiences. The study leads to the challenges and plight of social workers in their day-to-day activity in juvenile case management. As for how the participants coped with the challenges, they have been mentored and adjusted very well like their work. They also managed their challenges by viewing them as advocacy and service to humanity through altruistic activities.

The development in prevention of recidivism in juvenile delinquents in Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland) is presented and discussed. Rehabilitation through participation in shared prosocial activities in the local community has been the guiding principle of punishment in Kalaallit Nunaat over decades and is in a process of being strengthened through focusedand expanded resources. The guiding principles are informed by Inuit traditions for maintaining social order in cases of anti-social behavior. Today this knowledge is transformed into an institutional response to the high, but slightly falling, rates of violence, sexual abuse and domestic violence. The prevention of recidivism encompasses opening opportunities to engage in the social life of the community through active participation in prosocial activities in work, education, sport and hunting. This requires cooperation of the local communities and the correction facility. This knowledge has been developed in Kalallit Nunaat, but can also contribute to the international knowledge on how to rehabilitate juvenile delinquents through a particular combination of social support in the community with an open institutional practice.

Research shows that public preferences about justice system approaches to decreasing illegal behavior distinguish between adult and juvenile offending. We also know that fear of crime and perceived risk of victimization typically strengthen support for harsh punishments and reduce support for rehabilitation. What has yet to be demonstrated—and that we examine here—is whether there are youth-specific differences in the way that crime salience affects public support for punitive versus rehabilitative policies and to what extent confidence in the criminal and juvenile justice systems affects punishment orientations toward adults and juveniles. Essentially, we examine why some Americans support “child saving” yet condemn adults. This exploratory study’s findings indicate that while crime salience increases the likelihood that one will support harsh adult criminal measures, it is not associated with similar attitudes toward juvenile delinquents. Further, those for whom crime salience is lower have a greater probability of supporting rehabilitation for both juveniles and adults. Finally, results show that support for the rehabilitation of youth persists despite crime salience among those who are otherwise punitive toward adults. Justice ideology appears unaffected by confidence in the justice systems. Policy implications and recommendations for future research are offered.

This study examined the challenges of controlling delinquency and juvenile recidivism in correctional centres. It explored the statutory roles of correctional institutions and the challenges of a correctional institution in Ondo State, Nigeria. The research design is explorative in nature. The study employed quantitative (survey) and qualitative (Focus Group Discussion) and personal observation research methods. The study involved Forty-two respondents (10 personnel of the correctional centre and 32 juvenile delinquents). The data collected were analyzed with quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis with the aid of descriptive statistics. The study found that male children are more prone to delinquency and juvenile recidivism than females. Poor family background, dysfunctional family system, peer group influence, ineffective juvenile correctional institutions and weak religious institutions and so on are the major factors influencing delinquency and juvenile recidivism in Nigeria. Also, there are a lot of challenges faced by juveniles in the correctional institutions in Nigeria such as health/medical facilities, poor rehabilitation facilities and ineffective rehabilitation programmes. Several rehabilitative, vocational skills programmes and facilities are not available in the juvenile correctional institution. Besides, there are multiple challenges militating against the efficiency and effectiveness of the juvenile correctional centre in Ondo State. The study, therefore, recommends that governments, parents, community, non-governmental organizations and other stakeholders should put all hands on deck to solve the challenges of controlling delinquency and juvenile recidivism, and secure the society from adult and advanced criminality. Keywords: Challenges, Control, Correctional Institution, Delinquency, Juvenile

Objectives: Juvenile delinquents are a group of people that is in dire need of psychosocial rehabilitation. In this research, we seek to assess the lived experience in two groups of delinquent adolescents: one group is repetitive delinquents, the second group successfully returned to society. We tried to understand the relevant and essential factors in making this difference. Methods: This study is a qualitative research based on Grounded Theory. In this study, samples of adolescents with recurrent crimes and samples that have successfully returned to society without recidivism were reviewed. To do this, we should have investigated each case separately and the whole process that led to the recurrence of the crime. However, because the size of the statistical population is not sufficient to use quantitative and generalized methods, a case-experienced study has been conducted. This method assesses current phenomena in their real-life context, especially when the boundaries between a phenomenon and the context in which it occurs are not clearly defined. Several sources of evidence were used. After the coding of the gathered data and the formulation of the interviews in the form of concepts, the next step was to increase the level of abstraction of these concepts and propositions in the form of subcategories. Results: Finally, of 222 propositions, we reached 100 concepts that were mainly associated with recurrent delinquency or regret and return to society. Some of the most important ones were family problems (such as parental quarrels, parental addiction, parental unemployment, and a history of a criminal conviction and parental imprisonment). Discussion: Undoubtedly, one of the essential factors in the occurrence of crime is the environments in which the perpetrators deal with them. They are influenced by these environments whose personalities are shaped. Family, school, neighborhood, dropout, peer group, and general social determinants are influential in juvenile delinquency and its continuation or abandonment.

The study helped to find out that the process of organizing the social education of juvenile offenders sentenced to imprisonment by imprisonment is carried out on the basis of the use of: a multilevel complex of social and pedagogical prevention; methods of individual and collective educational work; and also, social and pedagogical rehabilitation of the personality of the child-criminal. The use of crime prevention (at three levels) is aimed at: prevention of deviations of the delinquent nature of the child, the formation of its legal awareness, providing moral and psychological assistance to "difficult" adolescents and their parents; elimination of possible risks of committing an offense and prevention of re-offending by a juvenile who has already been prosecuted. Emphasis is placed on individual educational work, which is defined as the most progressive modern form of social and pedagogical rehabilitation and socialization of difficult children (delinquents, offenders, criminals, etc.). The use of "individual case management" as a separate model of organizing comprehensive assistance to a juvenile offender sentenced to non-custodial punishment is considered. As an example of collective work, a program of social and pedagogical rehabilitation is presented, in which the process of restoring the personality of a juvenile offender has a complex, multidisciplinary nature and is carried out in a healthy society. It is revealed that the correctional and rehabilitation work is carried out taking into account the results of diagnosis, causes and conditions of each juvenile regarding his offense. Therefore, each program is adjusted to each case.

<p>Adolescent social problems involving juvenile delinquents concentrate around factor such as family functionality and parental behavior. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of family functionality and parent behavior on adolescent delinquent behavior. This study included 196 female delinquent adolescent inmates from four Malaysian correctional and rehabilitation centers in Malaysia. Data was collected using a questionnaire set that included background characteristics, The Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES) IV, The parental behavior inventory (PBI), and Inventory Delinquency Scale. The descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation were used to analyses the data. The result showed that family functionality has a significant association with delinquent behavior (r=-.255, p&lt;001). Parental behavior also has a significant association with juvenile delinquent behavior (r=.411, p&lt;.001).</p>

In the past decade, juvenile justice policy has shifted from “the best interests of the child” to approaches blending punishment and rehabilitation. The result has been efforts to narrow juvenile justice system jurisdiction, especially for violent, serious, and chronic offenders. Judicial transfer is the most widely applied mechanism to remove juvenile offenders to criminal jurisdiction. Transferred youth, particularly violent offenders, often receive lengthy prison sentences. A disproportionate share of male, minority adolescents are arrested for serious and violent crime. Thus, the harsh consequences of transfer, compounded by racial disparities in both juvenile and criminal justice processes have major implications for serious juvenile offenders considered for transfer. Transfer as a juvenile court disposition has received little scholarly attention, and racial determinants of transfer have yet to be analyzed. This study examines racial differences in judicial transfer decisions for chronically violent delinquents in four urban juvenile courts. Though minority youth were transferred more often, race was not predictive of transfer in multivariate models combining offense and offender characteristics. Rather, offense characteristics and defendant's age at the time of the offense are the strongest contributors to the transfer decision. Murder, in particular, is a determinant of transfer. The results suggest that juvenile court judges have adopted implicit policies to reserve transfer for older violent offenders, especially those charged with capital crimes.

The problem of juvenile delinquency has always existed. Typically, for juvenile offenders, the reference group is peers or friends with a history of antisocial behaviour. Typical character traits for a juvenile delinquent are such negative qualities as laziness, lack of will, irresponsibility, insensitivity, aggressiveness, excessive interest in spectacles, in their entertainment side, aimless pastime, frequent transitions from one activity to another with general inactivity and lack of hard work. Thus, we come to the conclusion that the deviant behaviour of juvenile offenders is due to the mutual influence of environmental factors and the deformation of the value-motivational sphere. Unfortunately, the problem of juvenile delinquency is still relevant in our republic. In addition, the growth in juvenile delinquency has outpaced the growth in adult crime. In this regard, it seems necessary to correct the motives and values in the personal sphere of juvenile offenders in the process of their social rehabilitation. In this situation, it becomes necessary to search for and test effective methods for the prevention and correction of asocial behaviour in adolescents. The article presents the results of our experiment to test the correctional program, to study changes in the value-motivational sphere of the personality of juvenile delinquents. The following methods were used: questioning, observation, conversation, psychological and pedagogical correction, interviews, comparative analysis, Fisher's angular transformation. In an experiment of intergenerational interaction of adolescent volunteers from among offenders and elderly people, 60 adolescents and 12 elderly people were subjects. In the process of conducting the experiment of intergenerational interaction, the main difficulty for the volunteers was gaining the trust of older people, conducting joint creative activities, which were overcome with the help of the experiment consultants. The foregoing allows us to note that timely correctional and rehabilitation work, which was exciting for them, increased independence, self-confidence and responsibility for the work started. The results obtained allow us to note that the experiment we conducted has a positive effect and can be applied as a rehabilitation and preventive method in working with juvenile offenders. Timely correctional and rehabilitation work, which was exciting for them, increased independence, self-confidence and responsibility for the business started.

The professional burnout syndrome, which is a real threat in the job of rehabilitation educators, lowers the quality of their psychophysical functioning and, as a result, significantly impacts the quality of their work, reducing the effectiveness of the rehabilitation process. The purpose of the research presented in the article was to determine the structure and the intensity of the special educators’ burnout syndrome, and to establish the relationship between burnout and self-estimation of professional competence of teachers. The studies covered a group of 51 educators working with juvenile delinquents in three correctional institutions (borstals) in Poland. The main research tool was the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). A survey showed a slightly elevated level of burnout in the test group and a relationship between the respective components of the professional burnout syndrome and self-estimation of professional competencies of rehabilitation educators: a statistically significant negative correlation between depersonalisation and subjectively assessed level of practical and moral competencies of the examined charges, and a positive correlation between a sense of personal accomplishment and the level of technical as well as practical and moral competence. The results obtained suggest that the development of professional competence should constitute the basis of mental hygiene and burnout prevention in the profession of rehabilitation educator.

The article presents the results of historical and pedagogical analysis of the educational system of the Primorsky special school. The purpose of this work is to analyze the experience of the formation and development of the adaptation system of juvenile delinquents in a special school. In the late 1960s and the first half of the 1970s, this experience was completely new in the educational system, since there were no such types of educational institutions in Soviet practice, so there was a need to find new methods to achieve educational, educational and rehabilitation tasks in work with difficult teens. This article analyzes the emerging techniques and methods of educational and social and adaptation activities of adolescents in a special school in the 70s of the twentieth century. Results. The experience of the formation of the educational system of the Primorsky special school is described, the mechanisms of the successful functioning of special schools are shown, the specifics of the relationship between teachers, educators and pupils are highlighted.

The rising cases of delinquency among male teenagers is a feedback of sorts that the family system that is the nurturing context of children has failed to effectively protect the teenagers against negative influences. The scenario, has brought the nurturing role of parents into sharp focus. The purpose of this study was to establish the influence of the parenting styles on male juvenile delinquency at the Kamiti Youth Correction and Training Center (KYCTC), which is within Kiambu County, Kenya. The study was guided by Baumrind’s parenting styles theory which categorizes parenting styles on the basis of responsiveness and demandingness in the parenting role. The study used purposive sampling method and simple random technique to select a sample of 68 males aged between 15 and 18 years from a target population of 120 delinquents at the KYCTC. The study used the ex post facto design. In this design data was collected through interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and self-administered questionnaire. Quantitative data collected through questionnaires was analyzed through descriptive statistics with the help of SPSS version 25.0 and qualitative data collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions was analyzed through thematic analysis. The findings of the study indicated that authoritarian parenting style (42%) and permissive parenting style (29.4%) posed the greatest danger to the development of juvenile delinquency. On the other hand, authoritative parenting style (8.8%) posed the least danger to the development of juvenile delinquency. Presentation of data was done through tables, graphs and thematic descriptions of respondent’s statements. The findings point to the critical role the parenting style plays in the development or prevention of juvenile delinquency. Strengthening of the parenting role, coordination with other key influencers including teachers, Government Departments such as the Children’s Department and the Correctional Services, Rehabilitation Centers run by religious organizations and government rehabilitation programs such as KYCTC, can make a difference if each plays their critical role.

Having explored the youth criminal legislation enacted by the Canadian federal government from the year 1857 to the year 2005, the author attempts to demonstrate that youth criminal intervention has moved from the notion of "child protection" to the notion of "protection of society." The significance of this theoretical shift is that, while the former sort of intervention is mostly concerned with the notions of "reintegration" and "inclusion", the latter is concerned with the notions of "deterrence" and "exclusion." For this study, the author first analyzes the societal factors that led Canadian parliamentarians to enact the Juvenile Delinquents Act (1908). In addition, she focuses on a specific amendment enacted in the year 1924 that "increased" the number of behaviors to be controlled through criminal law legislation. Second, the author discusses the circumstances that led parliamentarians to enact the Young Offenders Act (1982) and the Youth Criminal Justice Act (2002). Moreover, she examines an amendment enacted in the year 1995 that modified the declaration of principles of the Young Offenders Act by introducing the notion of "crime prevention." Finally, she analyzes a case law released in the year 2003 by the Quebec Court of Appeal, Québec v. Canada. This decision declared the unconstitutionality of some specific sections of Bill C-7 (current Youth Criminal Justice Act) that allow the disclosure of young offenders' private information and reverse the onus probandi for the imposition of adult sentences on young offenders. The position of the author is that, even though those sections can be unconstitutional, they are coherent with current theoretical trends in the area of youth criminal law intervention.

It has been consistently reported that young males commit crimes with an average frequency five times greater than their female peers. Most data supporting this view are derived from juvenile court and police statistics. Studies using data derived from self-reported behaviour suggest that the true relative frequency may be closer to 2:1. Police and juvenile justice data for the year 1994–5 in New South Wales, Australia, were analysed in an attempt to determine whether court and police statistics might reflect a form of selection bias, where the likelihood of arrest, trial and/or sentence is a function of gender, rather than frequency and nature of offence. The results suggest that the 5:1 gender ratio reflects a strong component of gender bias in the workings of the juvenile justice system in New South Wales. If suspected of a given crime, young males are more likely to be denied bail and (if found guilty) to be given a harsher sentence than young females suspected (or found guilty) of the same crime. Overall, if found guilty of an offence, boys were four times more likely than girls to receive a custodial sentence. Therefore, boys are selectively denied access to alternate rehabilitation resources which are made available to girls who are in trouble with the law. The juvenile justice system in New South Wales requires careful examination and reform if such apparently deeply entrenched biases are to be eliminated.

With the aim of considering an important socially significant problem of adaptation of orphan adolescents prone to deviant behavior, the authors conducted a study of their personal characteristics on the basis of the educational institution Sinyaya Ptitsa. Sinyaya Ptitsa (Blue Bird in English) (Moscow region, Stupinsky district) is one of the first orphanages for children and adolescents in Russia. Sinyaya Ptitsa is a stationary institution that implements a set of measures for the social rehabilitation of children and adolescents. Orphan children and adolescents, who were left without parental care, temporarily live in the institution, where specialists provide them with comprehensive social, psychological, pedagogical, medical, and social aid. The respondents underwent psychodiagnostic examination and questioning in accordance with the tasks set. The results of this study allow to draw up a psychological portrait of an adolescent from a deprived background with deviant behavior, who has a file in the juvenile delinquents’ room. Their physical and indirect types of aggression are normal but close to a high level, there is a readiness to manifest negative feelings at the slightest excitement, which prevents cooperation with others, they are inclined to provoke conflicts and often use a coping strategy for solving problems in a stressful situation, in an attempt to effectively overcome a problematic life situation. This study has allowed to identify the specifics of the personal characteristics of orphan adolescents, the knowledge of which increases the level of competence and educational potential of teachers. The psychological work on the prevention of deviant behavior in adolescents will allow to improve the quality of life of the younger generation in the metropolis in the future.

In Australia, the spectacled flying-fox (Pteropus conspicillatus) (SFF), is listed as ‘Vulnerable’. Many juvenile SFFs come into care at the Tolga Bat Hospital, a privately funded community organisation. The aims of this study were (1) to estimate postnatal growth rates for length of forearm and body mass; (2) to describe the association between body mass and length of forearm; and (3) to develop a milk feeding chart for infant SFFs. Cross-sectional data were collected for 2680 SFFs from the 2006–07 to the 2016–17 seasons. Forearm length increased by 0.55mm and body mass increased by 1.5g per day. Longitudinal data were collected during the 2016–17 season for 128 SFFs. According to these data, forearm length increased by 0.71mm and body mass increased by 3.4g per day. Both analyses indicated exponential associations between forearm length and body mass (P&lt;0.001). Reasons for the differences between the cross-sectional and longitudinal results might include the negative impact of tick paralysis in the cross-sectional study and the positive effect of human care in the longitudinal study. The proposed feeding chart is based on length of forearm. This study was established in a wildlife-care facility providing a model for similar work with other wildlife species.

An understanding of animal population dynamics relies on identifying life-history attributes associated with population growth and determining how these are affected by environmental variables. We analysed platypus population processes over a 10-year period through mark–recapture studies conducted in three spatially independent stream systems located in the suburbs of Melbourne, Australia. The three populations were collectively characterised by a slightly male-biased adult sex ratio (1.15 : 1) and relatively low reproductive success (<0.5 juvenile captured annually per adult female). An estimated 16% of core residents disappeared annually and 18% of marked juveniles were recaptured as adults. However, some demographic parameters (reproductive success, frequency of non-core adult captures) varied significantly among populations. Estimates of annual core population size in the three systems varied asynchronously, with different trajectories in population size potentially reflecting habitat differences (amount of urban development, reliability of surface flow) as well as variation in spatial isolation and catchment history (implementation of stream rehabilitation programs, occurrence of severe floods). Across all three populations, significant variability in annual reproductive success was explained by linear relationships with the amount of rainfall recorded in the five months before breeding (positive) and after juveniles emerge from nesting burrows (negative).

В статье рассматриваются особенности реализации общественного воздействия на осужденных как фактор их исправления в зарубежных странах. В связи с соблюдением администрацией европейских тюрем международных стандартов исполнения наказаний влияние гражданских институтов общества на осужденных довольно эффективно. Так, рассмотрены особенности функционирования пенитенциарной системы Великобритании в сфере взаимодействия с общественными организациями на примере Совета визитеров тюрем. Авторами анализируется взаимодействие пенитенциарных учреждений европейских государств и США с различными религиозными конфессиями, результатом которого является изменение мировоззрения осужденных. В Соединенных Штатах активно развивается модель социальной реабилитации несовершеннолетних правонарушителей, в качестве активных методов которой применяются «общинные» методы воздействия. Особенное внимание авторы статьи уделяют опыту осуществления общественного воздействия на осужденных в Японии. В этом государстве подход к исправлению напрямую зависит от ментальности народа и культуры страны, поскольку там существует так называемый «фактор стыда». Также в Японии существуют отдельные образования граждан по борьбе с преступностью с целью публичного осуждения, воздействие которых является фактором формирования у осужденных законопослушного поведения. Рассмотрение различных аспектов функционирования пенитенциарных систем зарубежных государств представляет особый интерес и значимость для возможного заимствования представителями отечественной уголовно-исполнительной системы. The article deals with the peculiarities of the implementation of public influence on convicts as a factor of their correction in foreign countries. In connection with the compliance of the administration of European prisons with international standards of execution of sentences, the influence of civil society institutions on convicts is quite effective. Thus, the features of the functioning of the UK penitentiary system in the sphere of interaction with public organizations are considered on the example of the Council of Prison Visitors. The authors analyze the interaction of penitentiary institutions of European states and the United States with various religious denominations, the result of which is a change in the worldview of convicts. In the United States, a model of social rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents is actively developing, with «community-based» methods of influence used as active methods. The authors of the article pay special attention to the experience of public influence on convicts in Japan. In this state, the approach to correction directly depends on the mentality of the people and the culture of the country, since there is a so-called «shame factor». Also in Japan, there are separate public education programs for citizens to fight crime for the purpose of public condemnation, the impact of which is a factor in the formation of law-abiding behavior in convicts. The consideration of various aspects of the functioning of the penitentiary systems of foreign countries is of particular interest and significance for possible borrowing by representatives of the domestic penal system.

There is no doubt that the problem of juvenile delinquency and how to confront it is one of the most important problems that worry the whole world. Juveniles are the mainstay of the future, the nucleus of society, and the basis for the progress of civilizations and nations. The more national legislation in any country adopts the philosophy of reform and rehabilitation when codifying its provisions for juveniles, the more the legislation becomes in line with the new trends in the field of punitive policy. This requires scrutiny to scrutinize the meaning of the event and the differences in penal responsibility and the extent of the influence of social, psychological and environmental factors and conditions that control the actions of juveniles and that may prompt the juvenile to commit crimes or break the law. It is possible that there is unintentional negligence in the penal institution so that these institutions do not have trained and specialized staff who realizes the importance of following up on juvenile delinquents and the places designated for them to spend the penalty period prescribed for each juvenile.

Resumo: O objetivo do trabalho é tecer ideias referentes a ressocialização de menores infratores que cumprem suas respectivas penas nas unidades de internação, tendo a música, o escopo principal como medida socioeducativa, também usada como terapia para as crianças e adolescentes infratores, cuja finalidade é promover a interação social, autonomia, estímulo e autoestima. Nesse ínterim, o menor infrator cumprirá integralmente a pena imposta e, dessa forma, se notaria a diminuição nos índices de fugas ou a quebra dos regimes em que estão submetidos para o cumprimento. Nesse viés, se analisará a prática do ato infracional, a formação da cidadania, o que as instituições oferecem e como é feito esse trabalho, inclusive na reinserção desses jovens ao mercado de trabalho e na sociedade, assim como, a prática coletiva da música e seus efeitos favoráveis ao menor infrator, analisando como a sociedade o acolherá, após e durante o cumprimento da medida e quais os estigmas que os cercam. Abstract: The objective is to weave ideas regarding the rehabilitation of minor offenders serving their respective sentences in inpatient units, with music, the main scope as socioeducational measure, also used as therapy to children and juvenile delinquents, whose purpose is promote social interaction, autonomy, encouragement and self-esteem. Meanwhile, the juvenile offender will comply fully with the sentence imposed and, therefore, it would notice the decrease in the rates of leakage or breakage of the schemes that are subject to compliance. In this bias, will analyze the practice of the violation, the formation of citizenship, what institutions offer and how it is done this work, including the reintegration of these young people to the labor market and society, as well as the collective music practice and its effects in favor of the juvenile offender, analyzing how society will welcome, after and during the implementation of the measure and which the stigmas that surround them.

From the mid-twentieth century, state and public conceptions of deviance and crime control have turned increasingly punitive (Hallett 115; Hutchinson 138). In a Western context, criminal justice has long been retributive, prioritising punishment over rehabilitation (Wenzel et al. 26). Within that context, there has been an increase in punitiveness—understood here as a measure of a punishment’s severity—the intention of which has been to help restore the moral imbalance created by offending while also deterring future crime (Wenzel et al. 26). Entangled with the global spread of neoliberal capitalism, punitiveness has become internationally pervasive to a near-hegemonic degree (Sparks qtd. in Jennings et al. 463; Unnever and Cullen 100).The punitive turn has troubling characteristics. Punitive policies can be expensive, and increased incarceration stresses the criminal justice system and leads to prison overcrowding (Hutchinson 135). Further, punitiveness is not only applied unequally across categories such as class, race, and age (Unnever and Cullen 105-06; Wacquant 212) but the effectiveness of punitive policy relative to its costs is contested (Bouffard et al. 466, 477; Hutchinson 139). Despite this, evidence suggests public demand is driving punitive policymaking, but that demand is only weakly related to crime rates (Jennings et al. 463).While discussion of punitiveness in the public sphere often focuses on measures such as boot camps for young offenders, increased incarceration, and longer prison sentences, punitiveness also has a darker side. Our research analysing discussion taking place on a large, regional, crime-focused online forum reveals a startling degree and intensity of violence directed at offenders and related groups. Members of the discussion forum do propose unsurprising measures such as incarceration and boot camps, but also an array of violent alternatives, including beating, shooting, dismemberment, and conversion into animal food. This article draws on our research to explore why discussion of punitiveness can be so intensely violent.Our research applies thematic analysis to seven discussion threads posted to a large regional online forum focused on crime, made between September and November 2017. One discussion thread per week of the study period was purposively sampled based on relevance to the topic of punitiveness, ultimately yielding 1200 individual comments. Those comments were coded, and the data and codes were reiteratively analysed to produce categories, then basic, organising, and global themes. We intended to uncover themes in group discussion most salient to punitiveness to gain insight into how punitive social interactions unfold and how those who demand punitiveness understand their interactions and experiences of crime. We argue that, in this online forum, the global theme—the most salient concept related to punitiveness—is a “subaltern citizenship”. Here, a clear division emerges from the data, where the group members perceive themselves as “us”—legitimate citizens with all attendant rights—in opposition to an external “them”, a besieging group of diverse, marginalised Others who have illegitimately usurped certain rights and who victimise citizens. Group members often deride the state as too weak and untrustworthy to stop this victimisation. Ironically, the external Others perceived by the group to hold power are themselves genuinely marginalised, though the group does not recognise or see that form of marginalisation as legitimate. In this essay, to preserve the anonymity of the forum and its members, we refer to them only as “the Forum”, located in “the City”, and refrain from direct quotes except for commonly used words or phrases that do not identify individuals.It is also important to note that the research described here deliberately focused on a specific group in a specific space who were concerned about specific groups of offenders. Findings and discussion, and the views on punitiveness described, cannot be generalised to the broader community. Nor do we suggest these views can be considered representative of all Forum members as we present here only a limited analysis of some violent discourse emerging from our research. Likewise, while our discussion often centres on youth and other marginalised groups in the context of offending, we do not intend to imply that offending is a characteristic of these groups.Legitimate CitizenshipCommonly, citizenship is seen as a conferred status denoting full and equal community membership and the rights and responsibilities dictated by community values and norms (Lister 28-29). Western citizenship norms are informed by neoliberal capitalist values: individual responsibility, an obligation to be in paid employment, participation in economic consumption, the sanctity of ownership, and that the principal role of government is to defend the conditions under which these norms can freely thrive (Walsh 861-62). While norms are shaped by laws and policy frameworks, they are not imposed coercively or always deployed consciously. These norms exist as shared behavioural expectations reproduced through social interaction and embodied as “common sense” (Kotzian 59). As much as Western democracies tend to a universalist representation of one, undifferentiated citizenship, it is clear that gender, race, sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, and migrant status all exist in different relationships to citizenship as an identity category. Glass ceilings, stolen generations, same-sex marriage debates, and Australian Government proposals to strip citizenship from certain types of criminal offender all demonstrate that the lived experience of norms surrounding citizenship is profoundly unequal for some (Staeheli et al. 629-30). An individual’s citizenship status, therefore, more accurately exists on a spectrum between legitimacy—full community membership, possessing all rights and living up to all associated responsibilities—and illegitimacy—diminished membership, with contested rights and questionable fulfilment of associated responsibilities—depending on the extent of their deviation from societal norms.Discussing punitiveness, Forum members position themselves as “us”, that is, legitimate citizens. Words such as “we” and “us” are used as synonyms for society and for those whose behaviours are “normal” or “acceptable”. Groups associated with offending are described as “they”, “them”, and their behaviours are “not normal”, “disgusting”, “feral”, and merit the removal of “them” from civilisation, usually to “the middle of nowhere” or “the Outback”. Possession of legitimate citizenship is implicit in assuming authority over what is normal and who should be exiled for failing the standard.Another implicit assumption discernible in the data is that Forum members perceive the “normal we” as good neoliberal citizens. “We” work hard, own homes and cars, and take individual responsibility. There is a strong imputation of welfare dependency among offenders, the poor, and other suspect groups. Offending is presented as something curable by stripping offenders or their parents of welfare payments. Members earn their status as legitimate citizens by adhering to the norms of neoliberal citizenship in opposition to potential offenders to whom the benefits of citizenship are simply doled out.Forum members also frame their citizenship as legitimate by asserting ownership over community spaces and resources. This can be seen in their talking as if they, their sympathetic audience, and “the City” are the same (for example, declaring that “the City” demands harsher punishments for juvenile offenders). There are also calls to “take back” the streets, the City, and Australia from groups associated with offending. That a space can and should be “taken back” implies a pre-existing state of control interrupted by those who have no right to ownership. At its most extreme, the assertion of ownership extends to a conviction that members have the right to position offenders as enemies of the state and request that the army, the ultimate tool of legitimate state violence, be turned against them if governments and the criminal justice system are too “weak” or “soft” to constrain them.The Illegitimate OtherThroughout the data, perceived offenders are spoken of with scorn and hatred. “Perceived offenders” may include offenders and their family, youths, Indigenous people, and people of low socioeconomic status, and these marginalised groups are referenced so interchangeably it can be difficult to determine which is being discussed.Commenting on four “atsi [sic] kids” who assaulted an elderly man, group members asserted “they” should be shot like dogs. The original text gives no antecedents to indicate whether “they” is meant to indicate youths, Indigenous youths, or offenders in general. However, Australia has a colonial history of conflating crime and indigeneity and shooting Indigenous people to preserve white social order (Hill and Dawes 310, 312), a consequence of the tendency of white people to imagine criminals as black (Unnever and Cullen 106). It must be noted that the racial identity of individual Forum members is unknown. This does constitute a limitation in the original study, as identity categories such as race and class intersect and manifest in social interactions in complex ways. However, that does not prevent analysis of the text itself.In the Forum’s discursive space, “they” is used to denote offenders, Indigenous youths, youths, or the poor interchangeably, as if they were all a homogeneous, mutually synonymous “Other”. Collectively, these groups are represented as so generally hopeless that they are imagined as choosing to offend so they will be sentenced to the comforts of “holiday camp” prisons where they can access luxuries otherwise beyond their reach: freedom from addicted parents, medical care, food, television, and computers. A common argument, that crime is an individual choice, is often based on the idea that prison is a better option for the poor than going home. As a result, offending by marginalised offenders is reconstructed as a rational choice or a failure of individual responsibility rather than a consequence of structural inequality.Further, parents of those in suspect populations are blamed for intergenerational maintenance of criminality. They are described as too drunk or drugged to care, too unskilled in parenting due to their presumed dreadful upbringing, or too busy enjoying their welfare payments to meet their responsibility to control their children or teach them the values and skills of citizenship. Comments imply parents probably participated in their children’s crimes even when no evidence suggests that possibility and that some groups simply cannot be trusted to raise disciplined children owing to their inherent moral and economic dissipation. That is, not just offenders but entire groups are deemed illegitimate, willing to enjoy benefits of citizenship such as welfare payments but unwilling or unable to earn them by engaging with the associated responsibilities. This is a frequent argument for why they deserve severely punitive punishment for deviance.However, the construction of the Other as illegitimate in Forum discussions reaches far beyond imagining them as lacking normative skills and values. The violence present on the Forum is startling in its intensity. Prevalent within the data is the reduction of people to insulting nicknames. Terms used to describe people range from the sarcastic— “little darlings”—through standard abusive language such as “bastards”, “shits”, “dickheads”, “lowlifes”, to dehumanising epithets such as “maggots”, “scum”, and “subhuman arsewipes”. Individually and collectively, “they” are relentlessly framed as less than human and even less than animals. They are “mongrels” and “vermin”. In groups, they are “packs”, and they deserve to be “hunted” or just shot from helicopters. They are unworthy of life. “Oxygen thieves” is a repeated epithet, as is the idea that they should be dropped out at sea to drown. Other suggestions for punishment include firing squads, lethal injections, and feeding them to animals.It is difficult to imagine a more definitive denial of legitimacy than discursively stripping individuals and groups of their humanity (their most fundamental status) and their right to existence (their most fundamental right as living beings). The Forum comes perilously close to casting the Other as Agamben’s homo sacer, humans who live in a “state of exception”, subject to the state’s power but excluded from the law’s protection and able to be killed without consequence (Lechte and Newman 524). While it would be hyperbole to push this comparison too far—given Agamben had concentration camps in mind—the state of exception as a means of both excluding a group from society and exercising control over its life does resonate here.Themes Underlying PunitivenessOur findings indicate the theme most salient to punitive discussion is citizenship, rooted in persistent concerns over who is perceived to have it, who is not, and what should be done about those Others whose deviance renders their citizenship less legitimate. Citizenship norms—real or aspirational—of society’s dominant groups constitute the standards by which Forum members judge their experiences of and with crime, perceived offenders, the criminal justice system, and the state. However, Forum members do not claim a straightforward belonging to and sharing in the maintenance of the polity. Analysis of the data suggests Forum members consider their legitimate citizenship tainted by external forces such as politics, untrustworthy authorities and institutions, and the unconstrained excess of the illegitimate Other. That is, they perceive their citizenship to be simultaneously legitimate and undeservedly subaltern.According to Gramsci, subaltern populations are subordinate to dominant groups in political and civil society, lulled by hegemonic norms to cooperate in their own oppression (Green 2). Civil society supports the authority of political society and, in return, political society uses the law and criminal justice system to safeguard civil society’s interests against unruly subalterns (Green 7). Rights and responsibilities of citizenship reside within the mutual relationship between political and civil society. Subalternity, by definition, exists outside this relationship, or with limited access to it.Forum members position themselves as citizens within civil society. They lay emphatic claim to fulfilling their responsibilities as neoliberal citizens. However, they perceive themselves to be denied the commensurate rights: they cannot rely on the criminal justice system to protect them from the illegitimate Other. The courts are “soft”, and prisons are “camps” with “revolving doors”. Authorities pamper offenders while doing nothing to stop them from hurting their victims. Human rights are viewed as an imposition by the UN or as policy flowing from a political sphere lacking integrity and dominated by “do gooders”. Rights are reserved only for offenders. Legitimate citizens no longer even have the right to defend themselves. The perceived result is a transfer of rights from legitimate to illegitimate, from deserving to undeserving. This process elides from view the actual subalterns of Australian society—here, most particularly Indigenous people and the socioeconomically vulnerable—and reconstructs them as oppressors of the dominant group, who are reframed as legitimate citizens unjustly made subaltern.The Violence in PunitivenessOn the Forum, as in the broader world, a sense of “white victimisation”—the view, unsupported by history or evidence, that whites are an oppressed people within a structure systematically doling out advantage to minorities (King 89)—is a recurrent legitimising argument for punitiveness and vigilantism. Amid the shrinking social safety nets and employment precarity of neoliberal capitalism, competitiveness increases, and white identity forms around perceived threats to power and status incurred by “losing out” to minorities (Sacks and Lindholm 131). One 2011 study finds a majority of white US citizens believe themselves subject to more racism than black people (King 89). However, these assumptions of whiteness tend to be spared critical examination because, in white-dominated societies, whiteness is the common-sense norm in opposition to which other racial categories are defined (Petray and Collin 2). When whiteness is made the focus of critical questioning, white identities gain salience and imaginings of the “dark other” and besieged white virtues intensify (Bonilla-Silva et al. 232).With respect to feelings of punitiveness, Unnever and Cullen (118-19) find that the social cause for punitiveness in the United States is hostility towards other races, that harsh punishments, including the death penalty, are demanded and accepted by the dominant group because they are perceived to mostly injure “people they do not like” (Unnever and Cullen 119). Moreover, perception that a racial group is inherently criminal amplifies more generalised prejudices against them and diminishes the capacity of the dominant group to feel empathy for suffering inflicted upon them by the criminal justice system (Unnever and Cullen 120).While our analysis of the Forum supports these findings where they touch on crimes committed by Indigenous people, they invite a question. Why, where race is not a factor, do youths and the socioeconomically disadvantaged also inspire intensely violent punitiveness as described above? We argue that the answer relates to status. From this perspective, race becomes one of several categories of differentiation from legitimate citizenship through an ascription of low status.Wenzel, Okimoto, and Cameron (29) contend punitiveness, with respect to specific offences, varies according to the symbolic meaning the offence holds for the observer. Crimes understood as a transgression against status or power inspire a need for “revenge, punishment, and stigmatisation” (Wenzel et al. 41) and justify an increase in the punitiveness required (Wenzel et al. 29, 34). This is particularly true where an offence is deemed to make someone unfit for community membership, such that severe punishment serves as a symbolic marker of exile and a reaffirmation for the community of the violated values and norms (Wenzel et al. 41). Indeed, as noted, Forum posts regularly call for offenders to be removed from society, exiled to the outback, or shipped beyond Australia’s territorial waters.Further, Forum members’ perception of subaltern citizenship, with its assumption of legitimate citizenship as being threatened by undeserving Others, makes them view crime as implicitly a matter of status transgression. This is intensified by perception that the political sphere and criminal justice system are failing legitimate citizens, refusing even to let them defend themselves. Virulent name-calling and comparisons to animals can be understood as attempts by the group to symbolically curtail the undeservedly higher status granted to offenders by weak governments and courts. More violent demands for punishment symbolically remove offenders from citizenship, reaffirm citizen values, and vent anger at a political and criminal justice system deemed complicit, through weakness, in reducing legitimate citizens to subaltern citizens.ConclusionsIn this essay, we highlight the extreme violence we found in our analysis of an extensive online crime forum in a regional Australian city. We explore some explanations for violent public punitiveness, highlighting how members identify themselves as subaltern citizens in a battle against undeserving Others, with no support from a weak state. This analysis centres community norms and a problematic conception of citizenship as drivers of both public punitiveness and dissatisfaction with crime control policy and the criminal justice system. We highlight a real dissonance between community needs and public policy that may undermine effective policymaking. That is, evidence-based crime control policies, successful crime prevention initiatives, and falling crime rates may not increase public satisfaction with how crime is dealt with if policymakers pursue those measures without regard for how citizens experience the process.While studies such as that by Wenzel, Okimoto, and Cameron identify differences in status between legitimate citizens and offenders as amplifiers of punitiveness, we suggest the amplification may be mediated by the status relationship between legitimate citizens and authority figures within legitimate society. The offender and their crime may not contribute as much to the public’s outrage as commonly assumed. Instead, public punitiveness may predominantly arise from the perception that the political sphere, media, and criminal justice system respond to citizens’ experience of crime in ways that devalue the status of legitimate citizens. At least in the context of this regional city, this points to something other than successful crime control being integral to building more effective and satisfactory crime control policy: in this case, the need to rebuild trust between citizens and authority groups.ReferencesBonilla-Silva, Eduardo, Carla Goar, and David G. 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