Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Isolanti topologici'

I dispositivi elettronici che sfruttano proprietà legate allo spin elettronico costituiscono un settore molto promettente per lo sviluppo della nanoelettronica del futuro. Recentemente, gli isolanti topologici tridimensionali (IT-3D), quando posti a contatto con materiali ferromagnetici (FM), giocano un ruolo centrale nel contesto del miglioramento dell’efficienza di conversione tra spin e carica elettronici in eterostrutture di tipo FM/TI. L’oggetto principale di questa tesi è lo studio delle interazioni chimico-fisiche tra l’IT-3D Sb2Te3, nelle sue forme granulare ed epitassiale, con film di Fe e Co attraverso l’uso di tecniche di Diffrazione/Riflettività di raggi-X, spettroscopia di risonanza ferromagnetica (FMR) e pompaggio di spin in risonanza ferromagnetica (SP-FMR). In concomitanza con l’ottimizzazione delle proprietà dei materiali, un particolare interesse è stato rivolto verso l’impatto industriale della ricerca presentata. Per questo motivo, per la produzione di Sb2Te3 e di alcuni dei FM impiegati, sono state impiegate tecniche di deposizione di materiali su larga scala ( 4 pollici), quali la Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) e l’Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) rispettivamente. Una approfondita caratterizzazione chimica, strutturale e magnetica dell’interfaccia Fe/ Sb2Te3-granulare ha evidenziato un marcato intermixing tra i materiali e una generale tendenza degli atomi di Fe nel legare con l’elemento calcogenuro quando presente in un IT. Attraverso trattamenti termici rapidi e a bassa temperatura sottoposti sui film di Sb2Te3 granulare prima della crescita del Fe, l’interfaccia Fe/Sb2Te3-granulare è risultata morfologicamente più netta e chimicamente stabile. Lo studio di film sottili di Co cresciuti attraverso ALD su Sb2Te3 granulare ha permesso la produzione di interfacce Co/Sb2Te3-granulare di alta qualità, con la possibilità inoltre di modificare le proprietà magneto-strutturali dei film di Co attraverso una selezione appropriata di substrati. Con l’obbiettivo di migliorare le proprietà dei film di Sb2Te3, dei trattamenti termici specifici sono stati condotti su Sb2Te3 granulare appena cresciuto, ottenendo film di Sb2Te3 altamente orientati con una qualità cristallina vicina al cristallo singolo di tipo epitassiale. Questi substrati di Sb2Te3 sono stati utilizzati per produrre eterostrutture di Au/Co/Sb2Te3-epitassiale e Au/Co/Au/Sb2Te3-epitassiale per studiare la loro risposta di FMR. I dati di FMR per il campione Au/Co/Sb2Te3-epitassiale sono stati interpretati considerando un contributo di Two Magnon Scattering (TMS) dominante, verosimilmente a causa della presenza di rugosità magnetica all’interfaccia Co/Sb2Te3-epitassiale. L’introduzione di un interlayer di Au per evitare il contatto diretto tra Co e Sb2Te3 si è dimostrato vantaggioso per la totale eliminazione del contributo di TMS. Misure di SP-FMR sono state condotte sulla struttura ottimizzata Au/Co/Au/Sb2Te3-epitassiale, sottolineando il ruolo giocato dallo strato di Sb2Te3-epitassiale nel processo di SP. I segnali di SP ricavati da campioni di Au/Co/Au/Si(111) e Co/Au/Si(111) sono stati utilizzati per determinare l’efficienza di conversione spin-carica ottenuta dall’introduzione dello strato di Sb2Te3. L’efficienza estratta è stata calcolata interpretando i dati di SP-FMR attraverso i modelli di effetto Edelstein inverso ed effetto di Spin-Hall inverso, i quali hanno dimostrato che l’IT-3D Sb2Te3 è un candidato promettente per essere impiegato nella prossima generazione di dispositivi spintronici.
Spin-based electronic devices constitute an intriguing area in the development of the future nanoelectronics. Recently, 3D topological insulators (TI), when in contact with ferromagnets (FM), play a central role in the context of enhancing the spin-to-charge conversion efficiency in FM/TI heterostructures. The main subject of this thesis is the study of the chemical-physical interactions between the granular and epitaxial Sb2Te3 3D-TI with Fe and Co thin films by means of X-ray Diffraction/Reflectivity, Ferromagnetic Resonance spectroscopy (FMR) and Spin Pumping-FMR. Beside the optimization of the materials properties, particular care was taken on the industrial impact of the presented results, thus large-scale deposition processes such as Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) and Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) were adopted for the growth of the Sb2Te3 3D-TI and part of the FM thin films respectively. A thorough chemical, structural and magnetic characterization of the Fe/granular Sb2Te3 interface evidenced a marked intermixing between the materials and a general bonding mechanism between Fe atoms and the chalcogen element in chalcogenide-based TIs. Through rapid and mild thermal treatments performed on the granular Sb2Te3 substrate prior to Fe deposition, the Fe/granular-Sb2Te3 interface turned out to be sharper and chemically stable. The study of ALD-grown Co thin films deposited on top of the granular-Sb2Te3 allowed the production of high-quality Co/granular-Sb2Te3interfaces, with also the possibility to tune the magneto-structural properties of the Co layer through a proper substrate selection. In order to improve the structural properties of the Sb2Te3, specific thermal treatments were performed on the as deposited granular Sb2Te3, achieving highly oriented films with a nearly epitaxial fashion. The latter substrates were used to produce Au/Co/epitaxial-Sb2Te3 and Au/Co/Au/epitaxial-Sb2Te3 and the dynamic of the magnetization in these structures was investigated studying their FMR response. The FMR data for the Au/Co/Sb2Te3 samples were interpreted considering the presence of a dominant contribution attributed to the Two Magnon Scattering (TMS), likely due to the presence of an unwanted magnetic roughness at the Co/epitaxial-Sb2Te3 interface. The introduction of a Au interlayer to avoid the direct contact between Co and Sb2Te3 layers was shown to be beneficial for the total suppression of the TMS effect. SP-FMR measurements were conducted on the optimized Au/Co/Au/epitaxial-Sb2Te3 structure, highlighting the role played by the epitaxial Sb2Te3substrate in the SP process. The SP signals for the Au/Co/Au/Si(111) and Co/Au/Si(111) reference samples were measured and used to determine the effective spin-to-charge conversion efficiency achieved with the introduction of the epitaxial Sb2Te3 layer. The extracted SCC efficiency was calculated interpreting the SP-FMR data using the Inverse Edelstein effect and Inverse Spin-Hall effect models, which demonstrated that the Sb2Te3 3D-TI is a promising candidate to be employed in the next generation of spintronic devices.

Cette thèse a pour but de développer et d'utiliser un cadre cohérent permettant de caractériser les phases topologiques dans des milieux spatialement périodiques induites par une perturbation dépendant périodiquement du temps ("phases topologiques de Floquet" ou "isolants topologiques de Floquet"), en présence de symétries. Ces phases sont des généralisation des isolants topologiques apparues lors de l'étude d'isolants topologiques induits par la lumière ainsi que d'analogues ondulatoires des isolants topologiques (en acoustique, mécanique et optique). De nouveaux invariants topologiques caractérisant ces systèmes sont définis, en particulier en présence d'un renversement du temps fermionique. Les cas, déjà connus dans des situations particulières, des classes complexes A et AIII de Cartan-Altland-Zirnbauer sont généralisés à toutes les dimensions, et leur survivance dans les classes réelles est discutée. Les conséquences physiques potentielles dans des systèmes électroniques sont explorées par des simulations de transport résolues en temps, qui concluent à l'existence de conductances différentielles moyennes quantifiées en présence d'un état de bord topologique
This thesis aims at developing and using a coherent framework to characterize topological states in spatially periodic media stemming from a time-periodic drive (« topological Floquet states » or « Floquet topological insulators »), when symmetries are present. Such states are a generalization of topological insulators, which appeared from the study of the control by light of topological insulators, and from the study of the wave-physics versions of topological insulators (in acoustics, mechanics and optics). New invariants characterizing such systems are defined, in particular when fermionic time-reversal is present. The cases of complex classes A and AIII in the Cartan-Altland-Zirnbauer classification, which are already known in particular cases, are generalized to any space dimension, and their survival in real classes is discussed. Potential physical consequences in electronic systems are explored by time-resolved numerical simulation of transport properties, which show evidence of quantized average differential conductances when a topological edge state is present

Les isolants topologiques sont des isolants qui ne peuvent être différenciés des isolants atomiques que par une grandeur physique non locale appelée invariant topologique. L'effet Hall quantique et son équivalent sans champ magnétique l'isolant de Chern sont des exemples d'isolants topologiques. En présence d'interactions fortes, des excitations exotiques appelées anyons peuvent apparaître dans les isolants topologiques. L'effet Hall quantique fractionnaire (EHQF) est la seule réalisation expérimentale connue de ces phases. Dans ce manuscrit, nous étudions numériquement les conditions d'émergence de différents isolants topologiques fractionnaires. Nous nous concentrons d'abord sur l'étude de l'EHQF sur le tore. Nous introduisons une méthode de construction projective des états EHQF les plus exotiques complémentaire par rapport aux méthodes existantes. Nous étudions les excitations de basse énergie sur le tore de deux états EHQF, les états de Laughlin et de Moore-Read. Nous proposons des fonctions d'onde pour les décrire, et vérifions leur validité numériquement. Grâce à cette description, nous caractérisons les excitations de basse énergie de l'état de Laughlin dans les isolants de Chern. Nous démontrons également la stabilité d'autres états de l'EHQF dans les isolants de Chern, tels que les états de fermions composites, Halperin et NASS. Nous explorons ensuite des phases fractionnaires sans équivallent dans la physique de l'EHQF, d'abord en choisissant un modèle dont l'invariant topologique a une valeur plus élevée, puis en imposant au système la conservation de la symétrie par renversement du temps, ce qui modifie la nature de l'invariant topologique
Topological insulators are band insulators which are fundamentally different from atomic insulators. Only a non-local quantity called topological invariant can distinguish these two phases. The quantum Hall effect is the first example of a topological insulator, but the same phase can arise in the absence of a magnetic field, and is called a Chern insulator. In the presence of strong interactions, topological insulators may host exotic excitations called anyons. The fractional quantum Hall effect is the only experimentally realized example of such phase. In this manuscript, we study the conditions of emergence of different types of fractional topological insulators, using numerical simulations. We first look at the fractional quantum Hall effect on the torus. We introduce a new projective construction of exotic quantum Hall states that complements the existing construction. We study the low energy excitations on the torus of two of the most emblematic quantum Hall states, the Laughlin and Moore-Read states. We propose and validate model wave functions to describe them. We apply this knowledge to characterize the excitations of the Laughlin state in Chern insulators. We show the stability of other fractional quantum Hall states in Chern insulators, the composite fermion, Halperin and NASS states. We explore the physics of fractional phases with no equivalent in a quantum Hall system, using two different strategies: first by choosing a model with a higher value of the topological invariant, second by adding time-reversal symmetry, which changes the nature of the topological invariant

Les isolants topologiques 3D sont un nouvel état de la matière décrit par un volume iso-lant électriquement et recouvert par des états de surface métalliques. Une jonction Joseph-son topologique (TJJ) formée autour de ces états de surface peut théoriquement contenirun mode lié d’Andreev ayant une périodicité doublée par rapport aux modes liés d’An-dreev conventionnels 2p périodiques. Le mode d’Andreev 4p périodique serait la briqueélémentaire de l’ordinateur quantique topologique. Ainsi, nous étudions la dynamique dece mode particulier lors de mesures de Shapiro sur des jonctions Josephson fabriquées surdes isolants topologiques à base de bismuth.A?n d’identi?er les e?ets d’un mode 4p-périodique dans une mesure de Shapiro, nousutilisons un model phénoménologique permettant de simuler la caractéristique courant-tension d’une TJJ lors de telles mesures. Nous prédisons deux signatures du mode 4p-périodique et estimons leur robustesse face aux e?ets de chau?age par e?et Joule et face àun modèle d’empoisonnement thermiquement activé du mode 4p-périodique.Par des mesures de Shapiro, nous étudions la dynamique des TJJ basées sur le matériausimple qu’est le Bi2Se3. L’observation des deux mêmes signatures précédemment anticipéespar nos simulations, à savoir un ordre d’apparition non conventionnel des pas de Shapiroainsi que la persistance d’un supercourant à la fermeture du plateau de Shapiro n = 0prouve la présence d’un mode 4p-périodique.Notre étude s’est également portée sur un autre isolant topologique le BiSbTeSe2. Nousavons e?ectué sa croissance par cristallisation liquide-solide et avons mis en évidence,par des mesures d’interférométrie supraconductrice une supraconductivité de surface sanstransport électronique par le volume
Three dimensional topological insulators (3D TI) are a new state of matter composedof an electrically insulating bulk covered by metallic surface states. Theoretically, a topo-logical Josephson junction composed of these surface states can host an Andreev Boundstate (ABS) that has twice the periodicity of the conventional 2p periodic ABSs. The4p periodic ABS is expected to be the building block of topological quantum computing.Therefore, we study the dynamic of this particular ABS by performing Shapiro measure-ment on Josephson junctions built with bismuth based 3D TI.To identify the e?ects of a 4p periodic ABS in a Shapiro measurement, we use a phe-nomenological model that simulates the voltage-current characteristics of a TJJ. We predicttwo signatures of the 4p periodic ABS and estimate their robustness against Joule heatingand thermally activated quasiparticle poisoning of the 4p periodic mode.We study the Josephson junctions dynamics by performing Shapiro measurements onjunctions built on Bi2Se3. We observe the two previously anticipated signatures, whichare the non-conventional appearance order of the Shapiro steps and the remaining of asupercurrent at the closing of the Shapiro step n = 0. They prove the presence of a 4pperiodic ABS.We also study the topological insulator BiSbTeSe2 that we have grown by using themelting growth method. By superconducting interferometric measurements, we show asuperconducting surface transport without bulk electronic conduction

La découverte de l'effet Hall quantique par von Klitzing en 1980 a ouvert la voie à ce qui sera connu plus tard comme la théorie topologique des bandes. Dans le cadre de cette théorie, on ne s'intéresse plus uniquement à la relation de dispersion énergétique des électrons dans les cristaux, mais aussi à l'organisation topologique de la structure de bande. Cette théorie a permis la découverte d'une nouvelle phase de la matière, représentée par les isolants topologiques. Ces isolants topologiques ont de particulier qu'ils se comportent comme des isolants normaux dans le bulk, mais présentent des états de surface conducteurs. Dans cette thèse, on s'intéresse particu- lièrement aux isolants topologiques dits Z2, pour lesquels les états de surface sont protégés par la symétrie de renversement du temps : ils ne peuvent disparaître en présence d'une perturbation qui préserve cette symétrie sans que le système ne traverse une transition de phase quantique. Pour les isolants topologiques à trois dimensions, nous proposons dans cette thèse, un critère expérimental utilisant les oscillations quantiques magnétiques, permettant d'identifier un type particulier d'isolants topologiques : les isolants topologiques forts. Pour les systèmes à deux dimensions, nous nous sommes intéressés aux phénomènes liés à la rupture de la symétrie par renversement du temps à cause de la présence d'un ordre antiferro- magnétique. Dans ce cas, la symétrie d'importance devient le renversement du temps fois une translation. Dans ce contexte, nous avons tout d'abord établi analytiquement l'expression d'un invariant topologique pour les systèmes présentant aussi la symétrie d'inversion. Nous avons ensuite adapté trois méthodes numériques normalement utilisées dans le cadre des isolants topo- logiques invariants par renversement du temps : la méthode de la phase de jonction, la méthode des centres de charge des fonctions de Wannier et la construction explicite des états de bord. Nous avons montré qu'elles permettaient de tester la nature triviale ou topologique de plusieurs modèles théoriques pour lesquelles aucune méthode n'existait, par exemple les systèmes sans symétrie d'inversion
The discovery of the quantum Hall effect by von Klitzing in 1980 paved the way for what is now known as topological band theory. In this theory, we are interested not only in the energy spectra of the electrons in crystals, but also in the topological structure of the bands. A new phase of matter was discovered thanks to this theory : the topological insulators. Topological insulators are unique in the sense that they behave like trivial insulators in the bulk, but possess metallic edge states. In this thesis, we are particularly interested in so-called Z2 topological insulators, whose edge states are protected by time reversal symmetry : they cannot disappear in the presence of a perturbation that respects this symmetry, without the system undergoing a quantum phase transition. For three-dimensional topological insulators, we propose an experimental criterion based on magnetic quantum oscillations to identify a special kind of topological insulators : the strong topological insulator. In two dimensions, we study the consequences of time reversal symmetry breaking due to anti-ferromagnetic order. In this case, the important symmetry is time reversal times a trans- lation. In this context, we first establish an analytical expression for systems that also have inversion symmetry. We then adapt three numerical methods usually employed for time reversal symmetric systems : the reconnection phase method, the Wannier charge center method and the explicit construction of edge states. We show that they are useful to probe the topology of models for which no methods were available ; such as non-centrosymmetric systems

Nessa tese de doutorado apresentamos um estudo da estrutura eletronica de materiais isolantes topologicos. A teoria fundamental dos isolantes topologicos foi abordada atraves de invariantes topologicos Z2, assim como os seus metodos para o calculo desses invariantes topologicos e as consequencias da topologia de bandas nao-trivial. Assim como as propriedades atomisticas e energeticas, as propriedades eletronicas de alguns isolantes topologicos foram calculadas atraves de metodos de primeiros principios baseados na Teoria do Funcional da Densidade. Apresentamos nessa tese o estudo de quatro sistemas de interesse fisico: (1) Em isolantes topologicos do tipo Bi2Se3 e Bi2Te3 com falhas de empilhamentos, encontramos que o Bi2Te3 com falhas de empilhamentos apresentam estados metalicos na regiao do defeito; (2) Na interface Bi2Se3/GaAs com tratamento de Se na regiao do GaAs, encontramos que a interacao entre o cone de Dirac do Bi2Se3 com a banda de valencia do GaAs abre um gap de energia no ponto ; (3) Em nanoestradas de germaneno imersas em germanano com interfaces zigzag, encontramos que a partir de uma largura critica podemos observar o efeito Hall quantico de spin; e (4) nas ligas desordenadas hexagonais de SixGe1-x em duas dimensoes, o sistema desordenado compartilha a mesma topologia de bandas do siliceno e do germaneno, enquanto que a liga ordenada Si0.5Ge0.5 e um isolante trivial. As estruturas eletronicas desses sistemas foram investigadas no intuito de entender as consequencias fisicas da topologia de bandas nao-trivial nos estados de Bloch de bulk e de superficies/interfaces.
In this doctoral thesis we present a study of the electronic structure of topological insulators materials. The fundamental theory of topological insulators was addressed through the Z2 topological invariants, as well as their methods to calculate these topological invariants and the consequences of non-trivial band topology. Just as atomistic and energetic properties, the electronic properties of some topological insulators were calculated using first-principles methods based upon Density Functional Theory. We present in this thesis the study of four systems of physical interest: (1) In topological insulators like Bi2Se3 and Bi2Te3 with stacking faults, we found that the Bi2Te3 with stacking faults presents metallic states in the region of the defect; (2) For Bi2Se3/GaAs interface with Se-treatment in the GaAs region, we found that the interaction between the Dirac cone of the Bi2Se3 and the valence band of the GaAs opens a bandgap at the -point; (3) In germanene nanoroads embedded on germanane with zigzag interfaces/edge, we found that from a critical width we can observe the quantum spin Hall effect; and (4) For SixGe1x two-dimensional hexagonal disordered alloy, the system shares the same non-trivial band topology of the silicene and germanene, while the ordered alloy Si0.5Ge0.5 is a trivial insulator. The electronic structures of these systems were investigated in order to understand the physical consequences of non-trivial band topology in the bulk and surfaces/interfaces Bloch states.

Cette thèse porte sur l'exploration de différentes phases topologiques présentes dans des hétérostructures à base de mercure, cadmium et tellure (HgCdTe). Ces systèmes sont de parfaits cas d'études des états topologiques dans la matière condensée. En effet, leur structure de bande peut aisément être modifiée d'inversée à non-inversée par le biais de paramètres internes ou externes.Lorsqu'un système présente une structure de bande inversée, il a une topologie non triviale. Il est impossible de modifier cet ordre topologique sans fermer son gap, ce qui inévitablement entraîne l'apparition de particules sans masse dans son volume. Un système présentant une structure de bande inversée et un gap d'énergie finie dans lequel se trouve le niveau de Fermi, est appelé isolant topologique. Ce nouveau type de matériau est isolant dans son volume, mais abrite des états métalliques sans gap sur ses bords. Ces derniers ont une relation de dispersion linéaire et sont protégés des effets liés au désordre et de la rétrodiffusion par des impuretés non magnétiques. Ces états particuliers apparaissent à l'interface de matériaux présentant des ordres topologiques différents. Ainsi, un isolant topologique 2D se caractérise par des canaux 1D de conductance polarisés en spin à ses bords, alors qu'un isolant topologique 3D accueille des fermions de Dirac 2D, polarisés en spin, aux surfaces.L'existence de fermions sans masse 2D et 3D a déjà été démontrée expérimentalement. Cependant, la transition de phase topologique durant laquelle apparaissent les particules sans masse n'a que très peu été explorée. Il est possible de modifier la structure de bande de HgCdTe d'inversée à non inversée par le biais de la composition chimique, la pression, la température ou le confinement quantique. Ces paramètres permettent ainsi de sonder le système au voisinage de différentes transitions de phase topologiques. Dans ce travail, l'utilisation de la température comme paramètre d'ajustement continu du gap permet d'étudier au point de transition de phase l'apparition de fermions semi-relativistes de Dirac (2D) et de Kane (3D) ainsi que leurs propriétés.Les systèmes étudiés au cours de ces travaux de recherche sont des cristaux massifs de Hg1-xCdxTe et des puits quantiques HgTe/CdTe présentant des structures de bandes inversées et non inversées, ainsi que des couches minces de HgTe contraintes pouvant être considérées comme des isolants topologiques 3D ayant un confinement quantique résiduel. Tous ces systèmes possèdent des propriétés topologiques. L'interprétation des résultats s'appuie sur les prédictions théoriques basées sur le modèle de Kane. En annexe, une vue d'ensemble des puits quantiques composites InAs/GaSb, structures également identifiées comme isolants topologiques, est présentée, comportant les résultats préliminaires obtenus sur ces dernières.Toutes les structures ont été étudiées par magnétospectroscopie en transmission dans les domaines de fréquence terahertz et infra-rouge moyen à l'aide d'un dispositif expérimental spécifiquement conçu pour permettre des mesures sur une large plage de températures
This thesis presents an investigation of different topological phases in mercury-cadmium-telluride (HgCdTe or MCT) based heterostructures. These solid state systems are indeed a perfect playground to study topological states, as their band structure can be easily varied from inverted to non-inverted, by changing internal or external parameters.If a system has an inverted band ordering, its electronic structure has a non-trivial topology. One cannot change its topological order without closing the band gap, which is inevitably accompanied with the appearance of massless particles in the bulk. A system, that has an inverted band structure and a finite gap in which the Fermi level is positioned, is called a topological insulator. These novel materials are insulators in the bulk, but host gapless metallic states with linear dispersion relation at boundaries, protected against disorder and backscattering on non-magnetic impurities. These states arise at the interfaces between materials characterized by a different topological order. A 2D topological insulator is thus characterized by a set of 1D spin-polarized channels of conductance at the edges, while a 3D topological insulator supports spin-polarized 2D Dirac fermions on its surfaces.The 2D and 3D massless fermions have already been demonstrated experimentally in HgCdTe-based heterostructures. However, the topological phase transitions during which the massless particles appear remain barely explored. The HgCdTe band structure can be tuned from inverted to non-inverted using chemical composition, pressure, temperature, or quantum confinement. These parameters therefore allow to probe the system in the vicinity of different topological phase transitions. In this thesis, the use of temperature as continuous band gap tuning parameter allows to study the appearance and the parameters of semi-relativistic 2D Dirac and 3D Kane fermions emerging at the points of phase transitions.The systems investigated were Hg$_{1-x}$Cd$_x$Te bulk systems and HgTe/CdTe quantum wells characterized by an inverted and regular band order, and strained HgTe films which can be considered as 3D topological insulators with a residual quantum confinement. All these systems exhibit topological properties, and the experimental results are interpreted according to theoretical predictions based on the Kane model. This thesis is complemented by an overview and the preliminary results obtained on a different compound -- a InAs/GaSb broken-gap quantum well, which was also identified as a topological insulator. The structures were studied by means of terahertz and mid-infrared magneto-transmission spectroscopy in a specifically designed experimental system, in which temperature could be tuned in a broad range

La thèse porte sur l'étude théorique des propriétés électroniques à la surface de l’oxyde de métal de transition SrTiO3. Ce matériau est la pierre angulaire de l'électronique des oxydes, un nouveau domaine de recherche qui a pour but d'enquêter sur les oxydes de métaux de transition en tant que candidats post-silicium pour une émergence future de nouveaux composants électroniques. Le SrTiO3 est en soi un système étonnant : dans sa plus pure composition chimique, c’est un bon isolant avec une large bande interdite. Cependant, en le dopant avec de petites quantités d'autres éléments, il se transforme en un métal à haute mobilité d'électrons. Le SrTiO3 a également saisi l'attention en raison de sa capacité à accueillir des gaz d'électrons bidimensionnels (2DEGs) quand il est interfacé avec certains oxydes polaires. Ces 2DEGs présentent des propriétés fascinantes, la plus visible étant la coexistence du magnétisme et de la supraconductivité.La surface du SrTiO3 peut également accueillir des 2DEGs, sans avoir besoin de s'interfacer avec d'autres matériaux ; dans ce cas, les électrons participant aux transports sont générés par des lacunes d'oxygène créées à la surface. Cette observation est remarquable, car le SrTiO3 offre une structure simple où les propriétés des 2DEGs peuvent être étudiées.Cette thèse s’articule autour des deux axes. Tout d'abord, elle étudie la bicouche STO orientée 111, formée de seulement deux cellules unitaires. Deuxièmement, elle analyse les puits quantiques générés par les postes vacants de l'oxygène à la surface 111 du STO. Les deux sujets sont abordés en utilisant des modèles de liaison forte, dans lesquels le Hamiltonien incorpore différents termes liés aux énergies sur place, aux interactions de saut et au couplage spin-orbite. A partir de ces calculs, j’ai réalisé une analyse exhaustive des propriétés, du caractère et de la parité des orbitaux des bandes de valence et de conduction, ainsi que des états de bord dans la bicouche 111
The thesis is focused on the theoretical study of the electronic properties at the surface of the transition metal oxide STO. This material is the cornerstone of oxide electronics, an emerging research area that has the goal of investigating transition metal oxides as post-silicon candidates for a future emerging new electronics. STO is in itself an astounding system; in its purest chemical composition is a good ban-insulator with a wide bandgap. Nevertheless, upon doing it with tiny amounts of other elements it transforms itself in a metal with high electron mobility. Even more remarkably, at the lowest temperatures, typically below 300mK, it goes superconductor. And adding to these properties, strain induces also ferroelectricity in this material. Over the last years, STO has also grabbed attention because of its ability of hosting two-dimensional electron gas (2DEGs) when it is interfaced with some polar oxides. Such 2DEGs exhibit fascinating properties, the most conspicuous is the coexistence of magnetism and superconductivity.The surface of STO can host 2DEGs too, without need of interfacing it to other materials; in this case the electrons participating in transport are generated by oxygen vacancies created at the surface. This is remarkable observation, as it affords a simpler structure where the 2DEGs properties can be studied. In spite of the accumulated knowledge, still a better fundamental comprehension is required of the electronic structure of the quantum wells at the surfaces oriented along the 111 direction, for which the perovskite structure is reminiscent of the celebrated honeycomb-like structure of graphene. Contrary to the latter, in which electrons are in s- and p- states, 111 quantum wells in STO would host electrons in d-bands. Higher electronic correlations are then expected, that may bring new fascinating physics.The outline of this Thesis has two main branches: first, it studies the 111-oriented STO bilayer, formed by just two unit cells; secondly it analyzes the quantum wells generated by Oxygen vacancies at the 111-surface of STO. Both subjects are approached using tight-binding models in which the Hamiltonian incorporates different terms related to on-site energies, hopping interactions or spin-orbit coupling. From these calculations, I have carried out an exhaustive analysis of the orbital character and parity properties of valence and conduction bands, as well as edge states in the 111 bilayer. Tight-binding calculations have also shed light on the orbital character, space location and extension and energy of electronic states generated by oxygen vacancies at the 001 surface of STO

Les isolants topologiques constituent une nouvelle classe de matériaux caractérisés par l'association d'un volume isolant et de surfaces conductrices. Avec des propriétés électroniques similaires au graphene, notamment un transport régit par des particules à énergie de dispersion linéaire couramment appelés fermions de Dirac ainsi qu'une protection topologique empêchant tout phénomène de rétrodiffusion, ces matériaux suscitent un intérêt grandissant dans la quête d'une électronique de faible consommation. En effet, la production de courants de spin non-dissipatifs et polarisés ainsi que la formation de courants de spin purs en l'absence de matériaux magnétiques constituent une partie des attentes de ces matériaux topologiques.L'objectif de cette thèse a été de démontrer expérimentalement le potentiel de l'isolant topologique HgTe pour des applications notamment dans le domaine de la l'électronique de spin ou spintronique.Pour ce faire, d'importants efforts ont été mis en œuvre pour améliorer le procédé de croissance par épitaxie par jets moléculaires.La composition chimique, la contrainte ainsi que la qualité des interfaces de la couche de HgTe ont été identifiées comme des axes majeurs de travail et d'optimisation afin d'obtenir une structure de bande inversée, l'ouverture d'un gap de volume, ainsi que pour protéger les propriétés électroniques des états de surface topologiques. Fort de ces caractéristiques, notre matériau possède à priori toutes les qualités nécessaires pour permettre de sonder les propriétés topologiques. Accéder à ces propriétés particulières est en particulier possible par des mesures d'effet Hall quantique sur des structures de type barres de Hall. La fabrication de ces dispositifs a néanmoins requis une attention particulière à cause de la forte volatilité du mercure et a nécessité le développement d'un procédé de nanofabrication à basses températures.Des mesures d'effet Hall quantique à très basses températures ont ensuite été réalisées dans un cryostat à dilution. Tout d'abord des couches épaisses de HgTe ont été mesurées et ont démontrées des mécanismes de transport très complexes mêlant les états de surface topologiques à d'autres contributions attribuées au volume et aux états de surface latéraux. La réduction de l'épaisseur des couches de HgTe a permis de limiter l'impact de ces contributions en les rendant négligeable pour les couches les plus fines. Dans ces conditions, ces structures ont affiché les propriétés attendues de l'effet Hall quantique avec notamment une annulation de la résistance. Avec ces propriétés, l'analyse en température de l'effet Hall quantique a permis de démontrer la nature des porteurs circulant sur les états de surface topologiques et de les identifier à des fermions de Dirac.Avec la mise en évidence de la nature topologique de notre système, l'étape suivante a été d'utiliser les propriétés topologiques et plus particulièrement le blocage entre le moment et le spin d'un électron pour tester le potentiel du système 3D HgTe/CdTe pour la spintronique. Premièrement, des mesures de pompage de spin ont été réalisées et ont mis en exergue la puissance de ces structures pour l'injection et la détection de spin. Deuxièmement, ces structures ont été implémentéessous la forme de jonction p-n dans l'idée de réaliser un premier dispositif de spintronique qui présente à ce jour des premiers signes de fonctionnement
With graphene-like transport properties governed by massless Dirac fermions and a topological protection preventing from backscattering phenomena, topological insulators, characterized by an insulating bulk and conducting surfaces, are of main interest to build low power consumption electronic building-blocks of primary importance for future electronics.Indeed, the absence of disorder, the generation of dissipation-less spin-polarized current or even the possibility to generate pure spin current without magnetic materials are some of the promises of these new materials.The objective of this PhD thesis has been to experimentally demonstrate the eligibility of HgTe three dimensional topological insulator system for applications and especially for spintronics.To do so, strong efforts have been dedicated to the improvement of the growth process by molecular beam epitaxy.Chemical composition, strain, defect density and sharpness of the HgTe interfaces have been identified as the major parameters of study and improvement to ensure HgTe inverted band structure, bulk gap opening and to emphasize the resulting topological surface state electronic properties. Verification of the topological nature of this system has then been performed using low temperature magneto-transport measurements of Hall bars designed with various HgTe thicknesses. It is worth noting that the high desorption rate of Hg has made the nanofabrication process more complex and required the development of a low temperature process adapted to this constraint. While the thicker samples have evidenced very complex transport signatures that need to be further investigated and understood, the thickness reduction has led to the suppression of any additional contributions, such as bulk or even side surfaces, and the demonstration of quantum Hall effect with vanishing resistance. Consequently, we have managed to demonstrate direct evidences of Dirac fermions by temperature dependent analysis of the quantum Hall effect. The next step has been to use the topological properties and especially the locking predicted between momentum and spin to test the HgTe potential for spintronics. Spin pumping experiments have demonstrated the power of these topological structures for spin injection and detection. Moreover, the implementation of HgTe into simple p-n junction has also been investigated to realize a first spin-based logic element

Questa tesi si occupa di approfondire lo studio di possibili fasi topologiche in un sistema costituito da due catene di spin caratterizzate entrambe da un'interazione alternata forte e debole. Infatti è interessante capire se questo tipo di interazione può portare a termini topologici non nulli nella funzione di partizione, termini che invece sono assenti per due catene accoppiate quando l'interazione tra spin vicini è sempre la stessa. Quello che si scopre dal punto di vista analitico è che, quando l'interazione su una catena è traslata di un sito rispetto a quella sull'altra catena, il nostro modello, nel limite del continuo, si può mappare nel modello sigma non lineare più un termine topologico diverso da zero. In corrispondenza di un certo valore critico del termine topologico si ha una transizione di fase tra due fasi isolanti differenti. Tale valore critico corrisponde a un certo valore critico del parametro che caratterizza l'interazione alternata sulle catene. L'analisi numerica, basata sul metodo DMRG, conferma questa previsione teorica. Inoltre, dal confronto tra i risultati numerici per i livelli energetici ottenuti con condizioni al contorno aperte e chiuse, si può già notare che una delle due fasi sembra avere proprietà topologiche non triviali. E' dunque molto interessante chiedersi se queste fasi siano caratterizzate da un qualche tipo di ordine topologico, rilevabile attraverso parametri d'ordine non locali. Le simulazioni numeriche confermano questa ipotesi: il parametro d'ordine non locale di stringa è non nullo nella fase caratterizzata da proprietà topologiche non triviali, che è dunque identificata come un isolante di Haldane, e il parametro d'ordine non locale di parità è non nullo nella fase topologicamente triviale, che è dunque identificata come un isolante di Mott. Si ha dunque una transizione di fase tra l'isolante di Mott e l'isolante di Haldane.

Dans cette thèse, nous proposons des modèles qui présentent des phases topologiques. Ces modèles sont réalisables expérimentalement dans des systèmes d’atomes froids et dans des systèmes de circuit d’éléctrodynamique quantique. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous introduisons une phase topologique sur un réseau Kagomé, dont les degrés de liberté sont des photons. Nous discutons deux méthodes pour mesurer la courbure de Berry et le nombre de Chern pour les bandes de Bloch. Ces deux protocoles se basent sur la dynamique semi–classique des paquets d’onde. Nous obtenons aussi le diagramme de phases pour des bosons avec une interaction répulsive de type Bose-Hubbard sur chaque site d’un réseau hexagonal propos ́e par F. D. M. Haldane. Nous découvrons un état isolant de Mott avec des courants locaux quand la densité moyenne est d’un boson par site. Les excitations de cet isolant de Mott ont des caractéristiques topologiques. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous nous concentrons sur des réseaux quasi-uni-dimensionnels récemment réalisés dans des systèmes d’atomes froids. Nous étudions leurs diagrammes de phases, étant composés de phases Meissner, d’isolants de Mott chiraux, et d’états d’effet Hall quantique fractionnaire abélien
We propose theoretical models that support topological phases and which are relevant to current experiments on lattices hosting photonic modes or ultracold atoms. In the first part of this thesis, we introduce a topological phase on a Kagom ́e lattice whose degrees of freedom are photons. In that context, we discuss two protocols to access the local Berry curvature and the Chern number of Bloch bands from semiclassical dynamics of wavepackets. Secondly, we obtain the phase diagram for bosons at unit filling with repulsive on–site interactions whose kinetic term corresponds to a Chern insulator defined on the honeycomb lattice. In the second part, we turn to recently realized quasi one–dimensional lattices, and un- cover their phase diagrams, comprising low–dimensional Meissner phases, chiral Mott insulating phases as well as abelian fractional quantum Hall states

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In this work, we discuss the growth of Fe containing Bi2 Se3epilayers on the GaAs(111) substrate by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) with Fe contents of in the 8- 20% range. It is shown that Bi2 Se3 film thin are grown with quality and the Fe form a phase segregation of Fe x Sey material that may have different stoichiometries possibity, leading to magnetic and superconducting results. Despite the composite structure, the surface state of Bi2 Se3 is preserved as shown with persistence of Dirac Cone of the Γ point by Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES). It was observed that higher Fe content deposited is increased formation of compound responsible for ferrimagnetic layers together with the superconducting phase supposed. The Fe3Se 4 was the most abundant type of segregation in all samples, with the results ferrimagnetic these samples at temperatures around 315 K.
Neste trabalho, abordamos o crescimento de Bi2 Se3 com adição de Fe em substrato de GaAs(111) por meio de epitaxia de feixe molecular (MBE), variando o teor de Fe depositado de 8% até 20%. É mostrado que os filmes de Bi2 Se3 são crescidos com qualidade e o Fe juntamente com o Se formam uma segregação de fases Fex Sey , material que pode ter diferentes estequiometrias levando a resultados magnéticos e possivelmente supercondutor. Apesar da estrutura compósita, a estrutura superficial do Bi2 Se3 é preservada como mostrado pela persistência do cone de Dirac no ponto Γ nas medidas de espectroscopia de fotoemissão de resolução angular (ARPES). Foi possível observar que quanto maior o teor de Fe depositado, ocorre uma maior formação de compostos responsável pela fase ferrimagnética em conjunto com a fase supostamente supercondutora. O Fe3Se 4 foi o tipo de segregação mais abundante em todas as amostras, levando a resultados ferrimagnéticos nessas amostras em temperaturas em torno de 315 K.

Ce manuscrit présente une étude expérimentale de phase isolante non-conventionnelle, l'isolant d'Anderson, induit par le désordre, l'isolant de Mott, induit par les interactions de Coulomb, et les isolants topologiques.Dans une première partie du manuscrit, je décrirais le développement d'une méthode pour étudier la réponse de charge de nanoparticules par Microscopie à Force Electrostatique (EFM). Cette méthode a été appliquée à des nanoparticules de magnétite (Fe3O4), un matériau qui présente une transition métal-isolant, i.e. la transition de Verwey, lors de son refroidissement en dessous d'une température TV~120 K.Dans une seconde partie, ce manuscrit présente une étude détaillée de l'évolution de la densité d'états au travers de la transition métal-isolant entre un isolant de type Anderson-Mott et une phase métallique dans le matériau SrTiO3, et ceci, en fonction de la concentration de dopants, les lacunes d'oxygènes. Nous avons trouvé que dans un dispositif memoresistif de type Au-SrTiO3-Au, la concentration de dopants pouvait être ajustée par migration des lacunes d'oxygènes à l'aide d'un champ. Dans cette jonction tunnel, l'évolution de la densités d'états au travers de la transition métal-isolant peut être étudiée de façon continue. Finalement, dans une troisième partie, le manuscrit présente le développement d'une méthode pour la microfabrication d'anneaux de Aharonov-Bohm avec l'isolant topologique, Bi2Se3, déposée par épitaxie à jet moléculaire. Des résultats préliminaires sur les propriétés de transport quantique de ces dispositifs seront présentés
This manuscript presents an experimental study of unconventional insulating phases, which are the Anderson insulator, induced by disorder, the Mott insulator, induced by Coulomb interactions, and topological insulators.In a first part of the manuscript, I will describe the development of a method to study the charge response of nanoparticles through Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM). This method has been applied to magnetite Fe3O4 nanoparticles, a material that presents a metal-insulator transition, i.e. the Verwey transition, upon cooling the system below a temperature Tv=120K. In a second part, this manuscript presents a detailed study of the evolution of the Density Of States (DOS) across the metal-insulator transition between an Anderson-Mott insulator and a metallic phase in the material SrTiO3 and this, as function of dopant concentration, i.e. oxygen vacancies. We found that in this memristive type device Au-SrTiO3-Au, the dopant concentration could be fine-tuned through electric-field migration of oxygen vacancies. In this tunnel junction device, the evolution of the DOS can be followed continuously across the metal-insulator transition. Finally, in a third part, the manuscript presents the development of a method for the microfabrication of Aharonov-Bohm rings with the topological insulator material, Bi2Se3, grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Preliminary results on the quantum transport properties of these devices will be presented

Grâce à leur propriétés uniques, les nanofils d'InAs et de Bi1-xSbx sont important pour les domaines de la nanoélectronique et de l'informatique quantique. Alors que la mobilité électronique de l'InAs est intéressante pour les nanoélectroniques; l'aspect isolant topologique du Bi1-xSbx peut être utilisé pour la réalisation de Qubits basés sur les fermions de Majorana. Dans les deux cas, l'amélioration de la qualité du matériau est obligatoire et ceci est l'objectif principal cette thèse ou` nous étudions l'intégration des nanofils InAs sur silicium (compatibles CMOS) et où nous développons un nouvel isolant topologique nanométrique: le Bi1-xSbx. Pour une compatibilité CMOS complète, la croissance d'InAs sur Silicium nécessite d'être auto- catalysée, entièrement verticale et uniforme sans dépasser la limite thermique de 450 ° C. Ces normes CMOS, combineés à la différence de paramètre de maille entre l'InAs et le silicium, ont empêché l'intégration de nanofils InAs pour les dispositifs nanoélectroniques. Dans cette thèse, deux nouvelles préparations de surface du Si ont été étudiées impliquant des traitements Hydrogène in situ et conduisant à la croissance verticale et auto-catalysée de nanofils InAs compatible avec les limitations CMOS. Les différents mécanismes de croissance résultant de ces préparations de surface sont discutés en détail et un passage du mécanisme Vapor-Solid (VS) au mécanisme Vapor- Liquid-Solid (VLS) est rapporté. Les rapports d'aspect très élevé des nanofils d'InAs sont obtenus en condition VLS: jusqu'à 50 nm de diamètre et 3 microns de longueur. D'autre part, le Bi1-xSbx est le premier isolant topologique 3D confirmé expérimentalement. Dans ces nouveaux matériaux, la présence d'états surfacique conducteurs, entourant le coeur isolant, peut héberger les fermions de Majorana utilisés comme Qubits. Cependant, la composition du Bi1-xSbx doit être comprise entre 0,08 et 0,24 pour que le matériau se comporte comme un isolant topologique. Nous rapportons pour la première fois la croissance de nanofils Bi1-xSbx sans défaut et à composition contrôlée sur Si. Différentes morphologies sont obtenues, y compris des nanofils, des nanorubans et des nanoflakes. Leur diamètre peut être de 20 nm pour plus de 10 microns de long, ce qui en fait des candidats idéaux pour des dispositifs quantiques. Le rôle clé du flux Bi, du flux de Sb et de la température de croissance sur la densité, la composition et la géométrie des structures à l'échelle nanométrique est étudié et discuté en détail
InAs and Bi1-xSbx nanowires with their distinct material properites hold promises for nanoelec- tronics and quantum computing. While the high electron mobility of InAs is interesting for na- noelectronics applications, the 3D topological insulator behaviour of Bi1-xSbx can be used for the realization of Majorana Fermions based qubit devices. In both the cases improving the quality of the nanoscale material is mandatory and is the primary goal of the thesis, where we study CMOS compatible InAs nanowire integration on Silicon and where we develop a new nanoscale topological insulator. For a full CMOS compatiblity, the growth of InAs on Silicon requires to be self-catalyzed, fully vertical and uniform without crossing the thermal budge of 450 °C. These CMOS standards, combined with the high lattice mismatch of InAs with Silicon, prevented the integration of InAs nanowires for nanoelectronics devices. In this thesis, two new surface preparations of the Silicon were studied involving in-situ Hydrogen gas and in-situ Hydrogen plasma treatments and leading to the growth of fully vertical and self-catalyzed InAs nanowires compatible with the CMOS limitations. The different growth mechanisms resulting from these surface preparations are discussed in detail and a switch from Vapor-Solid (VS) to Vapor- Liquid-Solid (VLS) mechanism is reported. Very high aspect ratio InAs nanowires are obtained in VLS condition: upto 50 nm in diameter and 3 microns in length. On the other hand, Bi1-xSbx is the first experimentally confirmed 3D topololgical insulator. In this new material, the presence of robust 2D conducting states, surrounding the 3D insulating bulk can be engineered to host Majorana fermions used as Qubits. However, the compostion of Bi1-xSbx should be in the range of 0.08 to 0.24 for the material to behave as a topological insula- tor. We report growth of defect free and composition controlled Bi1-xSbx nanowires on Si for the first time. Different nanoscale morphologies are obtained including nanowires, nanoribbons and nanoflakes. Their diameter can be 20 nm thick for more than 10 microns in length, making them ideal candidates for quantum devices. The key role of the Bi flux, the Sb flux and the growth tem- perature on the density, the composition and the geometry of nanoscale structures is investigated and discussed in detail

Ce travail consiste en l'étude sous champ magnétique des propriétés électroniques des fermions de Dirac relativistes dans deux systèmes: graphène et isolants topologiques. Leur analogie avec la physique des hautes énergies et leurs applications potentielles ont suscité récemment de nombreux travaux. Les états électroniques sont donnés par un Hamiltonien de Dirac et la dispersion est analogue à celle des particules relativistes. La masse au repos est liée au gap du matériau avec une vitesse de Fermi remplaçant la vitesse de la lumière. Le graphène a été considéré comme un " système école " qui nous permet d'étudier le comportement relativiste des fermions de Dirac sans masse satisfaisant une dispersion linéaire. Quand un système de Dirac possède un gap non nul, nous avons des fermions de Dirac massifs. Les fermions de Dirac sans masse et massifs ont été étudiés dans le graphène épitaxié et les isolants topologiques cristallins Pb1-xSnxSe et Pb1-xSnxTe. Ces derniers systèmes sont une nouvelle classe de matériaux topologiques où les états de bulk sont isolants mais les états de surface sont conducteurs. Cet aspect particulier résulte de l'inversion des bandes de conduction et de valence du bulk ayant des parités différentes, conduisant à une transition de phase topologique. La magnéto-spectroscopie infrarouge est une technique idéale pour sonder ces matériaux de petit gap car elle fournit des informations quantitatives sur les paramètres du bulk via la quantification de Landau des états électroniques. En particulier, la transition de phase topologique est caractérisée par une mesure directe de l'indice topologique
This thesis reports on the study under magnetic field of the electronic properties of relativistic-like Dirac fermions in two Dirac systems: graphene and topological insulators. Their analogies with high-energy physics and their potential applications have attracted great attention for fundamental research in condensed matter physics. The carriers in these two materials obey a Dirac Hamiltonian and the energy dispersion is analogous to that of the relativistic particles. The particle rest mass is related to the band gap of the Dirac material, with the Fermi velocity replacing the speed of light. Graphene has been considered as a “role model”, among quantum solids, that allows us to study the relativistic behavior of massless Dirac fermions satisfying a linear dispersion. When a Dirac system possesses a nonzero gap, we have massive Dirac fermions. Massless and massive Dirac fermions were studied in high-mobility multilayer epitaxial graphene and in topological crystalline insulators Pb1-xSnxSe and Pb1-xSnxTe. The latter system is a new class of topological materials where the bulk states are insulating but the surface states are conducting. This particular aspect results from the inversion of the lowest conduction and highest valence bulk bands having different parities, leading to a topological phase transition. Infrared magneto-spectroscopy is an ideal technique to probe these zero-gap or narrow gap materials since it provides quantitative information about the bulk parameters via the Landau quantization of the electron states. In particular, the topological phase transition can be characterized by a direct measurement of the topological index

Cette thèse présente l'étude de la coexistence métal isolant dans deux systèmes très différents pour la communauté scientifique de la matière condensée : l'isolant topologique 3D Bi2Te3 et le composé prototype de la transition de Mott V2O3. Ces deux systèmes ont été étudiés par des techniques basées sur la spectroscopie de photoélectrons. La première technique utilisée est le TR-ARPES (time and angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy), avec une résolution temporelle de 80 fs, appliquée à l'isolant topologique 3D Bi2Te3 pour distinguer la dynamique ultra-rapide des états métalliques de la surface de celle des états isolants du volume. Cette mesure a permet de comprendre les différents mécanismes de diffusion entre la surface et le volume, ainsi que l'amélioration de la relaxation du cône de Dirac par la préexistence à la sous-surface d'une bande de flexion. La seconde technique utilisée dans cette thèse est le SPEM (scanning photoelectron microscopy), avec une résolution spatiale de 150 nm, permettant d'étudier la coexistence des domaines métalliques et isolants à la transition de Mott dans V2O3 ; cette coexistence a pour origine le caractère 1 er ordre de la transition. La mesure montre une coexistence métal-isolant dans le Cr-dopé : les domaines métalliques sont dus à des centres de nucléations < 150 nm et la forme des domaines est clairement liée à la forme des marches de clivage.

Cette thèse présente un travail théorique effectué dans le domaine de la physique de la matière condensée, et plus particulièrement la physique des solides. Ce domaine de la physique décrit le comportement des électrons dans les cristaux à très basses températures dans le but d'observer des effets quantiques à l'échelle mésoscopique.Cette thèse se situe à l'interface entre deux types de matériaux : le graphène et les isolants topologiques. Le graphène est une couche d’épaisseur monoatomique d’atomes de carbone arrangés en réseau nid d’abeilles, qui présente de nombreuses propriétés impressionnantes en optique, en mécanique et en électronique. Les isolants topologiques sont des matériaux qui sont isolants en volume et conduisent l'électricité sur les bords. Cette caractéristique découle d'une propriété topologique des électrons dans le volume. La topologie est une branche des mathématiques qui décrit des objets dans leur globalité en ne retenant que les caractéristiques invariantes par certaines déformations continues. Les états de bords des isolants topologiques sont robustes à certaines perturbations comme le désordre créé par des impuretés dans le matériau. Le lien entre ces deux sujets est double. D’une part les premiers modèles d’isolants topologiques de bande ont été formulés pour le graphène, par Haldane en 1988 et Kane et Mele en 2005, ouvrant ainsi la voie à la découverte des isolants topologiques à 2D et 3D dans des matériaux à fort spin-orbite. D’autre part, il a été prédit que le graphène, même sans spin-orbite, devient un isolant topologique lorsqu'il est irradié par une onde électromagnétique. Dans cette thèse, nous suivons deux directions en parallèle : décrire les caractéristiques topologiques d’une part et les propriétés de transport électronique d’autre part.En premier lieu, nous passons en revue le modèle des liaisons fortes pour le graphène, puis le modèle effectif qui décrit les électrons de basse énergie comme des fermions de Dirac sans masse. Nous introduisons ensuite le modèle de Haldane, un modèle simple défini sur le réseau en nid d’abeille et qui présente des bandes non triviales caractérisées par un invariant topologique, le nombre de Chern, non nul. Du fait de cette propriété topologique, ce modèle possède un état de bord chiral se propageant au bord de l’échantillon et une conductance de Hall quantifiée. Lorsque le graphène est irradié par un laser ayant une fréquence plus large que la largeur de bande du graphène, il acquiert un gap dynamique similaire au gap topologique du modèle de Haldane. Lorsque la fréquence est réduite, nous montrons que des transitions topologiques se produisent et l'apparition d'états de bords.Le travail principal de cette thèse est l'étude du transport électronique dans le graphène irradié dans un régime de paramètres réalisables expérimentalement. Une feuille de graphène est connectée à deux électrodes avec une différence de potentiel qui génère un courant. Nous calculons la conductance différentielle de l'échantillon selon le formalisme de Landauer-Büttiker étendu aux systèmes soumis à une modulation périodique. Il nous est possible d'obtenir la conductance en fonction de la géométrie de l’échantillon et de différents paramètres tels que le potentiel chimique, la fréquence et l'intensité de l’onde.Un autre type d'isolant topologique est l’isolant d’effet Hall quantique de spin. Ce type de phase possède deux états de bords dans lesquels les spins opposés se propagent dans des directions opposées. Le second travail de cette thèse concerne le transport électronique à travers cet état de bord irradié. Nous observons l'apparition d'un courant pompé en l'absence de différence de potentiel. Nous distinguons deux régimes : un pompage adiabatique quantifié à basse fréquence, et un régime de réponse linéaire non quantifiée à hautes fréquences. Par rapport aux études précédentes existantes, nous montrons un effet important de la présence des électrodes de mesure
This thesis presents a theoretical work done in the field of condensed matter physics, and in particular solid state physics. This field of physics aims at describing the behaviour of electrons in crystalline materials at very low temperature to observe effects characteristic of quantum physics at the mesoscopic scale.This thesis lies at the interface between two types of materials : graphene and topological insulators. Graphene is a monoatomic layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb lattice that presents a wide range of striking properties in optics, mechanics and electronics. Topological insulators are materials that are insulators in the bulk and conduct electricity at the edges. This characteristic originates from a topological property of the electrons in the bulk. Topology is a branch of mathematics that aims to describe objects globally retaining only characteristics invariant under smooth deformations. The edge states of topological insulators are robust to certain king of perturbations such as disorder created by impurities in the bulk. The link between these two topics is two-fold. On one hand, the first models of band topological insulators were formulated for graphene, by Haldane in 1988 and Kane and Mele in 2005, opening the way to the discovery of 2D and 3D topological insulators in materials with strong spin-orbit coupling. On the other hand, it was predicted that graphene, even without spin-orbit coupling, turns to a topological insulator under irradiation by an electromagnetic wave. In this thesis, we follow two directions in parallel : describe the topological properties on one hand, and the electronic transport properties on the other hand.First, we review the tight-binding model of graphene, and the effective model that describes low-energy electrons as massless Dirac fermions. We then introduce the Haldane model, a simple model defined on the honeycomb lattice that presents non-trivial bands characterised by a topological invariant, the Chern number. Due to this topological property, this model possesses a chiral edge state that propagates around the sample and a quantized Hall conductance. When graphene is irradiated by a laser with a frequency larger than the graphene bandwidth, it acquires a dynamical gap similar to the topological gap of the Haldane model. When the frequency is lowered, we show that topological transitions happens and that different edge states appear.The main work of this thesis is the study of electronic transport in irradiated graphene in a regime of experimentally achievable parameters. A graphene sheet is connected to two electrodes with a potential difference that generates a current. We compute the differential conductance of the sample according to Landauer-Büttiker formalism extended to periodically driven systems. Using this simple formalism, we are able to obtain the conductance as a function of the geometry of the sample and of several parameters such as the chemical potential, the frequency and the intensity of the electromagnetic wave.Another kind of topological insulator is the quantum spin Hall insulator. This type of phase possesses two edge states in which opposite spins propagate in opposite directions. The second work of this thesis concerns electronic transport through this irradiated edge state. We observe the apparition of a pumped current in the absence of a potential difference. We observe two regimes : a quantized adiabatic at low frequency, and a non-quantized linear response regime at high frequency. Compared to previous studies, we show an important effect originating from the presence of electrodes

Orientador: Iakov Veniaminovitch Kopelevitch
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T01:33:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Baring_LuisAugustoGomes_D.pdf: 21081310 bytes, checksum: 275f0ba5ff80d6f9f19f53cf8316e1a6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012
Resumo: No presente trabalho estudamos os semimetais bismuto Bi, antimônio Sb e Bi1-xSbx, materiais com propriedades topologicamente não triviais. Observamos a ocorrência de supercondutividade intrínseca em bismuto com TC »= 8:5K. Construímos, a partir dos dados de magnetização e resistência, o diagrama de fase do campo crítico H versus a temperatura T. Esse diagrama de fase, pode ser ajustado segundo modelos da literatura válidos para supercondutividade granular. Detectamos, no bismuto, o aumento da corrente Josephson e acoplamento intergranular no limite quântico devidos à quantização de Landau. Isso se manifesta como uma supercondutividade reentrante. Foi também encontrada transição tipo metal-isolante induzida por campo magnético em todos os materiais estudados. O diagrama de fase H versus T mostra uma extraordinária semelhança entre os três materiais. A amostra Bi1-xSbx, com x = 0:052, revelou a ocorrência de transição semimetal-isolante topológico já em campo magnético zero. Fizemos uma comparação com resultados anteriores da literatura, analisando a dependência da temperatura em que ocorre essa transição em relação à concentração de antimônio x e ao campo magnético B e demonstramos a similaridade entre eles. Observamos, também, supercondutividade nos semimetais bismuto, antimônio e no Bi1-xSbx, induzida por dopagem com os metais ouro e índio, e mostramos que a supercondutividade está associada à interface entre os metais e os semimetais. Finalmente, encontramos a indução de supercondutividade mediante a aplicação de campo magnético em bismuto, consistente com a ocorrência de férmions de Majorana na interface entre esse material e a tinta prata usada para os contatos. Tal observação pode ser devida, também, à ocorrência de um estado supercondutor fora do equilíbrio.
Abstract: In this work we studied the semimetals bismuth Bi, antimony Sb and Bi1-xSbx, all of them with non-trivial topologic properties. We observed an intrinsic superconductivity in bismuth, with TC »= 8:5 K. The phasediagram of the critical field H versus the temperature T, based upon the magnetization and resistance data, may be well fitted according to theoretical models valid for granular superconductivity. We also detected, in bismuth, the increase of the Josephson current and interganular coupling in the quantum limit due to Landau quantization. This manifests itself as a reentrant superconducting state. Our results revealed a metal-insulator transition triggered by magnetic field, for all the studied materials. The phase diagram H ¡T shows a striking similarity between them. The sample Bi1-xSbx with x = 0:052 demonstrated a semimetal-insulator transition even at zero field. We compared our results with previous results of other groups and analyzed the temperature dependence of the transition as a function of the antimony amount x and the magnetic field B and demonstrated their similarity. We also observed supeerconductivity in the semimetals bismuth, antimony and Bi1-xSbx, triggered by doping with the metals gold and indium, and showed that the superconductivity is associated to the interface between the metals and the semimetals. Finally, we found the superconductivity induced by the aplication of magnetic field in bismuth, consistent with the Majorana fermions present in the interface between this material and the silver paste contacts. This may also be related to a non-equilibrium superconduting state.
Doutorado
Física
Doutor em Ciências

Cette thèse est consacrée à la description de la physique à une particule ainsi qu'à celle de fluides quantiques bosoniques dans des systèmes topologiques. Les deux premiers chapitres sont introductifs. Dans le premier, nous introduisons des éléments de théorie des bandes et les quantités géométriques et topologiques associées : tenseur métrique quantique, courbure de Berry, nombre de Chern. Nous discutons différents modèles et réalisations expérimentales donnant lieu à des effets topologiques. Dans le second chapitre, nous introduisons les condensats de Bose-Einstein ainsi que les excitons-polaritons de cavité.La première partie des résultats originaux discute des phénomènes topologiques à une particule dans des réseaux en nid d'abeilles. Cela permet de comparer deux modèles théoriques qui mènent à l'effet Hall quantique anormal pour les électrons et les photons dû à la présence d'un couplage spin-orbite et d'un champ Zeeman. Nous étudions aussi l'effet Hall quantique de vallée photonique à l'interface entre deux réseaux de cavités avec potentiels alternés opposés.Dans une seconde partie, nous discutons de nouveaux effets qui émergent due à la présence d'un fluide quantique interagissant décrit par l’équation de Gross-Pitaevskii dans ces systèmes. Premièrement, il est montré que les interactions spin anisotropes donnent lieu à des transitions topologiques gouvernées par la densité de particules pour les excitations élémentaires d’un condensat spineur d’exciton-polaritons.Ensuite, nous montrons que les tourbillons quantifiés d'un condensat scalaire dans un système avec effet Hall quantique de vallée, manifestent une propagation chirale le long de l'interface contrairement aux paquets d'ondes linéaires. La direction de propagation de ces derniers est donnée par leur sens de rotation donnant lieu à un transport de pseudospin de vallée protégé topologiquement, analogue à l’effet Hall quantique de spin.Enfin, revenant aux effets géométriques linéaires, nous nous sommes concentrés sur l’effet Hall anormal. Dans ce contexte, nous présentons une correction non-adiabatique aux équations semi-classiques décrivant le mouvement d’un paquet d’ondes qui s’exprime en termes du tenseur géométrique quantique. Nous proposons un protocole expérimental pour mesurer cette quantité dans des systèmes photonique radiatifs
This thesis is dedicated to the description of both single-particle and bosonic quantum fluid Physics in topological systems. After introductory chapters on these subjects, I first discuss single-particle topological phenomena in honeycomb lattices. This allows to compare two theoretical models leading to quantum anomalous Hall effect for electrons and photons and to discuss the photonic quantum valley Hall effect at the interface between opposite staggered cavity lattices.In a second part, I present some phenomena which emerge due to the interplay of the linear topological effects with the presence of interacting bosonic quantum fluid described by mean-field Gross-Pitaevskii equation. First, I show that the spin-anisotropic interactions lead to density-driven topological transitions for elementary excitations of a condensate loaded in the polariton quantum anomalous Hall model (thermal equilibrium and out-of-equilibrium quasi-resonant excitation configurations). Then, I show that the vortex excitations of a scalar condensate in a quantum valley Hall system, contrary to linear wavepackets, can exhibit a robust chiral propagation along the interface, with direction given by their winding in real space, leading to an analog of quantum spin Hall effect for these non-linear excitations. Finally, coming back to linear geometrical effects, I will focus on the anomalous Hall effect exhibited by an accelerated wavepacket in a two-band system. In this context, I present a non-adiabatic correction to the known semiclassical equations of motion which can be expressed in terms of the quantum geometric tensor elements. We also propose a protocol to directly measure the tensor components in radiative photonic systems

Les isolants topologiques (TIs) sont l'un des éléments clefs de la nouvelle génération de composants pour la spintronique. Ils offrent des perspectives de conversion de charge en courant de spin ou de réalisation de diodes Schottky à l'échelle nanométrique à base de fermions Dirac. Lorsque les TIs sont élaborés en couches ultra-minces (<10nm), ou soumis à un dopage approprié en éléments magnétiques, des modifications dramatiques se produisent sur la structure électronique et la dynamique des porteurs et des phonons. Pour décrire ces comportements partiellement compris, nous avons utilisé tout d’abord une chambre MBE pour faire croître des films de Bi2Te3 sur un substrat de mica muscovite. La structure monocristalline du film a été confirmée par des mesures LEED et RHEED, et les études complémentaires de structure électronique par XPS ont été conduites. La spectroscopie femtoseconde pompe-sonde a ensuite été utilisée pour l’étude dynamique des porteurs chauds et des phonons optiques et acoustiques cohérents.Dans cette thèse, nous mettons en évidence un effet de confinement quantique (<6nm) qui affecte les temps de vie des porteurs de charges mais aussi la dynamique des phonons. Des comportements similaires ont été observés quand les films (12nm) sont en interaction avec une couches magnétiques déposées en surface (dopage). La contribution respective des électrons de volume et ceux de surface (Dirac) à ces phénomènes est discutée. Ces résultats originaux apportent de nouveaux éclairages sur la physique des électrons et des phonons dans les couches minces d’isolants topologiques
Topological insulators (TI) are one of the critical elements for the new generation of electronics and spintronics devices. Such as charge-to-spin current conversion gates or Dirac fermions based nanometer scale Schottky diodes. When reduced just too a few single layers or exposed to additional doping, TI begins to show a dramatic effect that changes the electronic structure and in consequence dynamics of carriers and phonons. In order to describe those behaviors, I used advanced high-vacuum cluster with MBE to produce ultrathin films of Bi2Te3. The samples were grown on a muscovite mica substrate. The monocrystalline structure of the film was confirmed with both LEED and RHEED measurements, and the complementary studies of electronic structure focused on the analysis of the valence band and core levels. The femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy has been used to excite the hot carriers and generate coherent optical phonons within Bi2Te3 nanostructures and observe it in the time domain.In this thesis, I reveal an evident modification of the out-of-equilibrium carriers and phonons dynamics when extreme thickness or doping modify the BT layer. Performed experimental optical measurement integrate both bulk and surface electrons, but nonnegligible surface carriers contribution still gives a strong response. This continuous and time-domain investigation provides new insight into physical properties of topological insulators and shows that downscaling the topological insulators properties and their interaction with metallic interfaces have to be taken into account for potential TIs based spintronic devices

Neste trabalho de mestrado apresentamos um estudo sobre a manifestação do efeito Rashba em isolantes topológicos na ausência de simetria de inversão estrutural. Os cálculos das propriedades atomísticas, energéticas e as estruturas eletrônicas são abordados através de métodos de primeiros princípios baseados na teoria do funcional da densidade. E seus resultados foram utilizados para o desenvolvimento de hamiltoniana efetiva baseado no modelo de Zhang. Realizamos o estudo de dois sistemas: 1) Bi$_2$Se$_3$ com átomos de Sn depositados na superfície: Este sistema pode ser entendido através da manifestação do efeito Rashba sobre um isolante topológico dada a quebra de simetria de inversão estrutural. Para um sítio de deposição específico, os átomos de Sn causam uma reconstrução da superfície e um terceiro cone de Dirac é observado na estrutura eletrônica. Este terceiro cone é não localizado na superfície e pode ser entendido como a manifestação do efeito Rashba. 2) PbBiI: Reportado aqui como um novo isolante topológico 2D com efeito Rashba. Descobrimos este sistema por um estudo sistemático sobre uma família de materiais formados por átomos tipo IV, V, e VII, cuja estrutura cristalina é hexagonal e não centrossimétrica. Mostramos que o PbBiI possui: i) Estabilidade mecânica, ii) Spin-splitting Rashba de 60 meV, iii) um gap de energia não trivial de 0.14 eV, iv) retroespalhamento proibido entre os estados de borda e v) retroespalhamento proibido entre os estados do bulk no entorno do nível de Fermi. Estas propriedades fazem do PbBiI um candidato para construção de dispositivos de spintrônica que atenua a perda de energia.
In this work, were studied the Rashba effect in topological insulators without structural inversion symmetry. We performed a first principles study based on density functional theory to calculate the atomistic properties, formation energy and electronic structure. These results were used to development a effective Hamiltonian based on Zhang model. They were studied two systems: 1) Bi$_2$Se$_3$ with Sn atoms deposited on the surface: This system can be seen as the Rashba effect manifestation on a topological insulator due to the structural inversion symmetry breaking. For a specific deposition site, the Sn atoms cause a reconstruction of the surface and display a third Dirac cone in the electronic structure. This third cone is not located on the surface and can be understood as the giant Rashba effect manifestation. 2) We propose a new non-centrosymmetric honeycomb-lattice QSH insulator family formed by the IV, V, and VII elements. The system formed by Bi, Pb and I atoms is reported here as a new 2D topological insulator with Rashba effect. We show that this system has: i) Mechanical stability, ii) spin-splitting Rashba of 60 meV, iii) nontrivial energy gap of 0.14 eV, iv) backscattering forbidden for both edge and bulk conductivity channels in the nanoribbon band structure. These properties make PbBiI a good candidate to construct spintronic devices with less energy loss.

L’étude présentée dans ce mémoire constitue une approche qualitative des liens existant entre la topologie du réseau (portée des interactions, type de désordre, nature de la frustration) et les propriétés magnétiques des verres de spin isolants. La nature courte-portée des interactions magnétiques dans ces matériaux fait apparaître des inhomogénéités magnétiques rendues possibles par certains facteurs indépendants, à savoir : - les fluctuations chimiques locales qui, dans le cas des verres de spin métalliques, sont masquées par la longue portée des interactions RKKY, - le caractère localisé de la frustration qui, dans le cas des métalliques, est mieux distribuée sur les spins du réseau, - la morphologie du réseau magnétique dans le cas des amorphes. Cette approche nous a été suggérée par la découverte, dans les verres aluminosilicates de cobalt et de manganèse, d’un effet magnétique photo-induit qui se manifeste sur les propriétés dynamiques de ces systèmes dans leur phase verre de spin. Les caractéristiques spatio-temporelles de ce phénomène révèlent un caractère local de la réponse magnétique à une excitation optique. Un tel comportement est incompatible avec l’hypothèse d’un système magnétiquement homogène. Il est consistant avec les inhomogénéités magnétiques qui ressortent des études structurales que j’ai effectué sur ces matériaux. Nous avons poursuivi la même idée en étudiant les propriétés magnétiques de deux verres de spin isolants dont les caractéristiques structurales sont différentes de celles des aluminosilicates. Il s’agit de cristaux mixtes EuₓSr₁₋ₓ et Cd₁₋ₓMnₓTe. Remarquons que ces composés ne sont le siège d’aucun effet magnétique photo-induit. Les différences et les similitudes de leurs propriétés dynamiques dans la phase verre de spin avec celles des métalliques sont consistantes avec les caractéristiques de leur réseau magnétique respectif
The study we present in this thesis is a qualitative approach of the relations existing between the topology of the lattice of insulating spin glasses (interaction range, type of disorder, nature of the magnetic interactions in these materials generate magnetic inhomogeneities due to some independent factors, i. E. : - the local chemical fluctuations which, in the case of metallic spin-glasses, are masked by the long-range R. K. K. Y interactions, - the localized character of the frustration, which in the case of metallic spin-glasses, is well distributed over the lattice spins, - the morphology of the magnetic lattice in the case of the amorphous systems. This approach was suggested to us by the discovery of a photoinduced magnetic effect which appears on dynamic properties in the spin-glass phase of manganese or cobalt aluminosilicate glasses. The space and time related characteristics of this phenomenon reveal the local character of the magnetic response to an optical excitation. Such behaviour is inconsistent with the hypothesis of a magnetically homogeneous system. It is consistent with the presence of magnetic inhomogeneities which are evidenced by the structural studies that I did in these materials. We have pursued the same idea by studying the magnetic properties of two other spin glasses which have different structural characteristics as compared to the aluminosilicates: they are EuₓSr₁₋ₓ and Cd₁₋ₓMnₓTe mixed crystals, no photomagnetic effect has been observed in these compounds. The differences and similarities of the dynamical properties in their spin glasses phase as compared to the metallic systems are consistent with the characteristics of their respective magnetic lattices

In this thesis, we investigate the electronic structure and transport properties of topologically trivial and non-trivial cylindrical quantum dots (QDs) defined by further confining InAs1-xBix/AlSb quantum wells (QWs). First we predict that common III-V InAs0.85Bi0.15/AlSb QWs can become 2D topological insulators (TIs) for well thicknesses dc > 6.9 nm with a topologically non-trivial gap of about 30 meV (> kBT), which can enable room temperature TI applications. Furthermore, we investigate the cylindrical QDs defined from these Bi-based wells by additional confinement, both in the topologically trivial (d < dc) and non-trivial (d > dc) regimes. Surprisingly, we find that topologically trivial and non-trivial QDs have similar transport properties in stark contrast with their 2D counterparts (i.e., a strip). More specifically, through detailed calculations, which involve an analytical solution of the quantum-dot eigenvalue problem, we demonstrate that both trivial and non-trivial cylindrical QDs possess edge-like states, i.e., helical spin-angular-momentum-locked quantum states protected against non-magnetic elastic scattering. Interestingly, our trivial QDs exhibit these geometrically robust helical states, similarly to topologically non-trivial QDs, over a wide range of system parameters (e.g., dot radius). We also calculate the circulating currents for the topologically trivial and non-trivial QDs and find no substantial differences. However, we note that ordinary III-V or II-VI cylindrical QDs (i.e., QDs not formed from a BHZ model + confinement) do not feature robust edge-like helical states. We further consider topologically trivial and non-trivial QDs with four edge-like states and calculate their two-terminal conductance G via a standard Green-function approach. For both trivial and non-trivial QDs we find that G shows a double-peak resonance at 2e2/h as a function of the dot radius R and gate voltage Vg controlling the dot energy levels. On the other hand, both trivial and non-trivial QDs can have edge-like and bulk state Kramers pairs coexisting at the same energy within the bulk part of their discrete spectra. In this case, G displays a single-peak resonance at 2e2/h as the four levels (two edge states and two bulk states now) become degenerate at some particular parameter values R = Rc and Vg = Vgc for both topologically trivial and non-trivial QDs. We also extend our investigation to HgTe-based QDs and find similar results.
Nesta tese investigamos a estrutura eletrônica e as propriedades de transporte de pontos quânticos cilíndricos topologicamente triviais e não-triviais, definidos por confinamento de poços quânticos (QWs) InAs1-xBix/AlSb. Primeiramente, nós prevemos que os QWs usuais baseados em InAs1-xBix/AlSb podem se tornar isolantes topológicos 2D para largura de poço dc > 6.9 nm, com um gap topologicamente não-trivial de aproximadamente 30 meV (> kBT), o que pode permitir aplicações em temperatura ambiente. Além disso, investigamos pontos quânticos cilíndricos definidos a partir de confinamento desses poços contendo Bi, em ambos os regimes trivial (d < dc) e não-trivial (d > dc). Surpreendentemente, descobrimos que os pontos quânticos topologicamente triviais e não triviais têm propriedades de transporte semelhantes, um resultado em grande contraste com as suas versões semiinfinitas, como por exemplo uma fita. Mais especificamente, através de cálculos detalhados, que envolvem uma solução analítica do problema de autovalores dos pontos quânticos, demonstramos que pontos quânticos cilíndricos triviais e não-triviais possuem estados de borda semelhantes, isto é, estados quânticos helicoidais protegidos contra espalhamento elástico não magnético. Curiosamente, nossos pontos quânticos triviais exibem estados helicoidais geometricamente robustos, similarmente aos pontos quânticos topologicamente não-triviais, em uma ampla faixa de parâmetros do sistema, como por exemplo, o raio do ponto quântico. Nós também calculamos as correntes circulantes para os pontos quânticos topologicamente triviais e não-triviais e não encontramos diferenças substanciais entre elas. No entanto, notamos que os pontos quânticos cilíndricos feitos de materiais ordinários III-V ou II-VI (isto é, pontos quânticos não descritos pelo Hamiltoniano BHZ com confinamento) não apresentam estados helicoidais robustos. Consideramos ainda pontos quânticos triviais e não-triviais com quatro estados de borda e calculamos sua condutância entre dois terminais G através de uma abordagem padrão das funções de Green. Para os pontos quânticos triviais e não-triviais, encontramos que G mostra uma ressonância de pico duplo em 2e2/h como função do raio do ponto quantico R e da tensão Vg que controla os níveis de energia do ponto quântico. Por outro lado, tanto os pontos quânticos triviais como os não-triviais podem ter pares de Kramers localizados na borda (edge) e em todo seu volume (bulk) coexistindo em uma mesma janela de energia na região dos estados de valência. Nesse caso, G exibe uma ressonância de pico único em 2e2/h, já que os quatro níveis (dois estados de borda e dois estados de volume bulk) se tornam degenerados para alguns valores de parâmetros particulares R = Rc and Vg = Vgc, em pontos quânticos topologicamente triviais e não triviais. Nós também estendemos nossa investigação para os pontos quanticos de HgTe onde encontramos resultados similares.

Cette thèse présente une étude expérimentale des propriétés électroniques de deux matériaux topologiques, notamment l’isolant topologique tridimensionnel irradié Bi₂Te₃ et le super-réseau topologique naturel Sb₂Te. Les deux systèmes ont été étudiés par des techniques basées sur la spectroscopie de photoémission. Les composés Bi₂Te₃ ont été irradiés par des faisceaux d’électrons de haute énergie. L’irradiation avec des faisceaux d’électrons est une approche très prometteuse pour réaliser des matériaux qui sont vraiment isolants dans le volume, afin de mettre en évidence le transport quantique dans les états de surface protégés. En étudiant une série d’échantillons de Bi₂Te₃ par la technique de spectroscopie de photoémission résolue en temps et en angle (trARPES), nous montrons que les propriétés topologiques des états de surface de Dirac sont conservées après irradiation électronique, mais leurs dynamiques ultra-rapides de relaxation sont très sensibles aux modifications reliées aux propriétés du volume. De plus, nous avons étudié la structure électronique des bandes occupées et inoccupées du Sb₂Te. En utilisant la microscopie de photoémission d’électrons à balayage (SPEM), nous avons constamment trouvé diverses régions non équivalentes sur la même surface après avoir clivé plusieurs monocristaux de Sb₂Te. Nous avons pu identifier trois terminaisons distinctes caractérisées par différents rapports stœchiométriques de surface Sb/Te et possédant des différences claires dans leurs structures de bandes. Pour la terminaison dominante riche en tellure, nous avons également fourni une observation directe des états électroniques excités et de leurs dynamiques de relaxation en ayant recours à la technique trARPES. Nos résultats indiquent clairement que la structure électronique de surface est fortement affectée par les propriétés du volume du super-réseau. Par conséquent, pour les deux systèmes, nous montrons que la structure électronique de surface est absolument connectée aux propriétés du volume
This thesis presents an experimental study of the electronic properties of two topological materials, namely, the irradiated three-dimensional topological insulator Bi₂Te₃ and the natural topological superlattice phase Sb₂Te. Both systems were investigated by techniques based on photoemission spectroscopy. The Bi₂Te₃ compounds have been irradiated by high-energy electron beams. Irradiation with electron beams is a very promising approach to realize materials that are really insulating in the bulk, in order to emphasize the quantum transport in the protected surface states. By studying a series of samples of Bi₂Te₃ using time- and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (trARPES) we show that, while the topological properties of the Dirac surface states are preserved after electron irradiation, their ultrafast relaxation dynamics are very sensitive to the related modifications of the bulk properties. Furthermore, we have studied the occupied and unoccupied electronic band structure of Sb₂Te. Using scanning photoemission microscopy (SPEM), we have consistently found various nonequivalent regions on the same surface after cleaving several Sb₂Te single crystals. We were able to identify three distinct terminations characterized by different Sb/Te surface stoichiometric ratios and with clear differences in their band structure. For the dominating Te-rich termination, we also provided a direct observation of the excited electronic states and of their relaxation dynamics by means of trARPES. Our results clearly indicate that the surface electronic structure is strongly affected by the bulk properties of the superlattice. Therefore, for both systems, we show that the surface electronic structure is absolutely connected to the bulk properties

Cette thèse poursuit deux directions dans le domaine des isolants et supraconducteurs topologiques.Dans la première partie de la thèse nous étudions des isolants en deux dimensions sur réseau, présentant un effet Hall quantique anormal (c'est-à-dire en l'absence d'un champ magnétique externe), induit par la présence d'un flux magnétique inhomogène dans la maille. Le système possède des phase isolantes caractérisés par un invariant topologique, le nombre de Chern, qui est lié à la conductance portée par le bord états. Nous montrons que les modèles à deux bandes admettent des phase à nombre de Chern arbitraire, ou, de façon équivalente, un nombre arbitraire d'états de bord, quand on augmente la portée des couplages sur réseau. Cette compréhension est rendue possible grâce à la démonstration d'une formule montrant que le nombre de Chern d'une bande dépend de certains propriétés d'un ensemble discret de points dans la zone de Brillouin, les points de Dirac en l'absence du gap. Ces idées sont rendues plus concrètes dans l'étude du modèle de Haldane et dans la création d'un modèle artificiel avec cinq phases de Chern dont les états de bord sont déterminés en détail. La deuxième partie de la thèse porte sur les supraconducteurs topologiques unidimensionnels qui exhibent des états exotiques d'énergie zéro: les états liés de Majorana. Nous étudions ici la présence de fermions de Majorana dans des fils de semiconducteurs à fort couplage spin-orbite sous l’effet de proximité d'un supraconducteur d'onde s. Nous montrons que la polarisation de spin des degrés de liberté électroniques dans la fonction d'onde Majorana dépend du poids relatif du couplage spin-orbite Dresselhaus et Rashba. Nous étudions également les fermions de Majorana dans des jonctions linéaires longues supraconducteur-normal et supraconducteur-normal-supraconducteur (SNS) où ils apparaissent comme des états étendus dans la jonction normale. En outre, la géométrie d'anneaux peut être mise en correspondance avec une jonction SNS, et, sous l'action de gradients dans la phase supraconductrice, des fermions Majorana étendus se forment encore à l'intérieur du fil normal. Enfin, un modèle à deux bandes avec des fermions de Majorana multiples est traité. Nous démontrons que les jonctions Josephson construites à partir de ce modèle maintiennent l'une des signatures remarquables des fermions de Majorana, à savoir la périodicité 4π de l'effet Josephson fractionnaire
This thesis follows two threads in the field of topological insulators and superconductors. The first part of the thesis is devoted to the study of two-dimensional quantum anomalous Hall insulators on a lattice, in the absence of an external magnetic flux, but induced by an inhomogeneous flux in the unit cell. The system possesses several gapped phases characterized by a topological invariant, the Chern number, that is related to the conductance carried by the edge states. Here we show that two-band models admit an arbitrary large number of Chern phases or, equivalently, an arbitrary number of edge states, by adding hopping between distant neighbor sites. This result is based on a formula proving that the Chern number of a band depends on certain properties of a finite set of points in the Brillouin zone, i.e. the Dirac points for the gapless system. These ideas are made more concrete in the study of a modified Haldane model, and also by creating an artificial model with five Chern phases, whose edge states are determined in detail. The second part of the thesis focuses on one-dimensional topological superconductors with exotic zero-energy edge states: the Majorana bound states. Here we investigate the presence of Majorana fermions in spin-orbit coupled semiconducting wire in proximity to an s-wave superconductor. We show that the spin-polarization of the electronic degrees of freedom in the Majorana wave function depends on the relative weight of Dresselhaus and Rashba spin-orbit couplings. We also investigate Majorana fermions in linear superconductor-normal and long superconductor-normal-superconductor (SNS) junctions where they appear as extended states in the normal junction. Furthermore, ring geometries can be mapped to an SNS junction, and, we have shown that under the action of superconducting phases gradients, extended Majorana fermions can form again inside the normal wire. Finally a two-band model with multiple Majorana fermions is treated and we show that Josephson junctions built from this model maintain the 4π periodicity for the fractional Josephson effect, one of Majorana fermions signatures

Na busca de um melhor entendimento das propriedades eletrônicas e magnéticas dos isolantes topológicos nos deparamos com uma das suas caraterísticas mais marcantes, a existência de estados de superfície metálicos com textura helicoidal de spin os quais são protegidos de impurezas não magnéticas. Na superfície estes canais de spin possuem um potencial enorme para aplicações em dispositivos spintrônicos. Muito há para se fazer e o tratamento via cálculos de primeiros princípios por simulações permite um caráter preditivo que corrobora na elucidação de fenômenos físicos via análises experimentais. Nesse trabalho analisamos as propriedades eletrônicas de isolantes topológicos tais como: (Bi,Sb)$_2$(Te,Se)$_3$, Germaneno e Germaneno funcionalizado. Cálculos baseados em DFT evidenciam a importância das separações entre as camadas de Van der Waals nos materiais Bi$_2$Se$_3$ e Bi$_2$Te$_3$. Mostramos que devido a falhas de empilhamento, pequenas oscilações no eixo de QLs (\\textit{Quintuple Layers}) podem gerar um desacoplamento dos cones de Dirac, além de criar estados metálicos na fase \\textit{bulk} de Bi$_2$Te$_3$. Em se tratando do Bi$_2$Se$_3$ um estudo sistemático dos efeitos de impurezas de metais de transição foi realizado. Observamos que há quebra de degenerescência do cone de Dirac se houver magnetização em quaisquer dos eixos. Além disso se a magnetização permanecer no plano, além de uma pequena quebra de degenerescência, há um deslocamento do mesmo para outro ponto da rede recíproca. No entanto, se a magnetização apontar para fora do plano a quebra ocorre no próprio ponto $\\Gamma$, porém de maneira mais intensa. Importante enfatizar que além de mapear os sítios com suas orientações magnéticas de menor energia observamos que a quebra da degenerescência está diretamente relacionada com a geometria local da impureza. Isso proporciona imagens de STM distintas para cada sítio possível, permitindo que um experimental localize cada situação no laboratório. Estudamos ainda a transição topológica na liga (Bi$_x$Sb$_{1-x}$)$_2$Se$_3$, onde identificamos um isolante trivial e topológico para $x=0$ e $x=1$. Apesar de óbvia a existência de tal transição, detalhes importantes ainda não estão esclarecidos. Concluímos que a dopagem com impurezas não magnéticas proporciona uma boa técnica para manipulação e engenharia de cone nesta família de materiais, de forma que dependendo da faixa de dopagem podemos eliminar a condutividade que advém do \\textit{bulk}. Finalmente estudamos superfícies de Germaneno e Germaneno funcionalizado com halogênios. Usando uma funcionalização assimétrica e com a avalição do invariante topológico $Z_2$ notamos que o material Ge-I-H é um isolante topológico podendo ser aplicado na elaboração de dispositivos baseados em spin.
In the search of a better understanding of the electronic and magnetic properties of topological insulators we are faced with one of its most striking features, the existence of metallic surface states with helical spin texture which are protected from non-magnetic impurities. On the surface these spin channels allows a huge potential for applications in spintronic devices. There is much to do and treating calculations via \\textit{Ab initio} simulations allows us a predictive character that corroborates the elucidation of physical phenomena through experimental analysis. In this work we analyze the electronic properties of topological insulators such as: (Bi, Sb)$_2$(Te, Se)$_3$, Germanene and functionalized Germanene. Calculations based on DFT show the importance of the separation from interlayers of Van der Waals in materials like Bi$_2$Se$_3$ and Bi$_2$Te$_3$. We show that due to stacking faults, small oscillations in the QLs axis (\\textit{Quintuple Layers}) can generate a decoupling of the Dirac cones and create metal states in the bulk phase Bi$_2$Te$_3$. Regarding the Bi$_2$Se$_3$ a systematic study of the effects of transition metal impurities was performed. We observed that there is a degeneracy lift of the Dirac cone if there is any magnetization on any axis. If the magnetization remains in plane, we observe a small shift to another reciprocal lattice point. However, if the magnetization is pointing out of the plane a lifting in energy occurs at the very $ \\Gamma $ point, but in a more intense way. It is important to emphasize that in addition to mapping the sites with their magnetic orientations of lower energy we saw that the lifting in energy is directly related to the local geometry of the impurity. This provides distinct STM images for each possible site, allowing an experimental to locate each situation in the laboratory. We also studied the topological transition in the alloy (Bi$_x$Sb$_{1-x}$)$_ 2$Se$_3$, where we identify a trivial and topological insulator for $x = 0$ and $x = 1$. Despite the obvious existence of such a transition, important details remain unclear. We conclude that doping with non-magnetic impurities provides a good technique for handling and cone engineering this family of materials so that depending on the range of doping we can eliminate conductivity channels coming from the bulk. Finally we studied a Germanene and functionalized Germanene with halogens. Using an asymmetrical functionalization and with the topological invariant $Z_2$ we noted that the Ge-I-H system is a topological insulator that could be applied in the development of spin-based devices.

Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont pour objectif d'apporter à la physique mésoscopique un éclairage concernant la compréhension des propriétés de transport électroniques d'une classe de matériaux récemment découverts : les isolants topologiques.La première partie de ce manuscrit est une introduction aux isolants topologiques, mettant en partie l'accent sur leurs spécificités par rapport aux isolants "triviaux" : des états de bords hélicaux (dans le cas de l'effet Hall quantique de spin en 2 dimensions) ou de surface relativistes (pour les isolants topologiques tridimensionnels) robustes vis-à-vis du désordre.La deuxième partie propose une sonde de l'hélicité des états de bords de l'effet Hall quantique de spin en étudiant les propriétés remarquables de l'injection de paires de Cooper dans cette phase topologique.La troisième partie étudie la diffusion des états de surface des isolants topologiques tridimensionnels dans le régime cohérent de phase. L'étude de la diffusion, de la correction quantique à la conductance (antilocalisation faible) et de l'amplitude des fluctuations universelles de conductance de fermions de Dirac sans masse est présentée. Cette étude est aussi menée dans la cas d'états de surface dont la surface de Fermi présente la déformation hexagonale observée expérimentalement.

Neste trabalho, nossa principal motivação foi o entendimento da dinâmica de pacotes de onda em isolantes topológicos 2D. Como excitações de carga se movem nesses materiais? De que maneira essas trajetórias dependem das condições iniciais, e de que forma as condições de contorno influenciam nessa dinâmica? Essas foram algumas das perguntas que guiaram nosso trabalho. Através de simulações computacionais, estudamos o movimento de pacotes de onda gaussianos em poços quânticos de HgTe/CdTe. O comportamento de isolante topológico para essa heteroestrutura foi prevista teoricamente no importante trabalho de Bernevig et al. (Science, vol. 314, no. 5806, 2006) e confirmada experimentalmente por König et al. (Science, vol. 318, no. 5851, 2007). Estudando-se a evolução temporal desse sistema, foi possível observar trajetórias que dependem de forma evidente, não apenas da orientação de spin, mas também da orientação de um pseudo-spin proveniente do modelo BHZ. Em sistemas com condições de contorno periódicas em ambas as dimensões e sem a aplicação de campos externos, foram observadas trajetórias com formato de espiral, acompanhadas por um \"side-jump\" dependente da direção do spin e do pseudo-spin. Em especial, para o caso em que o pseudo-spin está inicialmente orientado na direção-z, as trajetórias espiraladas foram subtituidas por um padrão do tipo \"zitterbewegung\" dependente de um potencial de \"bias\". Para sistemas confinados com bordas impenetráveis, observou-se a formação de estados de borda helicais característicos de isolantes topológicos.
In this work, our main motivation was the understanding about the dynamics of wave packets in 2D topological insulators. How charge excitations move throughout theses materials? In what way their trajectories depend on the initial conditions, and how boundary conditions change this dynamics? These were some of the questions that have guided us in our work. Using numerical simulations, we have studied the movement of gaussian wave packets in HgTe/CdTe quantum wells. The topological insulator behavior for this heterostructure was theoretically predicted on the important work conducted in 2006 by Bernevig et al. (Science, vol. 314, n. 5806, 2006), and experimentally confirmed by König et al. (Science, vol. 318, no. 5851, 2007) a year later. Studing the time evolution of this system, was possible to observe trajectories that depend evidently, not only from the spin projection, but also from the pseudospin orientation coming from the BHZ model. From simulations with periodic boundary conditions in both of the two dimensions, and without the application of any external fields, we observed spiral trajectories accompanied by a spin and pseudospin dependent side-jump. Especially, for the case in which the pseudospin was iniatially oriented in \"z\" direction, the spiral trajectories were replaced by a pattern of the type \"zitterbewegung\" dependent of a bias potential. For the confined systems with barriers of hardwall type, was observed the formation of helical edge states, that is the fingerprint of topological insulators.

Cette thèse décrit la réalisation et l’étude de réseaux bidimensionnels de résonateurs supraconducteurs en nid d’abeille. Ce travail constitue un premier pas vers la simulation de systèmes de la matière condensée avec des circuits supraconducteurs. Ces réseaux sont micro-fabriqués et sont constitués de plusieurs centaines de sites. Afin d’observer les modes propres qui y apparaissent dans une gamme de fréquence entre 4 et 8 GHz, nous avons mis au point une technique d’imagerie. Celle-ci utilise la dissipation locale créée par un laser avec lequel nous pouvons adresser chaque site du réseau. Nous avons ainsi pu mesurer la structure de bande et caractériser les états de bord de nos réseaux. En particulier, nous avons observé les états localisés qui apparaissent à l'interface entre deux isolants de Semenoff ayant des masses opposées. Ces états, dits de Semenoff, sont d'origine topologique. Nos observations sont en excellent accord avec des simulations électromagnétiques ab initio
This thesis describes the realization and study of honeycomb lattices of superconducting resonators. This work is a first step towards the simulation of condensed matter systems with superconducting circuits. Our lattices are micro-fabricated and typically contains a few hundred sites. In order to observe the eigen-modes that appear between 4 and 8 GHz, we have developed a mode imaging technique based on the local dissipation introduced by a laser spot that we can move across the lattice. We have been able to measure the band structure and to characterize the edge states of our lattices. In particular, we observe localized states that appear at the interface between two Semenoff insulators with opposite masses. These states, called Semenoff states, have a topological origin. Our observations are in good agreement with ab initio electromagnetic simulations

Dans cette thèse, nous étudions l’effet du désordre magnétique sur les propriétés de transport électronique du graphène et des isolants topologiques 2D de type HgTe. Le graphène et les isolants topologiques sont des matériaux dont les excitations électroniques sont assimilées à des fermions de Dirac sans masse. L’influence des impuretés magnétiques sur les propriétés de transport du graphène est étudiée dans le régime de forts champs électriques. En conséquence de la production de paires électron-trou, la réponse devient non linéaire et dépend de la polarisation magnétique. Nous étudions une transition entre un isolant topologique bi-dimensionnel conducteur, caractérisé par une conductance G = 2 (en quantum de conductance) et un isolant de Chern avec G = 1, induite par des impuretés magnétiques polarisées
In this thesis, we study the effect of a magnetic disorder on the electronic transport properties of graphene and HgTe-type 2D topological insulators. Graphene and topological insulators are materials whose electronic excitations are treated as massless Dirac fermions.The influence of magnetic impurities on the transport properties of graphene is investigated in the regime of strong applied electric fields. As a result of electron-hole pair creation, the response becomes nonlinear and dependent on the magnetic polarization.We investigate a transition between a two-dimensional topological insulator conduction state, characterized by a conductance G = 2 (in conductance quantum) and a Chern insulator with G = 1, induced by polarized magnetic impurities

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
The observation of the quantum spin Hall effect in the HgTe/CdTe heterostructure triggered the study of materials exhibiting a spin polarized electronic current at their surfaces/ interfaces. These states are topologically protected against perturbations preserving time reversal symmetry and presenting a linear dispersion, forming a Dirac cone. However, non-magnetic perturbations (that preserve time reversal symmetry) will certainly affect these surface/interface states. In this work we user the density functional theory to characterize the topologically protected states of the (001) HgTe/CdTe heterostructure. We observed that for a correct description of the HgTe band structure we use a GGA+U method. The topological states showed a Rashba-like in-plane spin texture. We analyzed the effects of external pressures and electric fields in the HgTe/CdTe heterostructures. We show that these perturbations modify the energetics and dispersion of the protected states, although not destroying the topological phase. Also, we study defects like antisite, vacancy and a Fe magnetic impurity at the interface of the (001) HgTe/CdTe heterostructure. We show that the antisite and the vacancy do not affect the spin polarization nor the energy dispersion of the protected states. On the other hand, the magnetic impurity significantly affects the topological states, degrading the spin polarization for the states close to the magnetic impurity and inducing out-of-plane spin components. Further, we study the (001) HgTe surface for different thicknesses of the HgTe sample, and with different terminations (Hg and Te). To the (001) HgTe samples with a thickness of 38 Å , the spin polarized states do not show a linear dispersion, however, when the thickness is increased we observe the formation of spin-polarized surface states with linear dispersion, characterizing the formation of a Dirac cone. Also, we show that biaxial pressures modify the energy dispersion of the spin polarized states. Finally, we study materials that turn topological insulators under external pressures as the anti-perovskite structures Sr3BiN and Ca3BiN, using the self-consistent GW method. We show that these materials present an inversion of the Bi-pz and Bi-s band edge states when subjected to biaxial tensile stress. We conclude that these materials can be characterized Topological Insulators under pressure.
A observação do efeito Spin Hall Quântico na heteroestrutura HgTe/CdTe motivou o estudo de materiais que exibem uma corrente eletrônica spin-polarizada nas suas interfaces/ superfícies. Estes estados são topologicamente protegidos frente a perturbações que preservam a simetria de reversão temporal e apresentam uma dispersão linear formando um Cone de Dirac. Entretanto, perturbações não-magnéticas (que preservam a reversão temporal) irão certamente afetar estes estados de interface/superfície. Neste trabalho, usamos a Teoria do Funcional da Densidade (DFT), para caracterizar os estados topologicamente protegidos da heteroestrutura HgTe/CdTe (001), que é um Isolante Topológico (IT) 2D. Para uma descrição mais correta das posições dos níveis na estrutura de bandas do HgTe, nós usamos o método GGA+U. Na heteroestrutura, a caracterização dos estados topologicamente protegidos mostrou uma textura de spin no plano da interface, do tipo Rashba. Analisamos os efeitos de perturbações externas na heteroestrutura HgTe/CdTe (001), como pressões e campo elétrico. Mostramos que ambas perturbações modificam a energia do ponto de cruzamento e a dispersão dos estados protegidos, mas não destroem a fase topológica. Estudamos também a presença de defeitos na interface HgTe/CdTe (001), como um anti-sítio, uma vacância e uma impureza magnética de Fe. A presença de um anti-sítio e de uma vacância não afetam a polarização de spin dos estados protegidos e nem sua dispersão. Por outro lado, a presença de uma impureza magnética afeta significantemente estes estados, degradando a polarização de spin para os estados próximos a impureza magnética e fazendo que o sistema apresente componentes de spin fora do plano da interface/superfície. Além disso, estudamos a superfície de HgTe com diferentes espessuras (38, 64, e 129 Å ) e terminações (Hg e Te). Para as estruturas com uma espessura de 38 Å , os estados com polarização de spin não apresentam uma dispersão linear, entretanto, quando aumentamos a espessura do material, observamos a formação dos estados de superfície com uma dispersão linear e polarização de spin, caracterizando a formação do cone de Dirac. Mostramos também, que pressões biaxiais modificam a dispersão dos estados com polarização de spin. Realizamos um estudo de materiais que são Isolantes Topológicos quando submetidos a pressões externas. Neste caso estudamos as estruturas antiperovsquitas Sr3BiN e Ca3BiN, usando método GW auto-consistente. Mostramos que esses materiais apresentam uma inversão dos níveis de energia Bi-pz e Bi-s quando sujeitos a pressão externa biaxial distensiva. Concluímos que estes materiais podem ser caracterizados como Isolantes Topológicos sob pressão.

Cette thèse porte sur la caractérisation et l'étude du magnéto-transport sur les structures de type HgTe/CdTe sous contraintes développant un transport de surface topologique tout en étant isolant en volume ; on nomme cette nouvelle classe de matériau isolant topologique 3D.Je développerai dans cette thèse la caractérisation et définition d'un isolant topologique 2D/3D pour ensuite me focalise plus particulièrement sur les systèmes II-VI HgTe/CdTe.Une partie de la thèse développe les conditions de croissance réalisées au CEA/Leti ainsi que la caractérisation du matériau par rayon X. La structure de bande des surfaces est caractérisée par ARPES.Une troisième partie traite de la fabrication des barres de Hall nécessaires à la caractérisation du comportement topologique des surfaces. La partie développement expérimentale est également fournie.La dernière partie traite du magnétotransport réalisé avec ces barres de Hall à faible et fort champ magnétique. Le comportement ambipolaire, une phase de Berry non triviale, l'antilocalisation faible et l'effet Hall quantique entier dans ces structures sont abordés tout tentant de fournir une interprétation des résultats obtenus
This report deal with caracterisation of magnetotransport in HgTe/CdTe structures bulk strained in that a topological surface transport is predicted. This new kind of material is a 3D topological insulator.In this thesis, I will explain what means 3D/2D topological insulator before focusing on II-VI system lijke HgTe/CdTe.Next, I will discuss about growing conditions performed in CEA/Leti and then material caracterisation by X-ray. Surfaces band structures were also, observed by ARPES, underligned in the report.A third part deal with Hall bars design and conception in order to emphasize topological behavior of these surfaces.The last part shows the results obtained on these Hall bars with magnetotransport at low and high magnetic field. Ambipolaire behaviour, non trivial Berry phase, weak antilocalization and the interger quantum hall effect in HgTe/CdTe structures are studied and a possible interpretation of these results are given

CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
Sistemas descritos por Hamiltonianos do tipo Dirac são ubíquos. Surgindo em materiais como grafeno, isolantes topológicos ou recentemente nos semimetais de Weyl. Devido ao interesse tecnológico e acadêmico desses materiais, caracterizar suas propriedades é essencial. Uma abordagem matemática para efetuar o estudo de tais sistemas consiste em discretizar o Hamiltoniano no espaço das posições, mas tal abordagem esbarra no problema da duplicação de férmions. De forma breve, esse problema atesta pela impossibilidade de simulação de férmions livres não massivos em uma rede discreta sem que alguma simetria ou propriedade da Hamiltoniana seja quebrada. No presente trabalho demonstramos que tal problemática não deveria ser causa de preocupação para o estudo de sistemas na matéria condensada, pois podemos utilizar a simetria quebrada para confinar os portadores de carga no sistema para remover os estados duplicados. Tal remoção é conseguida com a inserção de um termo quadrático em relação ao momento, conhecido como massa de Wilson. Nesse sentido podemos inserir um termo de Wilson com quebra de simetria necessária para o confinamento, tornando o problema de duplicação de férmions irrelevante, essa relação não tinha sido notada até o presente trabalho, e recentes resultados na literatura erroneamente atribuem a massa de Wilson com a quebra de uma simetria de reversão temporal, o que não necessariamente é verdade. Nesse contexto além de abordar essa relação a presente dissertação objetiva também elucidar alguns mal entendimentos a respeitos das massas de Wilson, quiralidade e outras simetrias. Para validar nosso argumento central estudamos diversos sistemas de interesse e comparamos com os resultados na literatura.
Hamiltonians of Dirac type are ubiquitous. Appearing in materials such as graphene, topological insulators or recently in the Weyl semimetals. Due to the technological and academic interest of these materials, characterizing their properties is essential. A mathematical approach to study these systems consists of discretizing the Hamiltonian in the space of positions, but such an approach causes the problem of doubling fermions (FDP). We demonstrate the FDP should not be a cause of concern for the study of confined systems because we can use the broken symmetry to confine in the system to remove the duplicate states. Such removal is achieved by inserting a quadratic term with respect to the moment, known as the Wilson mass. In this sense we can insert a Wilson term with symmetry breaking required for confinement, rendering the fermion duplication problem irrelevant, this relationship had not been noticed until the present work, and recent literature results erroneously attribute Wilson’s mass to break of a symmetry of time reversal, which is not necessarily true. In this context, in addition to addressing this relationship, the present dissertation also aims to elucidate some misconceptions regarding the Wilson masses, chirality and other symmetries. In order to validate our central argument we study several systems of interest and compare it with the results in the literature.
Dissertação (Mestrado)

La thèse, composée de trois parties, est consacrée à des problèmes physiques différents reliés à la Théorie Conforme des Champs (CFT) bidimensionnelle. La première partie s'intéresse aux propriétés de transport hors d'équilibre à travers une jonction de fils quantiques. Trois modèles y sont étudiés. Le premier décrit les fils par un champs bosonique libre compactifié vu comme la bosonisation du liquide de Luttinger d'électrons. La jonction des fils est modélisée par une condition limite assurant la diffusion non triviale des charges entre les fils. Associant la quantification canonique et l'intégrale fonctionnelle, on calcule exactement les fonctions de corrélation des courants dans l'état d'équilibre du modèle, mais aussi dans un état stationnaire hors d'équilibre, ainsi que la statistique complète de comptage pour les transferts de charge et d'énergie entre les fils maintenus en températures et potentiels différents. Les deux autres modèles d'une jonction de fils quantiques sont basés sur la théorie de Wess-Zumino-Witten (WZW). Dans le premier, la jonction est décrite par une "brane cyclique" et dans le deuxième, par une "brane coset". Les résultats dans le premier cas sont aussi complets que pour le champ libre, mais les charges y sont entièrement transmises d'un fils au suivant. Dans le deuxième cas, la diffusion des charges n'est pas triviale, mais le modèle se révèle difficile à résoudre. La deuxième partie de la thèse étudie les anomalies globales de jauge dans les modèles "coset" de CFT réalisés comme la théorie WZW jaugée. La classifications (presque) complète de telles anomalies, lesquelles rendent certains modèles coset inconsistants, est présentée. Elle emploie la classification des sous-algèbres des algèbres de Lie simples due à Dynkin. Finalement, la troisième partie de la thèse décrit la construction géométrique d'indice des familles d'opérateurs unitaires obtenues des projecteurs sur les bandes de valence d'un isolant topologique bidimensionnel invariant par renversement du temps. L'indice construit est relié d'un côté à la racine carrée de l'amplitude de Wess-Zumino d'une telle famille, et, de l'autre, il reproduit l'invariant de Kane-Mele de l'isolant. La dernière identification exige un argument complexe qui exploite une nouvelle anomalie de jauge pour les modèles WZW à bord. Les trois parties de la thèse emploient des outils géométriques de CFT assez semblables, permettant d'obtenir toute une série des résultats originaux. Cette unité de méthode, ainsi que le thème des anomalies, constituent le trait d'union entre les différents composants du manuscrit
The thesis, consisting of three parts, is focusing on different physical problems that are related to two dimensional Conformal Field Theory (CFT).The first part deals with nonequilibrium transport properties across a junction of quantum wires. Three models are studied. The first one describes the wires by a free compactified bosonic field, seen as the bosonization of the Luttinger liquid of electrons. The junction of the wires is modeled by a boundary condition that ensures nontrivial scattering of the charges between the wires. Combining canonical quantization and functional integral, we compute exactly the current correlation functions in equilibrium, but also in a nonequilibrium stationary state, as well as the full counting statistics of charge and energy between the wires set at different temperatures and potentials. The two other models of quantum wire junction are based on Wess-Zumino-Witten theory (WZW). In the first one, the junction is described by a “cyclic brane” and in the second, by a “coset brane”. The results in the first case are as complete as for the free field, but the charges are fully transmitted from one wire to the next one. In the second case, the scattering is nontrivial, but the model turns out to be difficult to solve.The second part of the thesis studies the global gauge anomalies in “coset” models of CFT, realized as gauged WZW theories. The (almost) complete classification of such anomalies, that lead to some inconsistent coset models, is presented. It is based on Dynkin classification of subalgebras of simple Lie algebras.Finally, the third part of the thesis describes the geometric construction of index from unitary operator families obtained from valence band projectors of a two-dimensional time-reversal invariant topological insulator. The index is related on one hand to the square root of the Wess-Zumino amplitude of such a family, and, on the other hand, it reproduces the Kane-Mele invariant of the insulator. The last identification requires a nontrivial argument that uses a new gauge anomaly of WZW models with boundary.The three parts of the thesis use similar geometrical tool of CFT, that permits to obtain several original results. The unity in the method, as well as the topic of anomalies, builds a bridge between the different components of the manuscript

Les matériaux tirent beaucoup de leurs propriétés de l'interaction entre leurs constituants et une onde. Ceci est principalement conditionné par deux caractéristiques: la composition et l'arrangement structurel. Cette interdépendance est précisément décrite par la physique du solide. Ceci a ensuite motivé la découverte des matériaux composites dont les caractéristiques découlent à nouveau de ces deux critères. Ils se divisent en deux catégories. La première est celle des cristaux photoniques/phononiques, qui tirent leurs propriétés de leur arrangement périodique. La seconde catégorie est celle des métamatériaux, dont les propriétés proviennent de l'interaction de leurs constituants avec les ondes. Les effets de structure sont généralement négligés dans la description de ces milieux et ils sont considérés comme étant des milieux homogènes avec des paramètres effectifs. Ces deux types de systèmes semblent donc a priori très différents du point de vue de l'interaction avec les ondes. Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons au cas des métamatériaux localement résonant, c'est-à-dire à ceux dont la cellule unité est un résonateur sub-longueur d'onde. Au lieu de les considérer comme des milieux homogènes effectifs, l'idée est de partir des caractéristiques de la cellule unité du milieu ainsi que de son arrangement spatial afin d'obtenir ses propriétés macroscopiques. Cette approche microscopique permet d'appréhender conjointement les effets de structure et de composition. Ceci est décrit dans le chapitre I, où nous introduisons le concept de polariton dont la relation de dispersion présente une bande liée à des modes sub-longueur d’onde, et une bande interdite d’hybridation. Dans le chapitre II, nous tirons parti cette dernière afin d’induire un couplage localisé entre des défauts résonants qui est similaire au terme de saut que l'on retrouve au sein des Hamiltoniens tight-binding de physique du solide. Nous reproduisons ainsi les structures de bande du graphène et du réseau « dice », ce qui nous permet de mesurer des cônes de Dirac au sein du système. Dans le chapitre III, nous introduisons le concept des métamatériaux cristallins, ce qui revient à considérer ces milieux comme des cristaux photoniques/phononiques, mais à une échelle très petite devant la longueur d'onde de travail. Cela nous permet d’induire une bande négative dans le système mais aussi une bande relativement plate, et des cônes de Dirac. Dans le chapitre IV nous brisons ces cônes en réalisant un analogue de l’effet Hall quantique de Vallée, ce qui revient à modifier conjointement la structure et la composition de la cellule unité. Dans le chapitre V nous brisons encore une fois ces cônes afin de d’induire des propriétés topologiques dans le milieu et de créer un analogue macroscopique d’un isolant topologique de spin
Many material properties arise from the interaction between their constituents and a wave. This is mainly conditioned by two characteristics: the composition and the structural arrangement. This interdependence is precisely described by condensed matter physics. This motivated the discovery of composite materials whose characteristics also stem from these two criteria. They divide in two categories. The first is the photonic/phononic crystals, whose properties are linked to their periodic arrangement. The second category is the one of metamaterials, whose properties come from the interaction of their constituents with the waves. The structural effects are generally neglected in the description of these media and they are considered to be homogeneous media with effective parameters. These two types of systems seem very different from the point of view of the interaction with the waves. In this thesis, we focus on locally resonant metamaterials, whose unit cell is a sub-wavelength resonator. Instead of seeing them as effective homogeneous media, the idea is to start from the characteristics of the unit cell of the medium as well as from its spatial arrangement in order to obtain its macroscopic properties. This microscopic approach makes it possible to jointly apprehend the effects of structure and composition. This is described in Chapter I, where we introduce the concept of polariton whose dispersion relation has a band linked to subwavelength modes, and a hybridization bandgap. In Chapter II, we use the latter to induce a localized coupling between resonant defects that is similar to the hopping term found in tight-binding solid-state physics Hamiltonians. We reproduce the band structures of graphene and of the dice lattice, which allows us to measure Dirac cones within the system. In Chapter III, we introduce the concept of crystalline metamaterials, which amounts to seeing these media as photonic/phononic crystals, but on a very small scale compare to the operating wavelength. This allows us to induce a negative band in the system but also a relatively flat band, and Dirac cones. In Chapter IV we break these cones by creating an analogue of the quantum Hall effect of Valley, which amounts to jointly modifying the structure and composition of the unit cell. In Chapter V we again break these cones in order to induce topological properties in the medium and to create a macroscopic analogue of a topological isolator

Orientador: Pascoal José Giglio Pagliuso
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin
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Resumo: A ideia de topologia na Física da Matéria da Condensada, apesar de ter surgido com o efeito Hall quântico inteiro, só voltou a ser explorada recentemente na busca de novas fases da matéria depois do surgimento dos Isolantes Topológicos (ITs) 2D. Após a previsão teórica, e a descoberta experimental, foi proposto que esta nova fase poderia ser generalizada para sistemas 3D, em que o volume do material seria isolante com estados metálicos de superfície que possuiriam canais de spin polarizados. Apesar de diversos experimentos e o surgimento de outras fases topológicas da matéria subsequentes, ainda há dúvidas sobre a natureza dos ITs 3D. Os efeitos topológicos mais claros ainda não foram observados de forma inequívoca e reprodutível experimentalmente e ainda seria de extrema valia encontrar técnicas experimentais que possam complementar os mais discutidos experimentos de ARPES. Nesta dissertação foram estudadas duas famílias distintas de materiais propostas como possíveis ITs 3D: os binários Bi2Se3 e Sb2Te3 e o half-Heusler YPdBi. Utilizando a técnica de auto-fluxo e a fusão estequiométrica, os sistemas foram sintetizados dopados com os terras-rara Gd3+, Nd3+ e Er3+ para realizar estudos de ressonância de spin eletrônico (RSE) e do papel dos efeitos de campo cristalino (CEF) - no caso do half-Heusler. Para o ternário YPdBi foram feitos dois estudos. Na família dos half-Heuslers, a ordem topológica surge da relação entre o acoplamento spin-órbita e a hibridização, que está ligada com a mudança do parâmetro de rede, então os efeitos de CEF poderiam estar refletindo a transição entre a trivialidade e a não-trivialidade. A partir das medidas de susceptibilidade magnética em função da temperatura das amostras dopadas com Nd3+ e Er3+ combinadas com os estudos de RSE, foi possível extrair os parâmetros de campo cristalino (CFP) de quarta e sexta ordem. Comparando esses dados com resultados anteriores para o material, supostamente, não-trivial YPtBi, observou-se uma mudança sistemática no sinal dos CFP. Resultados prévios para as amostras de YPtBi dopadas com Nd3+ mostram uma evolução não usual para uma forma de linha difusiva com a potência de micro-onda. Neste trabalho também foi realizado um estudo da forma de linha em função da potência. Apenas a ressonância do Nd3+ para os monocristais de 10% de Nd em YPdBi mostrou uma forma de linha difusiva que evolui com a potência da micro-onda. No caso dos binários Bi2Se3 e Sb2Te3, o objetivo era otimizar a rampa de tratamento térmico para obter monocristais melhores que poderiam permitir a observação de um espectro totalmente resolvido do Gd3+. Após mudanças no crescimento dos monocristais, o espectro totalmente resolvido foi obtido para as amostras de Bi2Se3. No caso do Sb2Te3 apenas uma linha central com a estrutura fina colapsada foi observada. Acompanhando o deslocamento g e a evolução da largura de linha dH da RSE do Gd3+ com a temperatura, o comportamento negativo do deslocamento g para toda a faixa de temperatura indica que elétrons do tipo p são os grandes responsáveis pela formação da superfície de Fermi residual destes sistemas. Um aumento no coeficiente angular de dH em função da temperatura, a taxa Korringa b, foi observado em baixas temperaturas, logo diferentes concentrações de Gd3+ foram utilizadas para estudar este comportamento. Novamente observou-se um comportamento anômalo em baixas temperaturas, o que poderia estar relacionado com a evolução dos CFP com a temperatura. Todos esses resultados foram discutidos levando-se em conta a possibilidade de existência de topologia não-trivial na estrutura eletrônica desses materiais, com foco particular na relação da interação spin-órbita e os efeitos de campo cristalino com a manifestação da topologia não trivial nesses sistemas
Abstract: The idea of topological systems in Condensed Matter Physics, although already explored in the Quantum Hall Effect, has recently become a topic of intense scientific investigation. In particular, great efforts have been dedicated to the search for new quantum phases since the proposal of the Topological Insulators (TIs) in 2D. After the theoretical prediction and the experimental discovery of the TIs in the 2D case, the existence of the Quantum Hall Spin Effect in 3D, 3D TIs, was proposed, where an insulator bulk and metallic surface states with spin polarized channels could be experimentally realized. Although many experiments have been performed, and some groups claimed the direct observation of such new topological phases, there is still a lot of controversy about the nature of the 3D TIs and about the actual microscopic origin of the metallic states on the surface of the studied materials. Other signatures of the topological phases have not been unambiguously and repeatedly measured yet and there is an obvious lack of a supplementary lab technique to be compared to the most used technique to probe these states, which is ARPES. In this work we have studied two different classes of 3D TIs: the binaries Bi2Se3 and Sb2Te3 and the half-Heusler YPdBi. We have been able to grow single crystals of these materials pure and rare-earth doped with Gd3+, Nd3+ and Er3+ using the self-flux technique and the stoichiometric melting. The aim was to use these crystals to study Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) as a potential probe to investigate the existence of the metallic surface states and to explore the possible of the crystalline electrical field (CEF) effects on the formation of the non-trivial electronic structure of these materials. Regarding the YPdBi, our ESR and magnetization studies have revealed that, in the half-Heusler family, the topological order emerges from the interplay between spin-orbit coupling and the hybridization, which is connected with the changes on the lattice parameter. Thus, the CEF effects could reflect the transition from trivial to nontrivial topology. From the magnetic susceptibility data as a function of temperature from the Nd3+ and Er3+ doped samples combined with the ESR studies, it was possible to extract the fourth and sixth order crystal field parameters (CFP). Comparing our data with the previous results from YPtBi, which is a putative non-trivial material, a systematic change in the sign of the CFP was observed. Previous results with the YPtBi Nd-doped samples show an unusual evolution of the Nd3+ ESR line to a diusive-like line shape as a function of the microwave power. In this work we have performed a similar study of the Nd3+ ESR line shape as a function of the microwave power. Only for the single crystal of 10% Nd in YPdBi resonance shows a diffusive-like line shape that evolves with the microwave power. In the case of the binaries Bi2Se3 e Sb2Te3, the aim of this work was to optimize the heat treatment used in previous works of our group to obtain better single crystals that could allow the observation of the full resolved spectra from Gd3+. After many changes in the single crystal growth method, we were able to observe fully resolved Gd3+ ESR spectra in the Bi2Se3 samples. Regarding the Sb2Te3 single crystals, only a single Gd3+ Dysonian ESR line was observed. Following the Gd3+ ESR dg and dH as a function of temperature, the observed negative behavior of dg, in the whole temperature range studied, indicates that p-type electrons are the main source for the formation of the small the Fermi surface of these materials. An increase of the angular coefficient of dH as a function of temperature, the Korringa rate b, at low temperatures was observed and different concentrations of Gd3+ were required to investigate this anomaly. Again this anomalous behavior at low temperatures was observed for the all Gd-doped samples, which could be related to an evolution of CFP with temperature. We discuss our results taking into account the existence of non-trivial topological states in our samples and the role of spin-orbit and CEF effects might have in the formation of such states
Mestrado
Física
Mestre em Física
132653/2015-0
CNPQ
CAPES
FAPESP

Orientadores: Pascoal José Giglio Pagliuso, Ricardo Rodrigues Urbano
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin
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Resumo: Nesta tese, são abordadas duas principais classes de materiais: os supercondutores à base de ferro e arsênico (FeAs) e os isolantes topológicos tridimensionais. Os supercondutores à base de FeAs foram descobertos em 2008 e desde então despertaram grande interesse na comunidade científica como candidatos à supercondutividade não-convencional de alta temperatura. Dentre as várias estruturas à base de FeAs descobertas, em particular, a família BaFe2As2 (122) é uma das mais estudadas até o momento por ser um composto intermetálico possível de ser crescido com relativa facilidade e alta qualidade comparada às outras famílias. Este composto puro possui uma transição estrutural de tetragonal para ortorrômbica à uma temperatura Ts ? 139 K, e, diminuindo a temperatura, há uma transição magnética de paramagnético (PM) para uma ordem anti-ferromagnética tipo onda de densidade de spin (SDW, no inglês) em TSDW ? 134 K. Estas transições em Ts e TSDW são gradualmente suprimidas tanto por substituição química quanto por pressão aplicada, e, antes que sejam completamente suprimidas, supercondutividade é induzida. Nesta região onde a supercondutividade (SC) ainda está emergindo, há coexistência e/ou competição de SC e SDW, com a presença de momentos quase localizados do Fe. Estes momentos podem agir como centros eficientes de aprisionamento de vórtices (centros de pinning) que são suprimidos gradativamente por pressão aplicada, formando um efeito de pinning magnético que se manisfestaria na corrente crítica dessas amostras. Para estudar os possíveis efeitos de pinning magnético neste material, foram crescidas amostras com diferentes substituições químicas e realizados estudos de densidades de corrente crítica sob pressão e campos magnéticos aplicados. Enquanto observamos que a densidade de corrente crítica nas amostras estudadas é dominada pela evolução da temperatura crítica Tc, encontramos evidências indiretas para a presença de pinning magnético em nossas amostras, através da comparação da dependência com a pressão observada para a temperatura crítica supercondutora Tc e para a densidade de corrente crítica Jc. Quanto às transições estrutural e magnética, discute-se na literatura se nesses sistemas há dopagem eletrônica efetiva quando se realiza substituição química, ou se ocorre uma sintonização das propriedades pelo ajuste da geometria dos tetraedros de FeAs nos planos do material. Além disso, na faixa de temperatura entre Ts e TSDW, há certo debate se o material torna-se inteiramente ortorrômbico e PM, ou se há coexistência entre as fases tetragonal/PM e ortorrômbica/SDW. Neste trabalho, foram crescidos monocristais de Ba(Fe,M)2As2 (M = Co, Cu) e neles estudadas as transições estrutural e magnética e a fase entre elas utilizando técnicas de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), difração de raios-X e calor específico. Nossos resultados sugerem que, independente do substituinte, não há dopagem eletrônica e que a geometria nos planos de FeAs regula as propriedades do material. Além disso, mostramos que, de fato, existe coexistência entre as fases tetragonal/PM e ortorrômbica/SDW nas amostras. Estes resultados corroboram nossas próprias observações em amostras de (Ba,K)Fe2As2, o que também indica a independência dos resultados com o tipo, concentração e localização dos átomos substituintes na matriz 122. Os isolantes topológicos (ITs) são uma nova classificação da matéria proposta teoricamente e observada experimentalmente em 2006, e consistem de maneira simplificada em materiais que são isolantes de banda em seu volume, porém possuem estados de superfície metálicos robustos. As propriedades exóticas destes estados de superfície tornam estes materiais candidatos a aplicações em computação quântica e spintrônica. Muitas famílias foram propostas como ITs e estudadas recentemente, em particular a família 23 ((Bi,Sb)2(Se,Te)3) e a família dos half-Heuslers, que são o foco desta Tese. Porém, ainda há muitos aspectos destes materiais que não estão bem determinados, como por exemplo a penetração dos estados de superfície, e sua resposta a campos magnéticos e a radiações incidentes. Neste trabalho, sintetizamos cristais dos ITs da família 23 e o half-Heusler YBiPt, e os estudamos utilizando a técnica de ressonância de spin eletrônico (RSE). Para o YBiPt dopado com Nd3+, observamos um comportamento da forma de linha nãoconvencional do espectro de RSE do Nd3+, onde a forma da linha depende fortemente da potência da micro-ondas, das dimensões da amostra e da concentração de Nd3+. A este comportamento não convencional atribuímos a presença de um efeito de fônon bottleneck e à presença dos estados de superfície. Para o Bi2Se3, nossos resultados preliminares sugerem que os estados de superfície têm uma interação maior com as sondas de Gd3+ abaixo de 40 K, e que estes estados de superfície possuem caráter de orbitais p
Abstract: In this thesis, two main material classes are studied: the iron arsenide (FeAs) superconductors and the three-dimensional topological insulators. The FeAs based superconductors were discovered in 2008 and since then have aroused great interest in the scientific community as possible unconventional high-temperature superconductors. Amongst the many FeAs bases structures that were discovered until now, the BaFe2As2 (122) family is one of the most studied for being an intermetallic compound which can be grown with reasonable ease and high quality when compared to other families. This pure compound presents a structural transition at Ts ? 139 K from tetragonal to orthorhombic, and a magnetic transition at a lower TSDW ? 134 K from paramagnetic (PM) to a spin density wave (SDW) anti-ferromagnetic order. Both transitions at Ts and TSDW are gradually suppressed by either chemical substitution or applied pressure, and, before both are completely suppressed, superconductivity emerges. In this region where superconductivity (SC) is still emerging, there is coexistence and/or competition between SC and SDW order, with the presence of Fe quasi-localized magnetic moments. Those moments may act as efficient pinning centers that are gradually suppressed by applied pressure, producing a magnetic pinning effect that would manifest itself in the critical currents of such samples. To study magnetic pinning effects in the 122 family, samples with different chemical substitutions were grown, and critical current density studies were performed under applied pressure and magnetic fields. While the behavior of critical current densities is dominated by the evolution of critical temperature Tc with pressure, we have found indirect evidences for the presence of magnetic pinning in our samples. Regarding the structural and magnetic transitions, there are evidences that, in the 122 system, there is no effective electronic doping when a chemical substitution is performed but a tuning of the system properties by the geometric configuration of FeAs tetrahedra in the material. Also, there is some debate if in the temperature range between Ts and TSDW the material becomes completely orthorhombic and PM, or if there is coexistence of tetragonal/PM and orthorhombic/SDW phases. In this work, Ba(Fe,M)2As2 (M = Co, Cu) single crystals were grown and their structural and magnetic transitions were investigated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), X-ray diffraction and specific heat. Our results show that there is no effective electronic doping induced by any of the substitutions, and that it is the geometric configuration of FeAs tetrahedra that tunes the system properties. Also, we have shown that there is coexistence between tetragonal/PM and orthorhombic/SDW phases in these samples. The results confirm our previous observations made in (Ba,K)Fe2As2, which also indicates that our results do not depend on the type, concentration and placement of substituted atoms in the 122 matrix. Topological insulators (TIs) are a new class of condensed matter which was proposed theoretically and experimentally observed in 2006. They are, in a simplified view, materials which are band insulators in the bulk, but possess roubst intrinsic metallic surface states. The exotic properties of those surface states make these materials possible candidates in quantum computing and spintronic applications. Many different materials were proposed as TIs and recently studied, in particular the 23 family ((Bi,Sb)2(Se,Te)3) and the half-Heusler family, which are the focus of this thesis. Yet, there are several aspects of these materials which are not yet fully understood, such as the penetration of the surface states, and their response to magnetic fields and incident radiation. In this work, single crystals of the 23 and half-Heusler families were grown, and were studied by electronic spin resonance (ESR). For YBiPt, we observed an anomalous lineshape behavior, to which we attribute a phonon bottleneck effect and the presence of the surface states. For Bi2Se3, our preliminary results indicate that the surface states have an enhanced exchange interaction with the Gd3+ magnetic probes below 40 K, and that those surface states have a p-orbital character
Doutorado
Física
Doutor em Ciências

Dans cette thèse, j’étudie la compressibilité électronique de deux isolants topologiques tridimensionnels : Le tellurure de mercure (HgTe) sous contrainte et le séléniure de bismuth (Bi2Se3).Je présente des mesures d’admittance électronique à basse température résolues en phase sur une large gamme de fréquence. Cela permet d’extraire la capacité quantique associé à la densité d’états et la résistivité des matériaux étudiés.Nous montrons qu’un isolant topologique intrinsèque présente une réponse dominée par les états de surface topologiques sur une large gamme d’énergie qui s’étend au-delà du gap de transport du matériau massif. Ce régime, appelé « écrantage de Dirac », est caractérisé par une compressibilité électronique proportionnelle à l’énergie de surface et une haute mobilité.Dans la suite, nous nous intéressons à la limite de ce régime. Nous observons qu’à haute énergie et sous l’influence de forts champs électriques perpendiculaires, des états excités massifs de surface sont peuplés ce qui se manifeste expérimentalement de différentes façons : Une chute dans la constante de diffusion électronique, un pic de conductivité ainsi que l’apparition d’un deuxième type de porteurs en magnéto-transport et de métastabilité dans la relation charge-tension.Un modèle théorique basé sur un traitement quasi-relativiste du Hamiltonien de surface est présenté. Il permet d’identifier la dépendance en énergie et champ électrique des états massifs de surface.Cette thèse est complémenté par des résultats expérimentaux sur Bi2Se3 obtenu par croissance sur nitrure de bore mettent en évidence l’importance de la pureté des interfaces d’isolants topologiques
This thesis discusses the electronic compressibility of two representative three dimensional topological insulators: Strained mercury telluride (HgTe) and bismuth selenide (Bi2Se3).I present low temperature phase-sensitive electron admittance data over a broad frequency range. This allows to extract the quantum capacitance related to the density of states and the resistivity of the investigated materials.We show that the response of an intrinsic topological insulator is dominated by topological surface states over a large energy range exceeding the bulk material’s transport gap. This regime, named “Dirac screening” is characterized by an electron compressibility proportional to the surface Fermi level and a high mobility.Subsequently, we investigate the limits of this regime. At high energy and large perpendicular electric fields we observe the population of excited massive surface states. Experimentally, these manifest themselves in multiple signatures: A drop in the electronic diffusion constant, a peak in the conductivity, appearance of a second carrier type in magneto-transport and meta-stability in the charge-voltage relation.A theoretical model based on a quasi-relativistic treatment of the surface Hamiltonian is presented. It allows to identify the electric field and energy dependence of the massive surface states.This thesis is complemented by experimental results on Bi2Se3 grown on boron nitride, where we demonstrate the importance of clean surfaces for the study of electronic properties in topological insulators

Cette thèse est consacrée à de nouveaux phénomènes en physique liées au spin et à la topologie des quasi-particules lumière-matière dans des hétérostructures. Elle est divisée en quatre parties. Chapitre 1 donne un fond nécessaire et introduit les propriétés fondamentales des polaritons et des excitons indirects dans des puits quantiques couplés. Chapitre 2 est concentré sur la dynamique de spin et sur formation de défauts topologiques dans des systèmes aux excitons indirects. Les 2 derniers chapitres considèrent les structures basées sur les microcavités. Chapitre 3 est consacré à la dynamique de spin des polaritons dans des oscillateurs paramétriques optiques. Finalement, chapitre 4 étudie les réseaux des microcavités en forme des piliers et introduit l’isolant topologique polaritonique
The present thesis manuscript is devoted to new phenomena in physics of light-matter quasiparticles in heterostructures, related to spin and topology. It is divided into four parts. Chapter 1 gives a necessary background, introducing basic properties of microcavity polaritons and indirect excitons in coupled quantum wells. Chapter 2 is focused on spin dynamics and topological defects formation in indirect exciton many-body systems. The last 2 chapters are related to microcavity-based structures. Chapter 3 is devoted to polariton spin dynamics in optical parametric oscillators. Finally, Chapter 4 studies pillar microcavity lattices and introduces the polariton topological insulator

L'utilisation de matériaux ferromagnétiques a longtemps été l'unique méthode pour détecter et produire des courants de spin. Cependant, depuis le milieu des années 2000 des méthodes alternatives ont été proposées. Un champ émergent de la spintronique, appelé spin-orbitronique, s'attelle à l'utilisation du couplage spin orbite pour détecter et produire des courants de spin en l'absence de matériaux ferromagnétiques. Une interconversion efficace entre courant de spin et courant de charge a pu être obtenues à l'aide de l'effet Hall de spin dans les métaux lourds tels que le Platine ou le Tantale. Une telle conversion peut aussi être obtenue en utilisant l'effet Edelstein dans les interfaces Rashba et les isolants topologiques.La conversion de courant de spin à courant de charge par effet Hall de spin et effet Edelstein inverse peut être étudiée par la méthode dite du pompage de spin par résonance ferromagnétique. Ce manuscrit présente ces différents effets de conversion ainsi que la technique utilisée basée sur une mesure électrique effectuée à la résonance ferromagnétique. Y sont présentés des résultats de conversion spin charge dans les métaux, les interfaces Rashba à base d'oxydes ainsi que dans les isolants topologiques. Parmi ces systèmes nous avons montré la possibilité de moduler à l'aide d'une grille électrostatique la conversion spin charge dans un gaz d'électron bidimensionel obtenu à la surface de l'oxyde SrTiO3. De plus il est possible de moduler, de façon rémanente, la conversion dans SrTiO3 grâce à la ferroélectricité obtenue à des températures cryogéniques.Parmi les autres systèmes étudiés les isolants topologiques HgTe et Sb2Te3 présentent des propriétés de conversion spin vers charge prometteuses à température ambiante. En particulier dans le cas de HgTe, en utilisant une couche de protection de HgCdTe nous avons pu obtenir des niveaux de conversion un ordre de grandeur plus élevé que dans le Platine.Ces résultats suggèrent que les gaz d'électrons bidimensionnels aux interfaces d'oxydes ainsi que les isolants topologiques sont des systèmes prometteurs pour la détections de courants de spin pour des applications au delà de la logique CMOS
Using a ferromagnetic layer has been the first method to obtain and detect spin currents, allowing to modify the magnetization state of an adjacent layer using spin transfer torque. However, in recent years, an alternative way to manipulate spin currents has been proposed. An emerging field of spintronics, called spin-orbitronics, exploits the interplay between charge and spin currents enabled by the spin-orbit coupling (SOC) in non-magnetic systems. An efficient current conversion can be obtained through the Spin Hall Effect in heavy metals such as Platinum or Tantalum. The conversion can also be obtained by exploiting the Edelstein Effect in Rashba interfaces and topological insulators.The spin to charge conversion by means of Inverse Edelstein Effect and inverse Spin Hall Effect can be studied by the spin pumping by ferromagnetic resonance technique. This manuscript present these two conversion mechanisms as well as the technique that was used to measure them, which is based on an electrical detection of the ferromagnetic resonance. Results on the spin to charge current conversion obtained in metals, oxide-based Rashba interfaces and topological insulators will be presented. Among these systems we have demonstrated the possibility to tune the conversion efficiency by using a gate voltage in a two-dimensional electron gas at the surface of an oxide SrTiO3. Moreover it is possible to tune this effect, a remanent way, thanks to the ferroelectricity obtained in SrTiO3 at cryogenic temperatures.Other studied systems such as topological insulators HgTe and Sb2Te3 also have promising properties for an efficient spin to charge current conversion at room temperature. In particular we showed than in HgTe by using a thin HgCdTe protective layer, it is possible to obtain a spin to charge current conversion efficiency one order of magnitude larger than in Pt.These results suggest that stwo dimensional electron gases at oxide interfaces and topological insulators have a strong potential for the efficient detection of spin currents for possible beyond CMOS applications

L'un des principaux objectifs de la spintronique est de réaliser le transistor à spin et pour y parvenir, il faut mettre en œuvre avec succès une plateforme où les courants de spin peuvent être facilement injectés, détectés et manipulés à température ambiante. Dans cette optique, ce travail de thèse montre que le germanium est un très bon candidat grâce à ses propriétés optiques et de spin ainsi qu'à sa compatibilité avec les nanotechnologies à base de silicium.Au fil des années, plusieurs schémas d'injection et de détection de spin ont été réalisés dans Ge, mais la manipulation électrique de l'orientation du spin est toujours une pièce manquante. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes concentrés sur deux approches afin de manipuler l'interaction spin-orbite (SOI) dans le germanium. Les deux s'appuient sur l'absence de symétrie d'inversion structurale et le couplage spin-orbite aux surfaces et aux interfaces avec le germanium (111). Tout d'abord, nous avons effectué la croissance épitaxiale de l'isolant topologique Bi2Se3 sur Ge (111). Après avoir caractérisé les propriétés structurales et électriques de l'hétérostructure Bi2Se3/ Ge, nous avons développé une méthode originale pour sonder la conversion courant de spin-courant de charge à l'interface entre Bi2Se3 et Ge en tirant profit des propriétés optiques du Ge. Les résultats ont montré que l'hybridation entre les états de surface de Bi2Se3 et du Ge pourrait permettre la manipulation électrique de l'orientation du spin dans un transistor.La seconde approche consiste à exploiter le SOI intrinsèque de Ge (111). J'ai étudié les propriétés électriques d'un film mince de Ge (111) et découvert que le passage du courant dans des états de sous-surface où l'interaction Rashba est forte, induit un effet de magnétorésistance très particulier que nous avons appelé la magnétorésistance Rashba unidirectionnelle. Elle est due à l'interaction entre le champ magnétique appliqué extérieur et le pseudo champ magnétique induit par le courant appliquée dans les états polarisés en spin du Ge (111). La forte intensité et modularité de cet effet nous mène à penser que ces états pourraient être également mis à profit dans la réalisation d'un transistor à spin tout semi-conducteur.Parallèlement, j'ai intégré des jonctions tunnel magnétiques à anisotropie perpendiculaire à base de multicouches (Co/Pt) sur la plateforme de Ge (111). J'ai développé une technique hybride électro-optique originale basée sur une détection électrique du dichroïsme magnétique circulaire du (Co/Pt) pour faire de l’imagerie magnétique. Ces jonctions tunnel magnétiques ont ensuite été utilisées pour effectuer la génération et la détection de spin dans un dispositif de type vanne de spin latérale. L'anisotropie magnétique perpendiculaire permet de générer un courant de spin avec une orientation de spin perpendiculaire au plan de l'échantillon.Enfin, j'ai rassemblé tous ces éléments développés pendant ma thèse dans un dispositif ultime: un prototype de transistor à spin où une accumulation de spin peut être générée et détectée optiquement et/ou électriquement, en utilisant l'orientation optique de spin dans le germanium ou les jonctions tunnel magnétiques
One of the main goals of spintronics is to achieve the spin transistor operation and for this purpose, one has to successfully implement a platform where spin currents can be easily injected, detected and manipulated at room temperature. In this sense, this thesis work shows that Germanium is a very good candidate thanks to its unique spin and optical properties as well as its compatibility with Silicon-based nanotechnology.Throughout the years, several spin injection and detection schemes were achieved in Ge but the electrical manipulation of the spin orientation is still a missing part. Recently we focused on two approaches in order to tune the spin-orbit interaction (SOI) in a Ge-based platform. Both rely on the structural inversion asymmetry and the spin-orbit coupling at surfaces and interfaces with germanium (111). First, we performed the epitaxial growth of the topological insulator (TI) Bi2Se3 on Ge (111). After characterizing the structural and electrical properties of the Bi2Se3/Ge heterostructure, we developed an original method to probe the spin-to-charge conversion at the interface between Bi2Se3and Ge by taking advantage of the Ge optical properties. The results showed that the hybridization between the Ge and TI surface states could pave the way for implementing an efficient spin manipulation architecture.The latter approach is to exploit the intrinsic SOI of Ge (111). By investigating the electrical properties of a thin Ge(111) film epitaxially grown on Si(111), we found a large unidirectional Rashba magnetoresistance, which we ascribe to the interplay between the externally applied magnetic field and the current-induced pseudo-magnetic field in the spin-splitted subsurface states of Ge (111). The unusual strength and tunability of this UMR effect open the door towards spin manipulation with electric fields in an all-semiconductor technology platform.In a last step, I integrated perpendicularly magnetized (Co/Pt) multilayers-based magnetic tunnel junctions on the Ge (111) platform. I developed an original electro-optical hybrid technique to detect electrically the magnetic circular dichroism in (Co/Pt) and perform magnetic imagingThese MTJs were then used to perform spin injection and detection in a lateral spin valve device. The perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA) allowed to generate spin currents with the spin oriented perpendicular to the sample plane.Finally, I assembled all these building blocks that were studied during my PhD work to build a prototypical spin transistor. The spin accumulation was generated either optically or electrically, using optical spin orientation in germanium or the injection from the magnetic tunnel junction

Dans cette thèse, nous explorons des matériaux basés sur le bismuth qui peuvent présenter des propriétés topologiques. Bi est un composant d’Isolants Topologiques identifiés qui consistent en un volume isolant tout en présentant aussi des états électroniques conducteurs en surface topologiquement protégés. En particulier, ces états de surface sont polarisés en spin et sont protégés par la symétrie du renversement du temps. L’attrait des Isolants Topologiques découle non seulement de leur intérêt évident du point de vue de la physique fondamentale, mais aussi du fait qu’ils puissent trouver une application en spintronics et dans les ordinateurs quantiques.Dans ces systèmes, le couplage spin-orbit joue un rôle central. Le couplage spin-orbit peut aussi mener à la levée de dégénérescences de Rashba ou de Dresselhaus, phénomènes découlant de la brisure en symétrie respectivement engendrée par la surface/interface d’un système ou de l’inhérente structure cristalline atomique.L’interprétation de mesures de structures de bandes dépendantes du spin, comme observées par spectroscopie par photoemission résolue en angle (et en spin), est appuyée et complémentée par des calculs ab-initio Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker de la structure électronique qui incluent tous les aspects des systèmes examinés : en particulier le couplage spin-orbit, fondamentalement compris grâce à une approche entièrement relativiste.Nous avons d’abord déposé des couches minces de Bi sur un substrat d’InAs(111). Un cristal de Bi de très bonne qualité est obtenu, confirmé par la reproduction par étude théorique des bandes électroniques mesurées. En parallèle de la croissance de la couche de Bi, nous observons que l’In et le Bi forment des cristaux d’InBi, exposant des états de surface topologiques. Nos analyses théoriques confirment que ces états de surface sont polarisés en spin.Dans la seconde partie de la thèse, Bi est utilisé comme un dopant dans InAs, donnant un alliage d’InAsBi. L’intense couplage spin-orbit apporté par le Bi génère simultanément des effets Rashba et Dresselhaus mesurables, levant par conséquence la dégénérescence des états de surface de manière complètement atypique, donnant des états non-hélicoïdaux polarisés en spin
In this thesis, we explore bismuth based materials that may exhibit topological properties. Bi is a parent compound of known Topological Insulators which consist of an insulating bulk while also presenting topologically protected conducting electronic surface states. In particular, these surface states are spin polarised and are protected by time-reversal symmetry. The dual appeal of topological insulators stems not only from their obvious interest from a fundamental physics point of view, but also from the fact that they may find use in spintronics and quantum computing.In those systems the spin-orbit coupling plays a central role. Spin-orbit coupling can also lead to the Rashba or Dresselhaus splitting, phenomena arising from the symmetry breaking respectively engendered by the surface/interface of a system or from the inherent atomic crystal structure.The interpretation of measured spin dependent band structure, as observed in (Spin-) and Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy, was supported and completed by ab-initio Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker electronic structure calculations which account for all aspects of the investigated systems: in particular spin-orbit coupling, fundamentally included thanks to a fully relativistic approach.We first deposited Bi thin films onto a InAs(111) substrate. A crystal of Bi of very high quality was grown, confirmed by reproduction of the measured electronic bands by theoretical investigation. In parallel to Bi film growth, we observed that In and Bi form InBi crystals, exhibiting topological surface states. Our theoretical analyses confirm that these surface states are spin polarised.In the second part of the thesis, Bi was used as a dopant within InAs, forming an InAsBi alloy system. The strong spin-orbit coupling brought on by Bi generated simultaneously measurable Rashba and Dresselhaus effects, consequently splitting surface states in a completely atypical manner, giving non-helical spin polarised states

Neste trabalho estudamos uma rede hexagonal com uma cadeia de impurezas nas bordas e com supercondutividade induzida, de forma a mostrar a existência de fases com férmions de Majorana. Para tal, começamos introduzindo invariantes topológicos, número de Chern e Z2 e mostramos dois modelos para rede hexagonal. O primeiro, modelo de Haldane, fazemos como motivação histórica. O segundo, modelo de Kane-Mele, é usado como base para todo o trabalho. Seguimos introduzindo supercondutividade e como ela ocorre quando aplicada junto do Modelo de Kane-Mele, o método auto-consistente e quais as condições necessárias para termos supercondutividade apenas nas bordas. Continuamos com efeitos de impurezas magnéticas nas bordas e introduzimos férmions de Majorana que são os alvos principais dos resultados. Mostramos então, que existe fases topológicas em cadeias de impureza magnética, com momentos em espiral, contudo o diagrama de fase depende de várias condições. Por fim, mostramos que a variação da fase topológica se deve a oscilações nos níveis de energia em que o invariante topológico também varia, contrariando resultados obtidos para a rede quadrada. Concluímos esse trabalho com implicações experimentais desse resultado e possíveis caminhos que podem ser seguidos.
In this work, we study a honeycomb lattice with induced superconductivity and edge impurity in order to show the existence of a phase that host Majorana bound state. To do so, we start introducing topological invariants, Chern number and Z2, and we show two models for honeycomb lattice. The first, Haldane\'s Model, due its historical importance. The second, Kane-Mele model, because it will be used during all this work. Then we review superconductivity, showing the self-consistent method, and we apply it to Kane-Mele model, in which we find some necessary conditions to induce superconductivity only at the edges. From this point, we study the effect of magnetic impurities at the edges, and we introduce Majorana bound state, that will be the main objective of our results. In our results, we show the existence of topological non-trivial phases for spiral magnetic chain in the zigzag edge. With this we make a phase diagram. We also find oscillation in the energy spectrum and the topological phase changes with the oscillation, this is different from square lattice in which we should not have a change in the topological phase. We conclude this work with experimental implications of our result and possible developments.

Les phases topologiques sont des phases qui existent au delà du paradigme de Ginzburg-Landau qui dominait jusqu’à présent la compréhension des phases et transitions de phases qui apparaissent dans les systèmes de matière condensée. Des exemples paradigmatiques ont été créés pour établir un nouveau socle théorique qui rend compte de cet aspect topologique. La phase de Haldane de spin 1 est l’exemple souvent retenu pour les systèmes unidimensionnels.La présente thèse propose d’étudier cette phase et de lui trouver des généralisations en se concentrant sur l’étude d’un moyen de l’implémenter expérimentalement à l’aide d’atomes alcalino-terreux fermioniques ultra-froids qui présentent la symétrie SU(N). Le modèle qui explique cette expérience, dit de double-puits car il décrit un réseau de deux chaînes en interactions, est analysé dans son régime de couplage faible, de couplage fort et par l’outil numérique. Au demi-remplissage, et dans le régime où les répulsions entre particules au sein d’un même puits, et entre puits qui se font face, sont importantes, une phase topologiqueprotégée par la symétrie de type Haldane est systématiquement attendue pour tout N, dont la phase "chirale" Haldane. Le modèle effectif obtenu lorsque N Æ 3, l’échelle de spin 3-3bar (à deux chaînes de spins, l’une dans la représentation fondamentale de SU(3), l’autre dans sa représentation conjuguée), y est détaillée
Topological phases exist beyond the standard Ginzburg-Landau paradigmthat dominated the understanding of phases and phase transitions in condensed matter systems. Paradigmatic examples have been derived to establish a new theoretical basis that takes into consideration these topological aspects. The spin 1 Haldane phase is one of them for the unidimensional case. The present thesis aims to study this phase as well as its suggested generalizations by focusing on a way to implement them experimentally using ultracold fermionic alkaline-earth atoms, that involve an internal SU(N) symmetry. The model describing the experiment is called the double-well model and depicts a lattice of two interacting chains. The model is analysed at weak coupling, strong coupling and using a numerical tool. At half-filling and inthe regime of srong repulsions between particles in the same well as well as two facing wells, a Haldane-like symmetry-protected topological phase is systematically expected for all N, including the "chiral" Haldane phase. The effective model obtained when N Æ 3 is the 3-3bar ladder model (describing two spin chains, one in the fondamental representation of SU(N), and the other in its conjuguate) and is particulary explored

Cette thèse présente de nouveaux développements en détection de particules chargées et traitement tout-numérique d'impulsions pour application à l'analyse avec des faisceaux d'ions rapides (IBA). Un ensemble de 16 détecteurs gravés sur une puce de Si est mis en œuvre, ce qui fournit un angle solide de détection environ 100 fois plus grande que celle des détecteurs utilisés auparavant pour l'IBA. Seize chaines d'acquisition sont également mises en œuvre avec une approche 'tout-numérique' pour le traitement des signaux issus des détecteurs. Dans son ensemble, le système ainsi développé a une résolution en énergie équivalent à celle des détecteurs standards. La considérable quantité d'information ainsi générée est traitée de manière cohérente en ajustant des spectres en énergie simulé aux spectres mesurés grâce à un algorithme de recuit simulé, avec le NDF DataFurnace. Les grandes angles solides disponibles sont exploitées pour des études par rétrodiffusion de Rutherford (RBS) et canalisation d'ions de l'isolant topologique Bi2Se3 enrichi en fer en vue d'études de l'effet thermoélectrique, de spintronique ou encore la computation quantique, ainsi que pour des études par RBS et analyse par réactions nucléaires (NRA) de matériaux pour la photovoltaïque organique, basés sur tetraphenyldibenzoperiflanthene (DBP) comme photo-absorbant avec oxydes de métaux de transition pour injection de charge
This thesis presents new developments in charged particle detection and digital pulse processing for application in analysis with fast ion beams - Ion Beam Analysis (IBA). In particular a charged particle detector array, consisting of 16 independent charged particle detectors on a single silicon chip is implemented giving an overall solid angle of detection around two orders of magnitude greater than the standard charged particle detectors used in IBA. Sixteen parallel data acquisition channels are implemented using a fully digital approach for nuclear pulse processing. The overall system has an energy resolution equivalent to that of standard detectors. The large amount of data generated is handled in a self-consistent way by spectrum fitting with a simulated annealing algorithm via the NDF DataFurnace. The large solid angles thus achieved are exploited in Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) and ion channelling studies of the topological insulator Bi2Se3 enriched in Fe, in view of studies of the thermo-electric effect, spintronics and quantum computing, and in RBS and Nuclear Reaction Analysis (NRA) studies of organic photovoltaic materials based on tetraphenyldibenzoperiflanthene (DBP) as the photo-absorber and transition metal oxide charge injectors

Dans cette thèse nous abordons des aspects topologiques de la matière condensée. Les états topologiques sont insensibles à un large spectre des perturbations externes et au désordre – une propriété indispensable dans le domaine d'information quantique. L’effet des interactions dans des systèmes topologiques est pourtant loin d’être bien maîtrisé à ce jour. Dans ce travail, nous étudions la corrélation entre la description topologique et l'effet des interactions. Afin d'accomplir notre but, nous utilisons des méthodes analytiques et numériques. Nous nous intéressons aussi à des sondes expérimentales qui peuvent être utilisées pour vérifier nos prédictions théoriques. Tout d’abord, nous étudions la version bosonique en interactions du modèle de Haldane – le modèle célèbre qui décrit l’effet Hall anomal. Nous proposons son implémentation expérimentale dans des circuits quantiques, basée sur l’application de perturbation périodique dépendantes du temps – méthodologie qui s’appelle l’ingénierie de Floquet. En poursuivant ces idées, nous étudions la version bosonique du modèle de Kane-Mele d’un isolant topologique. Ce modèle possède un diagramme de phase très riche. En particulier, lorsque les interactions sont fortes, nous observons l’apparition d’un modèle de magnétisme frustrée présentant une variété d'états exotiques. La mise en œuvre de ces modèles dans des réseaux d'atomes ultra-froids ou des circuits quantiques permettra de sonder expérimentalement les propriétés exotiques que nous avons observées. Ensuite, nous abordons d’une manière plus détaillée la réalisation expérimentale des modèles topologiques dans des circuits quantiques, en considérant le cas particulier du modèle de Su-Schrieffer-Heeger en couplage fort. Nous testons aussi des nouvelles sondes qui peuvent être utilisées afin de mesurer la phase de Zak et en déduire la topologie du système. Finalement, nous nous intéressons aux sondes hors d’équilibre et des méthodes pour tester les propriétés spectrales de systèmes quantiques, en utilisant l’approche de purification, pertinent pour le numérique et les expériences
In this thesis we study the topological aspects of condensed matter physics, that received a revolutionary development in the last decades. Topological states of matter are protected against perturbations and disorder, making them very promising in the context of quantum information. The interplay between topology and interactions in such systems is however far from being well understood, while the experimental realization is challenging. Thus, in this work we investigate analytically such strongly correlated states of matter and explore new protocols to probe experimentally their properties. In order to do this, we use various analytical and numerical techniques. First, we analyze the properties of an interacting bosonic version of the celebrated Haldane model – the model for the quantum anomalous Hall effect. We propose its quantum circuit implementation based on the application of periodic time-dependent perturbations – Floquet engineering. Continuing these ideas, we study the interacting bosonic version of the Kane-Mele model – the first model of a topological insulator. This model has a very rich phase diagram with an emergence of an effective frustrated magnetic model and a variety of symmetry broken spin states in the strongly interacting regime. Ultra-cold atoms or quantum circuits implementation of both Haldane and Kane-Mele bosonic models would allow for experimental probes of the exotic states we observed. Second, in order to deepen the perspectives of quantum circuit simulations of topological phases we analyze the strong coupling limit of the Su-Schrieffer-Heeger model and we test new experimental probes of its topology associated with the Zak phase. We also work on the out-of-equilibrium protocols to study bulk spectral properties of quantum systems and quantum phase transitions using a purification scheme which could be implemented both numerically and experimentally

L'émergence d'une une nouvelle classe de matériaux, des isolants topologiques, a stimulé un vaste champ de recherche. Bismuth, un élément du groupe V du tableau périodique, est un des ingrédients clé d'une famille d'isolants topologiques. Pour des applications dans la technologie des composants électroniques, il est essentiel de maîtriser la préparation des matériaux en couches minces. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons étudié la croissance et la structure électronique de bismuth sur les surfaces (100) et (111) de semi-conducteur III-V InAs.Déposition de Bi sur la surface InAs(100) résulte en une auto-organisation de Bi qui forme des lignes de taille atomique. On montre que le bismuth interagit extrêmement faiblement avec la surface car la structure d'origine de la surface propre de l'InA(100) reste intacte. L'étude de la bande valence montre la présence d'états résonants fortement dépendants de l'énergie de photons et de la polarisation de la lumière, en cohérence avec la structure quasi unidimensionnelle de la surface.La spécificité de la surface InAs(111) est qu'elle a deux terminaisons différentes: par In, (face A) et par As, (face B). Les deux faces présentent des reconstructions différentes. Par la photoémission des niveaux de coeur nous avons montré une différence de réactivité chimique entre les faces A et B. La croissance de Bi sur la face A résulte en un monocristal de haute qualité pour les films à partir de 10 monocouches. Par contre, lors du dépôt de premières couches, la face B montre une croissance en îlots et un bon monocristal est obtenu seulement pour des films d'au moins de 50 monocouches.Pour la même face, A ou B, nous avons observé des différences de croissance plus subtiles entre les surfaces préparées soit par le bombardement ionique et des recuits soit par l'épitaxie par jets moléculaires.La photoémission résolue en angle a permit de caractériser la dispersion des bandes dans les films de Bi. La dispersion est tout à fait comparable au cristal massif de Bi. La dernière étape consistait à étudier la structure électronique d'un monocristal de Sb déposé sur le film de Bi.Les surfaces propres de InAs(111)A et InAs(111)B présentent une courbure de bande qui résulte en formation d'une couche d'accumulation d'électrons. En déposant le Bi sur ces surfaces, la couche d'accumulation est préservée, elle est même amplifié, car Bi agit comme le donneur dans l'InAs.La couche d'accumulation se traduit par un confinement quantique des électrons, mesurable par la photoémission résolue en angle.Mots clés :Structure électronique de surface, ARPES, semimétal, courbure de bande, Gaz-2D, Bismuth, Sb, InAs(111)A, InAs(111)B, puits quantique, surface Fermi, couches minces
A new class of material is coming up, Topological Insulators, have opened a wide field of research. Bismuth, an element of group V of periodic table, is one of the key ingredient of this Topological Insulators family. With the aim of improving technological applications, especially the electronic compounds, it is of most importance to control the preparation of thin films materials. Within this Phd work, we studied the growth and Bismuth electronic structure on (100) and (111) semiconductor III-V InAs surfaces.Bi deposition on InAs(100) surface result of a Bi self-assembly which forms lines at atomic scale. We show Bi interact extremely weakly with the surface because the beginning structure of clean InAs(100) surface stay unharmed. The study of valence band sheds light on the existence of resonant states strongly photon energy dependent and also depend on the light polarization, consistent with almost one dimensional structure surface.InAs(111) surface specific feature is that it has both surface ending different : In ending, (face A) and As ending, (face B). The both faces pointed out distinguishable reconstructions. By the core-level photoemission we identified a chemical reactivity difference taking place between A and B faces. Bi growth on A-face tend to be a high quality monocrystal for those films from a thickness of 10 monolayers. On the other hand, during the deposition of first layers, the B-face show an island growth and a good monocrystal is obtained only available for films with 50 monolayers at least.For the same face, A or B, we have seen some growth discrepancies more subtle between prepared surfaces either by ionic bombardment and annealing (IBA) either by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE).The angular resolved photoemission allowed to identify the band dispersion inside of this Bi films. The dispersion is absolutely relative to the bulk Bi crystal. The final step involved the study of Sb monocrystal electronic structure deposited onto Bi film.Clean InAs(111)A and InAs(111)B surfaces indicate a band bending which result in the accumulation electron charge formation. With depositing Bi onto these surfaces, the accumulation layer would be kept, it is also increased, given that Bi acts as a donor-like in InAs. The accumulation layer is characterized by an electron quantum confinement, measurable by angle resolved photoemission.Keywords:Electronic structure surface, ARPES, semimetal, band bending effect, 2DEG, Bismuth, Sb, InAs(111)A, InAs(111)B, quatum wells, Fermi surface, thin films

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
The present work is based on the literature related to the Bi2Se3 compound, which is present in current researches as a topological insulator and is also well known for thermoelectricity applications. In this work the electrochemical synthesis of a material containing Bi, Se and X (X = Cu, Fe or Co) was carried out searching for a composition of Bi and Se in accordance with the stoichiometry of Bi2Se3. The third element, X, was used in the electrodeposition baths considering the Bi2Se3 literature, which presents doping and interaction with other elements for this compound. The synthesis conditions were determined based on studies using cyclic voltammetry. The main material studied was the ternary compound containing Bi, Se and Cu. The films obtained were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. It was found out that baths containing sulfuric acid were adequate for obtaining films of Bi, Se and Cu but a bath containing glycerol and sodium citrate was necessary for including Fe on the material. Some magnetic properties of the films obtained were also studied and paramagnetic behaviour was observed for the samples.
O presente trabalho fundamente-se na literatura relacionada com o composto Bi2Se3. Esse composto está presente na literatura atual de isolantes topológicos e também é conhecido por suas propriedades termoelétricas. Nesse trabalho foi realizada a síntese eletroquímica de um material contendo Bi, Se e X (X = Cu, Fe or Co) buscando obter composições de Bi e Se adequadas à estequiometria do Bi2Se3. O terceiro elemento, X, foi utilizado nos banhos de eletrodeposição considerando estudos da literatura para o Bi2Se3 que tratam de sua dopagem ou interação com outros elementos. As condições de síntese foram determinadas com base em estudos utilizando voltametria cíclica. O principal material estudado foi o composto ternário de Bi, Se e Cu. Os filmes obtidos foram caracterizados por microscopia eletrônica de varredura, espectroscopia dispersiva de raios X, difração de raios X e espectroscopia Raman. Foi verificado que banhos contendo ácido sulfúrico foram adequados para obter filmes de Bi, Se e Cu, mas um banho contendo glicerol e citrato de sódio foi necessário para incluir Fe no material. Algumas propriedades magnéticas dos filmes obtidos também foram estudadas e o comportamento paramagnético foi observado para as amostras.

Este trabalho apresenta as propriedades de transporte eletrônico de isolantes topológicos bidimensionais (TI) baseados em poços quânticos de HgTe/CdTe. Estas heteroestruturas, no regime de bandas invertido, contem um novo estado conhecido como isolante de spin Hall quântico (QSHI). Este estado apresenta um comportamento de isolante no corpo (bulk), mas exibe estados condutores sem lacunas nas bordas (edges), as quais podem ser verificadas em medidas de transporte. Medidas de resistência de quatro terminais foram observadas perto do valor quantizado em amostras mesoscópicas. No entanto, para amostras com mais de um m, a resistência pode ser muito maiores que h/2e2 devido à presença de defasagem de spin, não homogeneidade ou desordem na amostra. Esta tese aborda o problema da resistência não quantizado observada em amostras macroscópicas de dimensões maiores a algum mícron. Nós relatamos observação e investigação sistemática de transporte local e não local em poços quânticos de HgTe (8.0-8.3 nm) com estrutura de banda invertida correspondente à fase de isolante de spin Hall quântico. O dispositivo MCT1 consiste de três segmentos consecutivos de largura 4 m e de comprimentos diferentes (2 m, 8 m, 32 m), e sete sondas de tensão. O dispositivo MCT2 foi fabricado com um comprimento litográfico de 6 m e largura 5 m. Ambos dispositivos estão equipados com uma porta superior (top gate), que permite ajustar a densidade de portadores do dispositivo. A aplicação de uma tensão de porta muda a densidade de portadores, transformando a condutividade do poço quântico de tipo n para tipo p através de uma fase intermediária chamada de ponto a neutralidade de carga (CNP). Picos acentuados não universais (R >> h/2e2) em ambas as resistividades, local e não local, foram observados próximos ao CNP os quais diminuem rapidamente a medida que se afasta do CNP. Tal comportamento próximo ao CNP pode ser explicado usando o modelo de transporte de bordas (edge) e corpo (bulk), que inclui tanto os estados de borda como o corpo para a contribuição à corrente. O desvio dos valores da resistência de quarto terminais do valor quantizado (R >> h/2e2) em amostras macroscópicas com dimensões acima de algum mícron é um dos principais problemas no campo dos isolantes topológicos. Recentemente foi proposto um modelo por Vayrynen et al., onde tem sido considerado a influência de poças de carga, resultantes de distribuições de carga não homogêneas em isolantes topológicos 2d, na condutância de estados de borda helicoidal. Os estados de borda são acoplados por tunelamento a essas poças metálicas ou pontos quânticos. A permanência dos elétrons em pontos quânticos pode levar a um retroespalhamento inelástico significativo dentro da borda e modifica o transporte balístico. Portanto transporte balístico coerente é esperado somente na região entre poças, e o total de resistência de quatro terminais excede o valor quantizado. Introduzindo as interações elétron-elétron em sistemas de uma dimensão resulta em um liquido de Luttinger (LL). Os estados de borda helicoidais em isolantes topológicos 2d, podem ser tratados como um líquido de Luttinger ideal, uma vez que, naturalmente, aparecem em poços quânticos de HgTe. Entre as várias assinaturas específicas do comportamento do LL, como a dependência da temperatura, é importante se concentrar nas propriedades de não equilíbrio do LL. Em contraste com os líquidos de Fermi convencionais, nenhum estado excitado decairá ao estado de equilíbrio, caracterizado pela temperatura, na ausência de desordem. Medidas de elétron-aquecimento podem ser usadas para entender a física que governa os processos de relaxamento em LL. Nós temos realizado medidas de transporte não linear no CNP em isolantes topológicos 2d de HgTe. Este método, juntamente com a dependência da resistência com a temperatura, pode ser utilizado para determinar o mecanismo de relaxação da energia dos estados de borda helicoidais em QSHI. Nosso experimento falhou em confirmar as assinaturas especificas do comportamento do líquido de Luttinger. No entanto, o efeito de aquecimento de elétron pode ser descrito pelo mecanismo convencional de relaxamento de energia, esperado para espalhamento elétron-fônon.
This thesis present electronic transport properties of two-dimensional topological insulators (TI) based on HgTe/CdTe quantum wells. These heterostructures, in the band inverted regime, hosts a novel state known as the quantum spin Hall insulator. This state is identified as insulator in the bulk, but exhibits gapless conducting states at their edges which can be verified in transport experiments. Four-terminal resistance close to the quantized value has been observed in mesoscopic samples. However, for samples longer than 1 m, the resistance might be much higher than h/2e2 due to the presence of spin dephasing, inhomogeneity or disorder in the sample. This thesis address the problem of non-quantized resistance observed in macroscopic samples of dimensions longer than few microns. We report on the observation and a systematic investigation of local and nonlocal transport in HgTe quantum wells (8.0-8.3 nm) with inverted band structure corresponding to the quantum spin Hall insulating (QSHI) phase. The device MCT1 consists of three 4 m wide consecutive segments of different length (2 m, 8 m, 32 m), and seven voltage probes. The device MCT2 was fabricated with a lithographic length 6 m and width 5 m. Both devices are equipped with a top gate which allows tuning the carrier density of the device. Applying gate bias changes the carrier density transforming the quantum well conductivity from n-type to p-type via an intermediate phase, called the charge neutrality point (CNP). Non-universal (R >> h/2e2) peaks in both local and nonlocal resistivity were observed near the CNP which decreases rapidly going away from CNP. Such a behavior near CNP can be explained using the edge plus bulk transport model, which includes both the edge states and bulk contribution to the total current. Deviation of the four-terminal resistance from quantization (R >> h/2e2) in macroscopic samples, with dimensions above a few microns, is one of the major issue in the field of topological insulators. Recently a model was proposed by Vayrynen et al., where influence of charge puddles, resulting from inhomogeneous charge distribution in 2d topological insulators, on its helical edge conductance has been considered. The edge states are tunnel coupled to these metallic puddles or quantum dots. Electron´s dwelling in the quantum dot may lead to significant inelastic backscattering within the edge and modifies the ballistic transport. Therefore ballistic coherent transport is expected only in the region between the puddles, and the total four-terminal resistance exceeds the quantized value. Introducing electron-electron interactions in one-dimensional systems results in a Luttinger liquid (LL). The helical edge states in 2d topological insulator, can be treated as ideal Luttinger liquid, since it naturally appears in HgTe quantum wells. Among the various specific signatures of the LL behavior, such as temperature dependence, it is important to focus on non-equilibrium properties of LL. In contrast to conventional Fermi liquids, none of the excited state will decay to equilibrium state, characterized by temperature, in the absence of disorder. Electron-heating measurements can be used to understand the physics governing relaxation processes in LL. We have performed non-linear transport measurements at the CNP in HgTe based 2d topological insulators. This method together with temperature dependence of resistance can be used to determine the energy relaxation mechanism of the helical edge modes in QSHI. Our experiments fail to confirm the specific signatures of Luttinger liquid behavior. However, electron heating effect can be described by conventional energy relaxation mechanism, expected for electron-phonon interactions.