Journal articles on the topic 'Italy – History, Military – 19th century'

The 19th and 20th centuries were periods for main transformation in Muslim history: periods of degradation and conquest, independence and revolution, renaissance and reform. Toward the 19th century, world power moved from Muslim world to Europe. It was remarked by emerging power of British, France, Spain, Russia, Netherlands, Italy and Portuguese. They dominated Muslim societies in Asia, Africa, and Middle East in economic, military, politic and ideological aspects. Muslim societies’ responses to Europe domination were diverse from rejection and confrontation to emigration and non-cooperative attitudes of traditional Muslim. They planned reform, reconstructed Islamic thinking and beliefs, reformed theology and Islamic law, and emphasized Muslim’s self-esteem significance, unity and solidarity in facing cultural threats and Europe colonialism. However, not few secular Muslims and reformers, were proud and greatly imitated Europe civilization and cultures. They did secularization that ended khalifah system in order to reconstruct Muslim societies.

The article concerns the fate of Felicjan Karp’s family, one of the richest landowners of Samogitia (Lithuania) in the first two decades of the 20th century. After his father, he inherited approximately 40,163 hectares. The history of this family perfectly illustrates the changes that this social class has undergone in the past century. The end of their existence was the end of the landowner’s existence. The twilight of the Samogitian Karps took place quite quickly, for only a quarter of a century from July 28, 1914, the date of the outbreak of World War I to the Soviet invasion of the Republic of Lithuania on June 15, 1940. Over the course of these years - on a large scale two-fold - military operations, changes in the political and economic system, including agricultural reform initiated in the reborn Lithuanian state in 1922 and deportations to Siberia in 1940 brutally closed the last stable chapter in the life of Rekijów’s owners, definitively exterminating them after more than 348 years from the land of their ancestors. Relations between the Karp family and the Rekijów estate should be dated at least from September 21, 1592. In addition to the description of the family, it is also necessary to emphasize their significant economic and political importance in the inhabited region. These last two aspects gained momentum especially from the first years of the 19th century and were reflected until 1922. At that time, representatives of the Karp family jointly owned approximately 70,050 ha and provided the country with two provincial marshals (Vilnius, Kaunas) and two county marshals (Upita, Ponevezys). The author also presents their fate during World War II in the Siberian Gulag, during the amnesty under the Sikorski–Majski Agreement of July 30, 1941, joining the formed Polish Army in the USSR (August 14, 1941), the soldier’s journey through Kermine in Uzbekistan, Krasnovodsk, Caspian Sea, Khanaqin in Iraq, Palestine to the military camp near Tel-Aviv and then Egypt and the entire Italian campaign, that is the battles of Monte Cassino, Loreto and Ancona. After the war, leaving Italy to England (1946), followed by a short stay in Argentina and finally settling in Perth, Australia.

The article examines the activities of the Russian diplomatic mission in Naples in 1802-1808 based on the correspondence between brothers Alexander and Konstantin Bulgakov. In accordance with the tropological methodology of the historian Hayden White, tragic and novel metanarratives are distinguished in describing the relationship between the Kingdom of Naples, Russia, and the countries of Western Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. The narration of the events in accordance with the tragic plot reveals the confrontation between the hero and the world, Napoleon and the coalition of European states led by Austria, Britain, and Russia. At the same time, the transformation of the tragedy into the novel in historical terms presupposes a change in the established world order after the end of the era of the Napoleonic Wars, which the decisions of the Congress of Vienna consolidated in 18141815. The basis of the plot in the selected metanarratives is the life of Ferdinand IV, the king of Naples, and his family; Napoleon’s military actions in Italy; diplomatic and military assistance to Naples from Russia and the life of Russians in Naples and Palermo; the events of the Patriotic War of 1812; the messianic role of Emperor Alexander in the victory over Napoleon’s army. The influence of the actions of the allied forces in 1813-1815 and the decisions of the Congress of Vienna on the emergence of national liberation movements in Italy and the subsequent unification of the country is revealed. The spatial centers of the Bulgakovs’ epistolary works are Naples, Palermo, Rome, the capitals of four empires (Paris, Vienna, London, Petersburg), and related historical figures (King Ferdinand IV and his wife Maria Carolina of Austria (sister of Marie Antoinette, the French queen), Napoleon, Joseph Bonaparte, Joachim Murat, Austrian Emperor Francis II, Russian Emperor Alexander I, Pope Pius VII, Admiral and Secretary of State of the Kingdom of Naples John Acton, Russian envoys in Naples and Rome A.Ya. Italinsky and sine, and others. The article analyzes the conceptual sphere and poetics of the “Neapolitan” text of Russian literature. In the letters, the image of Naples is presented through the situation of a meeting of Southern and Northern Europe, Naples and Petersburg, monarchy and republic, Catholicism and Orthodoxy, history and modernity. Naples is perceived as a special communicative space associated with the diplomatic activities of both brothers, with their circle of communication, and aesthetically with a private letter as a kind of an ego-document. The perception of Naples as an island state, as an “earthly paradise at the foot of a volcano”, as a city of the Lazzaroni and carnival culture brings the correspondence between the Bulgakov brothers close with descriptions of this city in Russian travelogues of the late 18th - first third of the 19th centuries. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

At the last stage of the Italian Wars (1494—1559), the military, political and, most importantly, financial superiority of the Habsburgs over the Valois became quite obvious. The Spanish king could make use of silver which was already coming quite regularly and in large quantities from the mines of the New World. He controlled the old (Augsburg — Ulm) and new (Besançon — Piacenza) centres of banking capital, as well as the commercial and financial heart of the emerging world economic system — Antwerp. But King Henry II of France (1547—1559) launched a series of daring reforms, sometimes far ahead of his time. The king could rely on a more developed bureaucracy than in other countries, on a state system that had reached an advanced level of centralization, and on the economy that was still on the rise, the ‘heart’ of which were the Lyon fairs that acquired international significance. In order to continue an active foreign policy, an unprecedented step was taken — not a royal official, but a Lyon banker of Italian origin, Albizzi Del Bene (Albisse Delbeyne), was appointed to the post of surintendent des finances. Thus, the government was able to use the experience and capability of the banking world for its own purposes. Under the conditions of the war, which was fought at a great distance from the borders of the kingdom, the circulation of money was greatly simplified and became more predictable. The surintendent, closely associated with the most powerful trading and banking house Gadagni (Gadagne) of Lyon, had great weight among Italian bankers who operated not only in Lyon, but also in Venice, Rome, and Tuscany. The reformers’ plans and the progress of reform can be fully appreciated by studying documents from the Lamoignon Collection (Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, Moscow). Providing fairly clear guarantees based on the income from the Lyon fairs, the king, with the help of his surintendent and people from his entourage who were responsible for financing French policy in Italy (Constable Anne de Montmorency, royal secretary Jean Duthier), managed to attract huge sums (about 12 million Tours livres) which made it possible to resist a powerful enemy. A flexible combination of bills of exchange, clearing and other mechanisms allowed to transfer this amount of money to Italy. The crowning success of Del Bene was the creation of the Grand Parti de Lyon — a consortium of creditors to the French king. Some researchers claimed that its principles were quite comparable to the achievements of the 19th-century banking system. If there had been peace, the Grand Parti de Lyon could well have contributed to the repayment of the principal amount of borrowings and the dissolution of the accumulated interest debt. But politics had once again interfered with the economy. A new war, in which France was drawn against the will of the royal entourage, a chain of military defeats (the capture of Montmorency, the main patron of Del Bene, in 1557) and, finally, the unexpected death of Henry II shortly after the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) put an end to bold economic reforms.

In 2022, the Swiss branch of the international publishing house Springer published a book, a collection of papers entitled Military Geoscience: A Multifaceted Approach to the Study of Warfare. It consists of selected contributions by international researchers in the field of military geoscience, presented at the 13th International Conference on Military Geosciences, held in Padua in June 2019. The first paper is by the editors, Aldin Bondesan and Judy Ehlen, and provides a brief overview of understanding the concept of military geoscience as an application of geology and geography to the military domain, and the historical development of the discipline. It should also be pointed out that the International Conferences on Military Geosciences (ICMG), which organises this biennial international conference, has over the past two decades also covered other aspects, such as conflict archaeology. The publication is further divided into three parts. The first part comprises three contributions covering military geoscience up to the 20th century. The first paper, by Chris Fuhriman and Jason Ridgeway, provides an insights into the Battle of Marathon through topography visualisation. The geography of the Marathon field, the valley between Mt. Cotroni and Mt. Agrieliki, allowed the Greek defenders to nullify the advantage of the Persian cavalry and archers, who were unable to develop their full potential. This is followed by a paper by Judy Ehlen, who explores the geological background of the Anglo-British coastal fortification system along the English Channel, focusing on the Portsmouth area of Hampshire. The author thus points out that changes in artillery technology and naval tactics between the 16th and 19th centuries necessitated changes in the construction of coastal fortifications, both in terms of the form of the fortifications and the method of construction, including the choice of basic building materials, as well as the siting of the fortifications in space. The next article is then dedicated to the Monte Baldo Fortress in north-eastern Italy, between Lake Garda and the Adige River. In his article, Francesco Premi analyses the presence of the fortress in the transition area between the Germanic world and the Mediterranean, and the importance of this part of Italy (at the southernmost part of the pre-Alpine mountains) in military history, as reflected in the large number of important military and war relics and monuments. The second part of the book, which is the most comprehensive, focuses on the two World Wars and consists of nine papers. The first paper in this part provides an analysis of the operation of trench warfare training camps in the Aube region of France. The group of authors, Jérôme Brenot, Yves Desfossés, Robin Perarnau, Marc Lozano and Alain Devos, initially note that static warfare training camps have not received much attention so far. Using aerial photography of the region dating from 1948 and surviving World War II photographic material, they identified some 20 sites where soldiers of the Entente forces were trained for front-line service in trenches. Combined archaeological and sociological fieldwork followed, confirming the presence of these camps, both through preserved remains and the collective memory. The second paper in this volume also concerns the survey on trenches, located in northern Italy in the Venezia Tridentina Veneto area in northern Italy. The authors Luigi Magnini, Giulia Rovera, Armando De Guio and Giovanni Azzalin thus use digital classification methods and archaeology to determine how Italian and Austro-Hungarian First World War trenches have been preserved or, in case they have disappeared, why this was the case, both from the point of view of the natural features as well as from the anthropological point of view of the restoration of the pre-war settings. The next paper, by Paolo Macini and Paolo Sammuri, analyses the activities of the miners and pioneers of the Italian Corps of Engineers during the First World War, in particular with regard to innovative approaches to underground mine warfare. In the Dolomites, the Italian engineers, using various listening devices, drilling machinery and geophysical methods, developed a system for drilling underground mine chambers, which they intended to use and actually used to destroy parts of Austro-Hungarian positions. The paper by Elena Dai Prà, Nicola Gabellieri and Matteo Boschian Bailo concerns the Italian Army's operations during the First World War. It focuses on the use of tactical maps with emphasis on typological classification, the use of symbols, and digital cartography. The authors thus analysed the tactical maps of the Italian Third Army, which were being constantly updated by plotting the changes in positions and tactical movements of both sides. These changes were examined both in terms of the use of new symbols and the analysis of the movements. This is followed by a geographical presentation of the Italian Army's activities during the First World War. The authors Paolo Plini, Sabina Di Franco and Rosamaria Salvatori have thus collected 21,856 toponyms by analysing documents and maps. The locations were also geolocated to give an overview of the places where the Italian Army operated during the First World War. The analysis initially revealed the complexity of the events on the battlefields, but also that the sources had misidentified the places of operation, as toponyms were misidentified, especially in the case of homonyms. Consequently, the area of operation was misidentified as well. In this respect, the case of Vipava was highlighted, which can refer to both a river and a settlement. The following paper is the first on the Second World War. It is the article by H. A. P. Smith on Italian prisoners of war in South Africa. The author outlines the circumstances in which Italian soldiers arrived to and lived in the southern African continent, and the contribution they made to the local environment and the society, and the remnants of their presence preserved to the present day. In their article, William W. Doe III and Michael R. Czaja analyse the history, geography and significance of Camp Hale in the state of Colorado. In doing so, they focus on the analysis of the military organization and its impact on the local community. Camp Hale was thus the first military installation of the U.S. Army, designated to test and train U.S. soldiers in mountain and alpine warfare. It was here that the U.S. 10th Mountain Division was formed, which concluded its war path on Slovenian soil. The Division's presence in this former camp, which was in military use also after the war until 1965, and in the surrounding area is still visible through numerous monuments. This is followed by a paper by Hermann Häusler, who deals with German military geography and geology on the Eastern Front of the Second World War. A good year before the German attack on the Soviet Union, German and Austrian military geologists began an analysis of the topography, population and infrastructure of the European part of the Soviet Union, which led to a series of publications, including maps showing the suitability of the terrain for military operations. During the war, military geological teams then followed the frontline units and carried out geotechnical tasks such as water supply, construction of fortifications, supply of building materials for transport infrastructure, and analysis of the suitability of the terrain for all-terrain driving of tracked and other vehicles. The same author also authored a paper in the next chapter, this time focusing on the activities of German military geologists in the Adriatic area. Similarly to his first contribution, the author presents the work of military geologists in northern Italy and north-western Slovenia. He also focuses on the construction of fortification systems in northern Italy and presents the work of karst hunters in the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral. Part 3 covers the 21st century with five different papers (chapters). The first paper by Alexander K. Stewart deals with the operations of the U.S. Army specialised teams in Afghanistan. These Agribusiness Development Teams (ADTs) carried out a specialised form of counter-guerrilla warfare in which they sought to improve the conditions for the development of local communities through agricultural assistance to the local population. In this way, they were also counteracting support for the Taliban. The author notes that, in the decade after the programme's launch, the project had only a 19% success rate. However, he stresses that such forms of civil-military cooperation should be present in future operations. The next chapter, by Francis A. Galgan, analyses the activities of modern pirates through military-geographical or geological methods. Pirates, who pose a major international security threat, are present in four regions of the world: South and South-East Asia, East Africa and the Gulf of Guinea. Building on the data on pirate attacks between 1997 and 2017, the author shows the temporal and spatial patterns of pirate activities, as well as the influence of the geography of coastal areas on their activities. This is followed by another chapter with a maritime topic. Mark Stephen Blaine discusses the geography of territorial disputes in the South China Sea. Through a presentation of international law, the strategic importance of the sea (sea lanes, natural resources) and the overlapping territorial claims of China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Vietnam and Indonesia, the author shows the increasing level of conflict in the area and calls for the utmost efforts to be made to prevent the outbreak of hostilities or war. M. H. Bulmer's paper analyses the Turkish Armed Forces' activities in Syria from the perspective of military geology. The author focuses on the Kurdish forces' defence projects, which mainly involved the construction of gun trenches, observation towers or points, tunnels and underground facilities, as well as on the Turkish armed forces' actions against this military infrastructure. This involved both mountain and underground warfare activities. While these defensive infrastructures proved to be successful during the guerrilla warfare period, direct Turkish attacks on these installations demonstrated their vulnerability. The last chapter deals with the current operational needs and limitations of military geosciences from the perspective of the Austrian Armed Forces. Friedrich Teichmann points out that the global operational interest of states determines the need for accurate geo-data as well as geo-support in case of rapidly evolving requirements. In this context, geoscience must respond to new forms of threats, both asymmetric and cyber, at a time when resources for geospatial services are limited, which also requires greater synergy and an innovative approach to finding solutions among multiple stakeholders. This also includes increased digitisation, including the use of satellite and other space technologies. The number of chapters in the publication illustrates the breadth and depth of military geoscience, as well as the relevance of geoscience to past, present and future conflicts or military operations and missions. The current military operations in Ukraine demonstrate the need to take into account the geo-geological realities of the environment and that terrain remains one of the decisive factors for success on the battlefield, irrespective of the technological developments in military engineering and technology. This can also be an incentive for Slovenian researchers and the Slovenian Armed Forces to increase research activities in the field of military geosciences, especially in view of the rich military and war history in the geographically and geologically diverse territory of Slovenia.

Summary Although dramatically reduced in Western and developed countries, maternal mortality is still today one of the most relevant social and health scourges in developing countries. This is the reason why high levels of maternal mortality are always interpreted as a sign of low living standards, ignorance, poverty and woman discrimination. Maternal mortality represents, therefore, a very peculiar characteristic of demographic systems of ancien regime. Despite this important role in demographic systems, no systematic study has been addressed to investigate the impact of maternal mortality in historical Italy. The aim of this article is to shed some light on such a phenomenon by investigating its trend over time and the determinants in some Italian populations between the 18th and the early 20th centuries. The analysis will make use of civil and parish registers linked together by means of nominative techniques, and it will be, therefore, carried out at the micro level.

This article provides information on the establishment of military education in Turkestan in the second half of the 19th century, in particular, the establishment of the Tashkent Cadet School on the basis of the Academy of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the development of military education.

SUMMARYThe Lipizzaner is one of Europe's most ancient breeds; its history goes back to the early 16th century The original stock came from the North of Italy and Spain; six male lines introduced in the second half of the 18th century and the early 19th century, from Naples, the Austro-Hungarian empire, Denmark and Arabia upgraded the breed to its actual standard. The Italian national stud of Montemaggiore is perpetrating the Lipizzaner tradition. The horses are kept under extensive grazing conditions and all six “families” (Napolitano,Conversaro, Favory, Pluto, Maestoso and Siglavy) are present.

Conflict archaeology has significant traditions in Hungary. This paper presents conflict archaeological research on three military sites of the 19th and 20th centuries (the battlefield of Kismegyer, the POW camp of Ostffyasszonyfa and the aircraft wreck of Bágyogszovát) associated with the Ministry of Defence Military History Institute and Museum. Finally, the Appendix concludes the study by presenting 25 more Hungarian conflict archaeological research projects from the Napoleonic Wars to the Cold War.

In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you nine scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation and development of natural history museology in Europe in the 15th–19th centuries. The development of scientific knowledge at that time affects the idea of the world order and the place of man in it, and the combination of knowledge with practical experience leads to the birth of true science. It is shown that one of the most important components of the development of natural sciences, in particular biological sciences, was the collection of naturalia (i.e. objects of natural origin), the rapid surge of interest in which contributed to the Great Geographical Discoveries. In chronological order, the further historical development of museum work from private collections in Italy to the formation of a prototype of a genuine museum, which performs the main museum functions such as amassment, storage and demonstration of collections, is considered. The article by Leonid Griffen and co-authors considers the object and subject of the history of science and technology, its place in the system of sciences. Today, more and more people are turning to the factors that determine the interaction of the society with the environment (productive forces of the society), to study which in the historical aspect and called a special scientific discipline the history of science and technology. The composition and development of the technosphere and noosphere are considered in the article. It is shown that the functioning of the technosphere is based on its interaction with the noosphere, which provides information about the environment and controls the effectiveness of interaction with it. It is formed by combining the mental structures of individuals through sign systems. The production process that ensures the functioning of the society begins with the noosphere, which through individual consciousness controls the actions of each individual, who through the means of production (technosphere) interacts with the natural environment. However, the gradual development of productive forces leads at some point to the fact that the information needed by the individual to perform all necessary actions for the benefit of the society, ceases to fit in his individual consciousness. As a result, there is a new social phenomenon the social division of labor. The cardinal solution to the problem is the prospect of humanity entering infinite space. The article by Jun-Young Oh and Hyesook Han is devoted to the study of what Understanding mathematical abstraction in the formularization of Galileo's law. Galileo's revolution in science introduced an analytical method to science that typifies the overall modern thinking of extracting, abstracting, and grasping only critical aspects of the target phenomena and focusing on “how”, which is a quantitative relationship between variables, instead of “why”. For example, to him, the question of 'why does an object fall' is of no significance; instead, only the quantitative relationship between distance from the falling object and time is important. Yet, the most fundamental aspect of his idea is that he introduced a quantified time t. Because, according to atomic theory, vacuum exists between an atom and an object composed of atoms or between objects – ignoring factors that interfere with motion, such as friction – the space for absolute time, which is a mathematical time, can be geometrically defined. In order to justify this mathematical abstraction strategy, thought experiments were conducted rather than laboratory experiments, which at that time were difficult to perform. The article by Vasyl Andriiashko and co-authors provides a thorough overview of the evolutionary process of the emergence, establishment, and development of the Kyiv school of artistic textiles. It reveals the influence of various factors (ideological, political, economic, and aesthetic) on this process. The historical and factual method allowed us to study socio-economic, as well as historical and cultural factors that contributed to the emergence, establishment, and development of the Kyiv textile school in a chronological sequence. It is established that the very fact of emergence of the Kyiv school of artistic textile, as a community of style, unity of forms, preservation, and continuity of traditions, had unbiased backgrounds since Ukrainian decorative weaving, a part of which is Kyiv weaving, inherited the abundant artistic traditions that were created over the centuries and most vividly manifested through the art of Kyivan Rus. In the next article, the authors Artemii Bernatskyi and Mykola Sokolovskyi is devoted to the study history of military laser technology development in military applications. For better understanding and systematization of knowledge about development of historical applications in the military field, an analysis of publicly known knowledge about their historical applications in the leading world countries was conducted. The study focuses on development that was carried out by the superpowers of the Cold War and the present era, namely the United States, the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China, and were built in metal. Multiple avenues of various applications of laser technology in military applications were studied, namely: military laser rangefinders; ground and aviation target designators; precision ammunition guidance systems; non-lethal anti-personnel systems; systems, designed to disable optoelectronics of military vehicles; as well as strategic and tactical anti-air and missile defense systems. The issues of ethical use of laser weapons and the risks of their use in armed conflicts, which led to an international consensus in the form of conventions of the United Nations and the International Committee of the Red Cross, were also considered. As a result of the analysis, a systematic approach to the classification of applications of laser technology in military products by three main areas of development was proposed: ancillary applications, non-lethal direct action on the human body and optical devices of military equipment, and anti-aircraft and anti-missile defensive systems. The author of the following article considered the front line transporter as the embodiment of the USSR military doctrine in the middle of the 20th century. The paper based on a source analysis of the history of creation, design, and production of LuAZ-967, LuAZ-967M, against the background of the processes of implementing projects of small tactical high mobility wheeled vehicles for the armies of European countries, shows that the developing, testing, and commissioning a front line transporter became a deepening of the process of motorization of the Soviet army. The designs of similar vehicles have been analyzed. An attempt to assess the degree of uniqueness of the front line transporter design and its place in the history of technology, as well as its potential as a reminder of science and technology has been made. An analysis of the front line transporter design, its systems, compared with its foreign counterparts, suggests that it is a Soviet refinement of the concept of a small army vehicle, a more specific means directly for the battlefield. At the same time, it was developed taking into account foreign developments and similar designs, imitating individual designs, adapting to the capabilities of the USSR automotive industry. The next article is devoted to the study, generalization and systematization of scientific knowledge about the history of the establishment, development and operation of the regional railway system in Bukovyna in the second half of XIX – early XX centuries. The authors attempted to analyze the process of creation and operation of railways in Bukovyna during the reign of the Austro-Hungarian Empire based on a wide range of previously unpublished archival documents, periodicals, statistical literature and memoirs. The article studies the development of organizational bases for the construction of railways, the activity of the communication network management, lists a whole range of requirements and tasks set for railway transport in Bukovyna, the progress of their implementation, considers successes and difficulties in this work. The purpose of the article by authors Sana Simou, Khadija Baba and Abderrahman Nounah is to reveal, recreate as accurately as possible the characteristics of an archaeological site or part of it. The restoration and conservation of monuments and archaeological sites is a delicate operation. It requires fidelity, delicacy, precision and archaeological authenticity. Research during the last two decades has proved that 3D modeling, or the digital documentation and visualization of archaeological objects in 3D, is valuable for archaeological research. The study has opted for the technique of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry by 3D surveys of architectural elements, to develop an archetype of the deteriorated Islamic Marinid site (a dynasty between the 13th and 15th centuries), and the Roman site (25 BC), located at the Chellah archaeological site in Rabat and Salé cities. The data acquired build an architectural database to archive and retrieve the entire existing architecture of monuments. This study has been completed by photogrammetrists, architects, and restorers. The issue of the journal ends with an article devoted to the analyzing the prerequisites and conditions for the foundation of an aircraft engine enterprise in Ukraine. Based on the retrospective analysis, the prerequisites and conditions of the foundation of the aircraft engine enterprise in Aleksandrovsk, Ukraine, were considered. There was a severe gap between the Russian Empire and European countries in the development pace of the aviation industry during World War I. This prompted the Russian Empire to raise foreign capital, as well as attract technologies and specialists to develop aircraft engineering and other industries. By 1917, the plant had gained the status of Russia’s largest engine-building enterprise in terms of building area and one of the best in equipment. It is evident that the beginning of aircraft engine production in Aleksandrovsk relates to the establishment of a branch of Petrograd Joint Stock Company of Electromechanical Structures and the plant’s purchase from the Moznaim brothers. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions.

Until now, it was believed that the first experience of using female labor in military medicine dates back to the middle of the 19th century, when during the Crimean War of 1853-1856. a detachment of sisters of mercy under the leadership of N. I. Pirogov worked in the theater of military operations. However, some documents indicate that in peacetime, female personnel in domestic military medicine began to be used much earlier.

Alexander the Great (356 B.C – 323 B.C) has gone down in history as one of the greatest conquerors of Antiquity. By the time he was 30, he had conquered most of the known world. The territory under his control lay from Greece in the west, southward through Egypt and eastward to India. His military successes made him an inspiration to many writers of his time and later. Since his life span corresponds to the era that today we call Hellenism, he is mentioned in all the educational systems of Europe. From their first appearance on this continent, school books have alluded to Alexander and his conquests. The first history textbooks in the Serbian language emerged in Serbia in the mid-19th century and they, too, included Alexander the Great. In this paper, we shall show how the history of Alexander was taught at the time and how his feats influenced generations of Serbian children educated at the first schools founded in the areas of the Habsburg Empire that they inhabited.

Provincial politics in the Russian Empire depended on the personality of the emperor, his views and worldview. During the years of Paul’s Government an extreme form of centralization has been established in the activities of the State apparatus. With the arrival of Emperor Alexander I, there was, in our opinion, a symbolic removal of the distance between the supreme power and its military support, which, in fact, removed obstacles to the spontaneous inclusion of the military in political activity in the next fluctuations of this monarch’s line.

Water-powered facilities (WPFs) have traditionally been a pillar of the economy and social development. Therefore, the state took an interest in having these objects recorded and mapped in relevant maps and registers. This article focuses on identifying and localizing WPFs in the Moravice River basin in the so-called Sudetenland, Czechia, between the years 1763 and 2021. Specifically, the evolution and (dis)continuity of the WPFs are assessed through an analysis of cartographic and archival sources, reflecting the wider socioeconomic and demographic context as explanatory variables. The cartographic sources included old military topographic maps of Austria-Hungary and Czechoslovakia from four periods (the mid-18th century, mid-19th century, end of the 19th century, and mid-20th century) on the one hand and two state water-powered facility registers from 1930 and 1953 on the other. The archival sources included funds from regional and state archives. The results show that the count of WPFs peaked during the 19th century, after which there occurred a steep decline caused by societal and economic changes, namely, the expulsion of the local German population, nationalization in the postwar period, and economic and organizational transformations in the socialist era. Special attention is paid to hydropower plants, whose evolution reflects the outlined economic processes.

The article focuses on the beginning of the process of formation of museum collections relevant to the military past of the Dnieper Ukraine in the 19th — first decade of the 20th century. It is determined, in the research scope, that the process of creating museum exhibits, which consisted of monuments of military historical heritage, was influenced by the following: the development of archaeological research, which was stimulated by the domination of classicism, which induced interest in the ancient past, the imperial power ideologizing the historical process, the Ukrainian nobility (descendants of the Cossacks elders) preserving historical memory of the victorious past of their people, and so on. It is found, that during the 19th century, museumification of the 19th and early 20th centuries military heritage had several trends: the creation of “propaganda” exposition, which would remind of the key, from the tsarist regime point of view, imperial army victories, foster respect for the imperial family and the royal power institution self, commemorate imperial myths, the formation of the Cossacks antiquities collections, initiated by Ukrainian intellectuals and scholars; expositions formed by the military according to purely professional interest. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, a number of museums, which had monuments of military history as a part of their collections, were founded. Some of the aforementioned museums are the following: the Museum of Ukrainian Antiquities in Chernihiv, the Museum of Heroic Defense and the Liberation of the City of Sevastopol, the Museum of Poltava Battle, etc. Museumification of the military heritage has stimulated the development of various areas of special military-historical research.

Conflicts over citizenship and military service became a central issue in Italian-American relations in the early twentieth century. The United States and Italy founded their concepts of citizenship on two different bases, jus soli and jus sanguinis. As a consequence of this difference and the swelling number of Italian immigrants naturalized in America, the two governments' policies about naturalization and military service collided until 1918. The Italian government's policy put Italian Americans' loyalty to the United States in jeopardy, especially for men who wished to return to Italy for business or educational purposes. Thus, the study of Italian Americans' experiences in the context of the policies of both countries illustrates a key aspect of the relationship between the United States and Italy, both in terms of social experience and public policy.

At the end of the 18th — first half of the 19th century, the Orenburg province was a vast frontier region in the southeast of the Russian Empire. The border position on the border with the Kazakh steppe, the presence of a defensive line on which irregular troops served, the motley ethno-confessional composition of the population were the differences between this territory and the “internal provinces”. The specifics of the Orenburg province led to the formation of a special regional administration. Its center was the institution of military governorship, which had the features of a special administration. The status of the military governor, as a “chief of the province”, was determined by the law of appointment; the possibility of direct appeal to the emperor; principles of selection for the position; powers for military border management, management of the Separate Orenburg Corps, management of the civilian part of the province. He had the right of administrative initiative, control and supervisory functions in relation to provincial institutions. The government showed interest in the stable functioning of the institute of military governorship. This was reflected in the expansion of the staff of the office, the adaptation of its structure to the functions performed, and the increase in the employees’ salaries. Officials on special assignments were among the most trusted persons of the military governor. They took a real part in the administration of the region. The regional model of governance of the Orenburg province at the end of the 18th — first half of the 19th century solved the problems it faced. It ensured stability and unity of government in the vast border region.

Introduction, Materials and Methods. The paper is devoted to the study of the history of the military order at the factories of Sergey Ivanovich Maltsov in the middle of the 19th century, as well as the influence of the Crimean War (1853–1856) on the development of production. The problem is considered in the context of the current challenges of that time. The relevance of the study is due to the demand for experience in economic development in the context of escalating international tension and military actions. The source base of the work is both published and archival materials. The research was carried out within the framework of traditional methods of historical analysis in the paradigm of modernization theory. Results. The author analyses the process of fulfilling a military order for the supply of industrial products. The article gives a broad panorama of the sectoral specialization of the family business and the current activities of the economy. Also, the mechanisms for modernizing production are highlighted, and the role of the owner in the formation of production policy is shown. Discussion and Conclusion. The need to fulfill military orders, the growth of their volumes and assortment at private factories are associated with the depletion of resources of the state-owned industry, traditionally focused on supplying the army and navy. The Crimean War showed the depreciation of factory equipment, outdated production technologies, and the inefficiency of serf labor.

Review of: Witnesses to War: The History of Australian Conflict Reporting, by Fay Anderson and Richard Trembath. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2011, 501 pp, ISBN 978-0522856446 (pbk)Witnesses to War: The History of Australian Conflict Reporting provides a thorough-going account of the developments and, importantly, of continuities which have characterised Australian reporting of foreign wars since the 19th century. It is a welcome addition to the growing body of conflict reporting literature, in particular to that which concerns the local experience. It is clear the forces which structure Australian war journalism have remained relatively constant throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.

Although little known, the theoretical and methodological roots of lie detection, in particular of the development of the so-called "lie detector", must be placed in central Europe, in particular in Germany, Austria, and later in Italy at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Focusing on Austria and Italy, we trace this development from Hans Gross in Austria to Vittorio Benussi and his pupil Cesare L. Musatti in Italy. Benussi, initially active at the University of Graz and later at the University of Padua, was the mediating link between the Austrian and Italian legal psychology tradition.

We consider the social and legal status, family status and class transformations of soldiers’ offspring in the second half of the 19th century. The great reforms of the 60–70s of the 19th century did not actually affect the regulation of children of lower ranks and reserve soldiers. In this context, it is clear that there has been very little change in the situation of such children compared to the recruitment period. Soldiers’ children in the 19th century continued to fill up the lumpenized population groups of the Russian Empire, and their situation remained shaky, unstable and uncertain. We reveal the historical and legal dynamics aspects of the social and class status of children of representatives of the “military class”: soldiers’ children, reserve soldiers’ children, recruits’ children. We ascertain features of the charity and welfare organization for the families with called up soldiers during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. Attracting a wide range of archival sources and published materials allowed quite successfully to reconstruct existing social and legal regulation and the practice of charity “military offspring” of lower ranks soldiers. We reveal features of the “reflection” of soldiers’ position in primary archival documents and legislative acts, including social and legal conflicts and trends that determined the life and fate of “military children”. We give a historiographic assessment of the study of legal status of soldiers’ children and their everyday life in the war and peace years of the second half of the 19th century. We identify research gaps in the works of domestic and foreign historians on the stated issues. We draw conclusions about the prospects of studying the post-reform ethnic and social, social and cultural, class and legal features of the soldier’s offspring, which is still “in the shadow” of research interest in the history community. We prove that “soldiers’ children” were and remained a special social institution in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. We reveal the peculiarities of studying this category of “military class” in pre-reform and post-reform Russia.

During the 19th century most of the Ionian islands played a leading role in the Greek musical life. The vicinity of the islands with Italy combined with the Venetian domination were two facts that helped the creation of strong links between the Ionian islands' and the Italian cultures. The phenomenon of the visits of Greek composers to Italy during the 19th century in order to study at the principal conservatories of the country is one of the most interesting aspects of the history of Ionian music. The relations of individual composers with Italian composers, professors and music institutions are considered together with relevant aspects of Greek and Italian musical ties. The traveling of Greek composers to Italy for educative purposes is regarded not only as a historic phenomenon but also as a major step in their career. References are made regarding their contacts with distinguished Italian composers and intellectuals. Furthermore, the success of Greek composers in Italy is an undoubtful fact. A considerable part of Greek composers' musical works was performed and published in Italy. Facts indicating the success and the effect of Greek composers' work on the Italian musical life are given with references to primary music and literary sources.

Italy's colonial history is better known for its failures (notably the battle of Adwa, the major defeat of a Western power by an African army in the 19th century) than for its achievements. Italy succeeded in conquering a substantial «empire» only in the 20th century, when the traditional colonial powers were already in retreat1. But this has not always been the case. The Venetian republic successfully ruled for many centuries the first «colonial» empire in Western Europe 2.

This article deals with the various forms of manipulation that the Italian edition of Gibbon's masterpiece demanded in the frame of Restoration Italy. The first edition of the Italian translation from Tuscany is considered too, in order to display how Italian translators and publishers succeed in the huge censorship examination. At the same moment, the article deals with the Catholic former response to Gibbon, in a comparison with the British reactions edited by Womersley. Finally, the Italian edition of Gibbon is focused in an enlarged outcast of the translation of history during the first decays of 19th century Italy.

In Italy at the end of 19th Century, malaria cases amounted to 2 million with 15,000-20,000 deaths per year. Malignant tertian malaria was present in Central-Southern areas and in the islands. Early in the 20th Century, the most important act of the Italian Parliament was the approval of laws regulating the production and free distribution of quinine and the promotion of measures aiming at the reduction of the larval breeding places of Anopheline vectors. The contribution from the Italian School of Malariology (Camillo Golgi, Ettore Marchiafava, Angelo Celli, Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli) to the discovery of the transmission’s mechanism of malaria was fundamental in fostering the initiatives of the Parliament of the Italian Kingdom. A program of cooperation for malaria control in Italy, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation started in 1924, with the establishment of the Experimental Station in Rome, transformed in 1934 into the National Institute of Public Health. Alberto Missiroli, Director of the Laboratory of Malariology, conducted laboratory and field research, that with the advent of DDT brought to Italy by the Allies at the end of the World War II, allowed him to plan a national campaign victorious against the secular scourge.

The system solutions in the field of horse riding technique appeared for the first time in Italy in the 16th century, but at the same time equestrian academies also functioned in other countries, e.g. Austria, France, Germany and Russia. They formed the horse riding system which was based on such movements that horse never performs in its natural habitat. Therefore, according to the methodology research, applicable in historical and pedagogical sciences, an attempt was made to determine stages of the Art of Horsemanship on the European continent. In the research process, it was established that the horse riding style that had been being practiced for several centuries, was not changed until the late 19th century. The revolutionary changes, based on years of observation and experience, were made by Captain Federico Caprilli of the Military Equestrian School in Pinerolo (Italy). The result of his observations accepeted in 1906 was an innovative horse riding system called natural. A great numer of officers from 22 countries were coming to Italy at that time to learn the new system. As it was very practical, it became quickly adapted by equestrian sport.

The article examines the relations between Byzantine garrisons on the Apennine Peninsula and the emperors in the 6th century. Already during the (re)conquest of Italy, measures were taken to integrate these territories into the Byzantine structures of the civil and military administration. However, the remoteness of the region periodically led to the interruptions of material supply of the Italian troops. These difficulties negatively affected the authority of the emperors among the military men. Another major problem was the scarcity of forces stationed in Italy. In addition, among them, there were many soldiers and commanders of barbarian origin, whose loyalty to Byzantium was largely situational. For these reasons, when faced with a numerous and successful enemy, they could defect to its side. Such was the situation on the Apennine Peninsula in 541, when the Ostrogoths, led by King Totila, went over to a counteroffensive. In all likelihood, the situation was similar during the Lombard conquest of Northern Italy in 568. The remoteness from the capital of the empire also led to the fact that the soldiers were more focused on loyalty not to the Byzantine rulers, but to local military leaders. These factors caused the weakness of imperial positions on the Apennine Peninsula.

Topicality of the study of the development of artillery as a special type of weapons and equipment in connection with artillery science in the past years of the Russian history is justified by the historical connection with the current state of science in general and with the development of military equipment and industry. The experience of establishing ways of developing scientific thought and solving certain tasks for the development of artillery weapons can be used to determine the directions and forecasts of further development of weapons and military organisation as a whole. The author believes that the main purpose of his work is an attempt to study some aspects of the artillery weapons development history in relation to the state of Russian industry, technology and scientific knowledge in the late 16th century – the first quarter of the 19th century. The article focuses on the fact that in the early 19th century, in the Russian artillery, a number of measures were carried out, primarily aimed at improving the material part of field artillery. It is established that comparative data of the field artillery of the Russian army with the artillery of certain European states show that the former, in the first quarter of the 19th century, had high technical and combat qualities; it was in no way inferior to the best French artillery at that time and was significantly higher than the Prussian, Austrian ones as well as ones of a number of other states. The author comes to the conclusion that the metallurgical plants of Russia, involved in manufacturing artillery weapons, had a relatively developed foundry and more advanced technical equipment than the metallurgical plants of the previous period. This in turn made it possible to provide the artillery of the Russian army with materiel and shells of higher quality.

In the history of Bukovinian social life in the 1840–1850s, an important role is played by the fierce struggle for the introduction of rail transport. This struggle took place in the deepening crisis of the feudal system and the development of capitalism in the Austrian Empire. Primitive medieval methods of transporting goods and passengers by waterways and unpaved roads, which for centuries met the needs of feudal Bukovyna, became a brake on the economic, social and political progress of the Bukovyna region. The beginning of the transport revolution in England had a huge public response in Austria-Hungary. The rapidly developing relationship between scientists and engineers from Austria, Western Europe and America in this period made a large contribution to the process, as the newest means of transportation were spreading in the early 19th century, first of all, in the industrialized regions of Europe. These regions had enough funds for the construction of roads because they could develop different methods of production. Today we are mostly interested in the projects of construction of typical means of transportation on agricultural lands with practically no industry. In the early 19th century, Bukovyna was one of them. The purpose of this article is to thoroughly analyze unpaved roads of the late 18th – early 19th century, as well as the project of the first wooden trackway as the forerunner of the Bukovyna railways. To achieve this purpose, the authors first reviewed how railways were constructed in the Austrian Empire during 1830s – 1850s. Then, in contrast with the first railway networks that emerged and developed in the Austrian Empire, the authors made an analysis of the condition and characteristics of unpaved roads in Bukovyna. The government's attention to Bukovyna's roads was explained by their military, economic and political significance for the Austrian Empire by the end of the 18th – early 19th century. There was a number of state trackways built on the territory of Bukovyna which crossed the region and ensured the military interconnection of two Austrian provinces named – Galicia and Transylvania, as well as approached the borders of the Russian Empire and the Danube principalities. At the same time, they helped to restore the suspended trade flow in Bukovyna. In addition, the authors considered the first attempt to create a wooden trackway as a prototype and predecessor of the Bukovyna railway. It is evident that such an idea played a significant role in shaping the development strategy of the region in the minds of Austrian and Bukovinian officials, and became a forerunner for main and regional railways in Bukovyna.

The article is a review of the works of Russian historians studying the events of the Italian and Swiss campaigns of A. V. Suvorov in the military-anthropological context. Among the numerous works on the campaign of 1799, the topic of the everyday life of soldiers is revealed only by individual authors, relying on a number of personal sources published as early as the 19th century. Other aspects of the life of Suvorov soldiers during campaigns: relations with the local population and with military personnel of other contingents, attitudes towards assigned military tasks, illnesses, women — all these topics, if they were touched upon by Russian authors, were only in passing.

Geodetic surveying comprises the determination of locations on and the dimensions of the earth’s surface at a various scales. In the 19th century, its technologies are those of direct measurement of the earth’s surface combined with astronomical observations. Its social context encompasses all those individuals and institutions involved in the creation, preservation, use, and arrangement of knowledge of the earth. In the introductory part of the paper the author mentions several important events in the history of the 19th century geodesy. Geodetic work on determining the size of the Earth by measuring the lengths of the meridian arcs continues in this century. An international surveying organization was established and the international meter convention adopted. Basing on a detailed research of geodetic surveying in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe in the 19th century, a part of these surveys is presented that relates to Switzerland, Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia. Common to all these geodetic surveys is that they were necessary for the development of cartography and were carried out by military institutions. The developed geodetic networks are characterized by the use of different ellipsoids, different prime meridians, different coordinate systems and their origin. In the area under consideration in the 19th century, there were five different ellipsoids in use suggested by Bessel, Bonenberger, Schmidt, Valbeck and Zach. Prime meridians were

Beginning in the 80 years of 19th century , the Russian government and entrepreneurs began to invest in the development of protected and gray lands in the emirate, as well as in the expansion of cotton fields. It also introduced an industry related to the processing of raw cotton grown in the emirate. It also pursued a policy of relocating the military and Russian citizens to major cities in the emirate.

Research objectives: To analyze two previously overlooked plans of the village of Bolgary in the Spassky district of the Kazan province of the 19th century (copies of plans originally from the 18th century). Descriptions with explanations of the plans are given, visual information from cartographic sources is analyzed, and new details related to the history of the Bulgarian saltpeter plant of the second half of the 18th century are revealed. Research materials: Two cartographic sources of the 19th century from the funds of the State Archive of the Republic of Tatarstan, several published cartographic sources of different eras, a comparative analysis of maps and plans. Results and novelty of the research: An analysis of the information in the cartographic sources presented here supports the argument that these plans of the village of Bolgary were drawn up with the aim of dividing the lands of the peasant community of the village of Bolgary. All the currently known plans of the 19th–20th centuries pursued more historical and architectural goals for the purpose of studying the Bulgarian settlement and its monuments. In the foreground, the stone buildings inside the Bulgarian settlement, with the exception of the Large Minaret, the structure between it, and, the Assumption Church (Cathedral Mosque), are localized in nine buildings or their remains. Three more buildings are listed on the territory of a small town, but the most interesting elements are four stone buildings that are drawn outside the ramparts of the settlement, in the southeast. The second plan reveals for the first time that the Bulgarian Saltpeter Plant was run by the artillery team of the Kazan Military Department. The buildings of the Bulgarian Saltpeter Plant occupied an area of one tithe of 636 fathoms or 1.38 hectares. Also in the background, there are ten more “stone ruins”, although some of them are possibly mills.

The editorial staff of the journal “Library Science” has already addressed to the subject of officer libraries in the army of the first half of the 19th century [21]. The article is concerned with the history of creation and development of the library of officer assembly of the Finnish regiment Life-Guards. The work continues journal publications [11-14, 19, 20, 22] on the history of the military libraries of Russian army.

This article analyses the colonial history of Brazilian states of Bahia, Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo during the 19th century, from an ethnohistorical perspective. Economical interests motiveded the the colonization of this region. The Botocudos Indians inhabited the area and as they didn't accept calmly their land invasion the colonizers used military strategies. This kind of political strategy used to "bring the progess to the area" resulted in the almost total extermination of the Botocudos. The principles on which this kind of contacts with Indian peoples were based are still present in nowa-days indigenous policies in Brazil

This article analyses the colonial history of Brazilian states of Bahia, Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo during the 19th century, from an ethnohistorical perspective. Economical interests motiveded the the colonization of this region. The Botocudos Indians inhabited the area and as they didn't accept calmly their land invasion the colonizers used military strategies. This kind of political strategy used to "bring the progess to the area" resulted in the almost total extermination of the Botocudos. The principles on which this kind of contacts with Indian peoples were based are still present in nowa-days indigenous policies in Brazil

The concept of "military architecture", unfortunately, has not yet been established in the domestic theory and history of architecture. Outlining a set of methodological problems associated with the formation, we consider it appropriate to propose to study several previous tasks: a) to develop a special approach to the formation of its theoretical and conceptual apparatus as a basis for the development of this area in domestic architectural science; b) to publish a dictionary of fortification architecture of Ukraine by collective efforts; c) to create a public scientific-advisory body that would perform coordination functions on the research of military architecture. This body or organization should be a liaison between ministries, state reserves, universities, state bodies for the protection of cultural heritage, and public organizations. The purpose of our publication is related to the first task. In line with the formation of the conceptual apparatus, we want to outline some key theoretical provisions on the defense architecture of the nineteenth century. According to the results of our research, we propose to conditionally divide the so-called "negative militarism" of the industrial period (ie, actually the nineteenth century and later) and "positive militarism" of the pre-industrial time. It is also proposed to expand the concept of "object of military architecture", including objects of administrative, service and other infrastructure. The results of our research indicate that the fortifications of Galicia in the mid-nineteenth century were in fact the only full expression of the movement of modernization of Venetian-Renaissance objects in Austrian military architecture. Thus, the objects of military architecture of Galicia (Lviv, Krakow, Przemyśl, Mykolayiv-Rozvadiv, Zalishchyky, etc.) occupy an exceptional position in the history of both Austrian and European architectural heritage.

Based on archival materials (reports of the Orenburg border and customs departments, orders of the military governors of the Orenburg region, letters from the injured merchants, etc.), the article considers cases of attacks of the Central Asian nomads on the merchant caravans in the early 19th century. The main means of trade and transport communication between the Russian Empire, Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand were caravans, their size sometimes reached several thousand loaded camels. At that time, the steppes that separated the Russian border from the main trading cities of Central Asia were insufficiently explored, difficult to traverse, and very unsafe. Armed nomadic groups moving along the imperial border and deep in the Kazakh steppe were a direct threat to slow-moving and poorly guarded caravans. Steppe raiders were attracted by a diverse range of valuable goods and a large number of working animals, so valued by nomadic cultures. Merchants, their clerks, and hired workers were often killed in clashes with raiders. Those Russian merchants who were robbed of their money and property sought support from the leadership of the Orenburg province and even sent messages to the central Russian government.

The role of Francesco di Giorgio (1439-1501) in developing the forms of artillery fortification marking the transition from late medieval defenses to the mature bastioned forts of the 16th century is becoming clearer as additional research has enhanced our knowledge of the chronology of his interventions, the maturation of design elements, and the interlocking personal, institutional, and political factors in his work for the Aragonese Kingdom of Naples. These efforts by Francesco di Giorgio and his associates focused on Naples, Otranto, Gallipoli, Taranto, Manfredonia, Monte Sant'Angelo, Reggio Calabria, Ortona, Matera, and Brindisi. Archival sources, investigation of the sites, and surviving graphic materials contribute substantially to identifying this "school" of military architects and the evolution of design brought about by the technological challenge of gunpowder, firearms, and siege artillery.

Introduction. The article considers the development of military educational structures of the Russian military settlement organization at various stages of their activity. In the 1810s and 1850s, training battalions, squadrons, batteries, and combat reserve units trained children of Cantonese military settlers to serve in the army as Junior and non-commissioned officers. Specialized educational institutions taught topographers, builders, doctors, veterinarians, agronomists and other training specialists to serve in the settlement districts. Methods and materials. The author explores models of developing military educational institutions on the basis of materials of complexes of legislative, statistical and reporting documents applying methods of quantitative analysis (trend models, grouping method), comparative analysis using source-oriented, problem-oriented, and system-structural approaches. Analysis. All this made it possible to trace the evolution of government policy aimed at training army personnel and noncommissioned officers based on changing historical realities (the army’s needs for trained personnel, the reform of the military settlement organization), and the results of its implementation, as well as to show the numerical corps of graduates of training units of military settlements and its growth in time and space. Results. The main stages of the development of military educational structures of settlements and periods of their quantitative growth are also defined, which resulted in the multiplication of the number of graduates for the army service. The formation and expansion of the entire educational system of settlements was carried out as the need for special-profile personnel arose in the settled regiments. In the 1820s – 1850s, new special educational institutions were integrated into it, and primary education developed along a transformed vector.

In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II orchestrated the slaughter of 6,000–7,000 janissaries and, in order to incinerate any janissary remnants that had taken refuge there, burned the Belgrade Forest outside Istanbul. During his reign (1808–39), the sultan attacked many of the other bases of the ancien régime, such as the timar system, the lifetime tax farms, and the political autonomy of provincial notables. He also centralized the pious foundations, brought them under a special ministry, and expropriated their revenues. Such stories of Sultan Mahmud's dramatic and violent policies, as well as their 18th-century origins and their 19th-century legacies, are familiar ones in Ottoman and Middle Eastern history. It is a commonplace that Sultan Mahmud aimed to dismantle the power of the military and religious classes in favor of a new bureaucracy of administrators and scribes. And it is also known that his efforts had a major impact on the subsequent evolution of the Tanzimat reform programs during the later 19th century.

The activities of the military and naval authorities in organizing military production in the mining industry of the Urals in the second quarter of the 19thcentury have been analyzed in the article. Despite a large number of studies on the history of military management mainly devoted to the period of the reign of Alexander I the organization of the military economy in historiography has not been given sufficient attention. The researchers did not consider the issues of state regulation of the military order at the mining plants of the Urals. The author has made an attempt to analyze the changes in the structure of the economic management of the military and naval departments during the reform of the state apparatus during the reign of Nicholas I, to show their role in organizing the military order at the mining plants of the Urals. The main sources of the research were the legislative and normative acts regulating the organization of the activities of military and naval control bodies, the procedure for manufacturing and accepting military products from mining plants. Also involved are archival materials from the military command and control bodies concentrated in the Federal archives. In the process of analyzing the factual materialhistorical-genetic and problem-chronological research methods were used. As a result the author concludes that the central bodies of military and naval control played the key role in organizing the military order. In particular, the leadership of the artillery department was under the joint jurisdiction of the Artillery Department and the General Feldzheichmeister. The artillery department of the War Ministry was responsible for supplying the army with weapons. It was in charge of determining the volume of the military order monitoring the implementation of military orders and the quality of products through the artillery inspectors located at the mining plants. In the structure of the naval department in the second quarter of the 19th centurythe reorganization took place as well. Due to this reorganization a unified department was created, headed by the Naval Ministry. The mining plants of the Urals supplied shells and metals for the fleet. The author stated that the Artillery Department was responsible for the supply of weapons for the fleet in the structure of the ministry, and the procurement of metals was under the jurisdiction of the Shipbuilding Department

In the article, on the basis of documents of the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA) that have not been previously introduced into scientific circulation, the activities of N. I. Ivanov, a famous merchant of the second half of the 19th century in the Turkestan General Government, which became rich on military supplies to the Russian army during the period of conquests in Central Asia is given. For the first time in Russian historiography, the functioning of the Central Asian Commercial Bank (1881-1911) - the first commercial bank in Russian Turkestan, founded by N. I. Ivanov. The activity of private financial institutions in Central Asia is analyzed.

Among the topical issues of the history of the Turkestan Territory in the second half of the 19th century, which continue to arouse keen interest of domestic and foreign scientists today, is the uniform of the troops of the Turkestan Military District. In the scientific literature, no studies have been found that would comprehensively illuminate the issues of the dress of the Russian imperial troops who served in Central Asia

Review of the collection of works prepared by Gottfried Kratz (Gottfried Kratz. Russische Biblioteken in Deutschland. – Berlin : Peter Lang, 2020. – 231 s. (Arbeiten und Bibliographen zum Buch – und Bibliothekswesen. 17).The book in German comprises the papers by German and Russian researchers on public, academic, military and church libraries in the mid-19th century and up to present. The reviewer focuses on the works matching the profile of the “Scientific and Technical Libraries” journal. The presented works are based on vast archival materials and expand the knowledge of Russian-German library relationships within the mentioned historical period. The researchers of Russian diaspora abroad, book and library historians will make the readership of the book.

The present chapter examines the historiography of Vandal and Byzantine religion from ca. 1785 to the present. Until relatively recently, extended studies of post-Roman North Africa were scarce. The works of Charles Diehl (1896) and Christian Courtois (1955) are striking exceptions within a field primarily interested in earlier periods of North African history. During the 19th century, the Vandals were primarily viewed for their military and political activity, rather than their religious policies, and Byzantine Africa was generally presented as a coda to Roman and early Christian periods of occupation. The dramatic expansion of archaeological and philological scholarship in the latter part of the twentieth century had an important effect upon the understanding of these groups, but it is only in the last twenty years that detailed scrutiny of the later periods of pre-Islamic North Africa have become widespread.

The issue of teaching in military schools the discipline «military hygiene» is being considered. The experience of the Russian army shows that from the fourth quarter of the 19th century, and until 1917 military hygiene was an academic discipline in the training of cadets and officers. At the same time, programs and textbooks were created, even for training at the accelerated courses of cadets and officers during the First World War. The textbooks contained sections on the basics of international military law, human anatomy and physiology, food hygiene, water supply, placement of military personnel in stationary and field conditions, hygiene uniforms, bath and laundry services, personal hygiene, rules for maintaining the territory and cleaning battlefields. Separate chapters presented the issues of urgent illnesses for the troops and their prevention. At the same time, comparative statistics are provided on the irrecoverable losses of troops from weapons and mainly from diseases. In addition, the textbooks contained information on the organization of the army’s sanitary service, the rules for the arrangement of premises for the sick and wounded were considered. In the applications, even the «highest approved» Instruction for protecting the health of the military ranks of the active army, various methods and tools for hygienic analysis, methods, disinfectants and others were presented. Here you can find a list of control questions on the sections of the discipline and the answers to them, which indicates the control over the assimilation of the material.