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1
Chireau, Yvonne. "Looking for Black Religions in 20th Century Comics, 1931–1993." Religions 10, no. 6 (June 25, 2019): 400. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel10060400.
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Relationships between religion and comics are generally unexplored in the academic literature. This article provides a brief history of Black religions in comic books, cartoons, animation, and newspaper strips, looking at African American Christianity, Islam, Africana (African diaspora) religions, and folk traditions such as Hoodoo and Conjure in the 20th century. Even though the treatment of Black religions in the comics was informed by stereotypical depictions of race and religion in United States (US) popular culture, African American comics creators contested these by offering alternatives in their treatment of Black religion themes.
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Nazar, Shabana, and Abdul Rehman Saifee. "http://habibiaislamicus.com/index.php/hirj/article/view/147." Habibia Islamicus 4, no. 2 (December 16, 2020): 59–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.47720/hi.2020.0402a04.
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The Life History of “ Jurji Zaydan ”, His Personality and His landmark services in the Arabic Language and its Literature generally and History of Islam and Arabic Literature particularly are enlightened in this paper. He was a famous Arab Historian, Author, Writer, Novelist, Journalist, Linguist and Interpreter of Modern Period. His works of Arabic History and Arabic Literature were revolutionary. He is a great Novelist in this Modern Period. He wrote several books on History of Islam & Arabic Literature and a series of Novels on Big personalities of Islam, which serve the purpose of a resource and authentic materials. People from all walks of life can find his books as a resource to access due to the intellectual and authentic information they carry. He is not only a famous Historian, but He is a famous Writer and a great Novelist of 20th Century, Who wrote a series of Islamic Historical Novels. Thus, this paper is the depiction of Jurji Zaydan’s life history, his services, his books, Novels especially introduction of Novel ‘Azra-o-Quresh’ for the facilitation of upcoming researchers.
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Booth, Marilyn. "WOMAN IN ISLAM: MEN AND THE “WOMEN'S PRESS” IN TURN-OF-THE-20TH-CENTURY EGYPT." International Journal of Middle East Studies 33, no. 2 (May 2001): 171–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002074380100201x.
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The first periodical in Egypt to focus on women as both subject and audience, Al-Fatat (The Young Woman, 1892), heralded the founding by women of many periodicals for women in Egypt. The women's press emerged in a time of intense public debate concerning putative intersections of systemic gender relations and gender ideology with anti-imperialist nationalism: what would constitute “national” strength sufficient to assert, or force, an independent existence based on claims to autonomous nation-state status?1Women writing in the women's press, as well as in the mainstream—or “malestream”—press, shaped the debate over how gender did and should inflect social organization and institutional change.2 Equally, male intellectuals and politicians participated in a rhetoric of persuasion, edification, and ambition. When women and men wrote treatises on what was called the “woman question” (qadi¯yat al-mar[ham]a), articles in the women's press challenged, debated, and refined the points of these treatises. Writers approached that fraught “question” from another direction, too, establishing a thriving industry of conduct literature that fed on translations of European works as well as original works by Egyptian and other Arab writers. Books on how to behave as a proper father, a good mother, a fine son or daughter, or a responsible schoolgoer went through numerous printings for a reading public prepared by various rhetorics of nationalism, theology, and reform to bring this debate into everyday life by following the guides for behavior that such literature—including essays in the women's press—supplied.3
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Cakranegara, Joshua Jolly Sucanta, and Nadira Salsabila. "ACCULTURATION OF ISLAM AND CHRISTIAN IN BALINESE CULTURE: A HISTORICAL AND SOSIOLOGICAL STUDY." Harmoni 23, no. 1 (July 8, 2024): 68–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.32488/harmoni.v23i1.705.
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Abstract This study aimed to explore the comparative acculturation of Islam and Christianity, both Catholic and Protestant, within Balinese culture throughout Bali's history. Employing a qualitative descriptive method with a historical approach, this research conducted a thorough literature review encompassing history, religion, and culture. Data were gathered from historical sources and pertinent literature, with comparative analysis utilized to scrutinize these materials. The findings uncovered that the Balinese community, characterized by both closed and open cultural traits, embraced the arrival of Islam and Christianity in a harmonious manner. Both religions successfully assimilated into Balinese culture, predominantly shaped by Hindu teachings. Since Islam's introduction in the 15th century and Christianity's in the 20th century, diverse forms of acculturation have emerged, particularly evident in places of worship like mosques and churches. Despite initial resistance from rulers and the community, the acculturation process persisted. The study concluded that the integration of Islam and Christianity significantly influenced the contemporary image of Balinese culture, illustrating a continuous acculturation process throughout Bali's history. Abstrak Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengeksplorasi akulturasi perbandingan Islam dan Kristen, baik Katolik maupun Protestan, dalam budaya Bali sepanjang sejarah Bali. Menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan pendekatan historis, penelitian ini melakukan tinjauan literatur yang komprehensif meliputi sejarah, agama, dan budaya. Data dikumpulkan dari sumber-sumber sejarah dan literatur terkait, dengan analisis komparatif digunakan untuk mengkaji materi tersebut. Temuan menunjukkan bahwa komunitas Bali, yang ditandai dengan karakteristik budaya tertutup dan terbuka, menerima kedatangan Islam dan Kristen secara harmonis. Kedua agama berhasil beradaptasi dalam budaya Bali yang sebagian besar dipengaruhi oleh ajaran Hindu. Sejak kedatangan Islam pada abad ke-15 dan Kristen pada abad ke-20, berbagai bentuk akulturasi telah muncul, terutama terlihat dalam tempat-tempat ibadah seperti masjid dan gereja. Meskipun menghadapi resistensi awal dari penguasa dan masyarakat, proses akulturasi tetap berlanjut. Studi ini menyimpulkan bahwa integrasi Islam dan Kristen secara signifikan memengaruhi citra budaya Bali kontemporer, menggambarkan proses akulturasi yang berkelanjutan sepanjang sejarah Bali.
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Karolewski, Janina. "What is Heterodox About Alevism? The Development of Anti-Alevi Discrimination and Resentment." Die Welt des Islams 48, no. 3 (2008): 434–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006008x364767.
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AbstractThis article examines how the widespread denomination of the Alevi tradition as “heterodox Islam” was introduced in the academic field in the late 19th century. This denomination reflects the differentiation between Alevis and Sunnis, which originally did not base on religious differences but on the socio-political power struggle between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavids/Kızılbaş. First, the historical development of this conflict and the spread of anti-Safavid/Kızılbaş propaganda in the 16th century will be highlighted. Second, it will be illustrated how the Kızılbaş were 'rediscovered' by Westerners in the late 19th century. Then, the development of anti-Alevi discrimination and resentment in the 20th century will be described. Finally, Turkey's official line in regard to the Alevis' religious status and the Alevis' aggressive response to this will be shown.
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Griffel, Frank. "What Do We Mean By “Salafī”? Connecting Muḥammad ʿAbduh with Egypt’s Nūr Party in Islam’s Contemporary Intellectual History." Die Welt des Islams 55, no. 2 (September 1, 2015): 186–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700607-00552p02.
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In contemporary academic literature, the word “Salafī” has a variety of meanings. Most importantly, Western academic literature of the 20th and 21st centuries applies the word to (1) an Islamic reform movement founded by Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (d. 1897) and Muḥammad ʿAbduh (1849–1905) in the last decades of the 19th century and (2) to contemporary Sunni reform movements that criticize manifestations of Sunni Islam which are based on Sufism, Ashʿarism, and traditional madhhab-affiliations to the Shāfiʿī, Ḥanafī, and Mālikī schools. In a 2010-article Henri Lauzière argued that the use of the word “Salafī” to describe these two movements is an equivocation based on a mistake. While the movement of contemporary Salafīs may be rightfully called by that name, al-Afghānī and ʿAbduh never used the term. Only Western scholars of the 1920s and 30s, most importantly Louis Massignon (1883–1962), called this latter movement “salafī”. This paper reevaluates the evidence presented by Lauzière and argues that Massignon did not make a mistake. The paper describes analytically both reform movements and draws the conclusion that there is a historic continuity that justifies calling them both “salafī”. The paper draws an analogy from the use of the word “socialist” in European political history, which first applied to a wider movement of the late 19th century before its use was contested and narrowed down in the course of the 20th.
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Sanusi, Ihsan. "KEBANGKITAN ISLAM MINANGKABAU." Tabuah 24, no. 2 (December 20, 2020): 148–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.37108/tabuah.v24i2.354.
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This article will discuss the Islamic revival in the perspective of the conflict anotomy and the unchanging political identity of Minangkabau. The study is based on the fact that continuity and change in the transformation and model of Islamization of the Minangkabau society until the early 20th century - are never separated from conflict. He is still driven and controlled by the scholars. In realizing the mission of Islamization itself, in certain matters it has remained relatively influenced by Middle Eastern intellectual thinkers. Ulama are polarized to two poles; the first pole, those who maintain various traditions in society in order to maintain the establishment, namely the Old People. The second pole is the ulama who want to make changes to what already exists and applies in society, to something they consider and believe to be true, namely the Youth.
To analyze this, the research method used in this study is library research, using content analysis. By using a variety of literature (literature), in the form of books, notes, and research reports from previous studies, this study will describe in more detail about the themes discussed.
In this study, the anatomy of conflict in the Islamic revivalis in the Minangkabau society is seen from three main elements: conflict structure, conflict actors, and conflict dynamics. The Islamic revival of Minangkabau that has occurred in its long history can be divided into two categories, revival in the form of purity (reformism) and the awakening of Islam in the form of renewal (modernization). The conflict in the Islamic revival within the framework of Minangkabau cultural identity is based on the socio-psychological conditions in which the Minangkabau people are always in turmoil because in it the philosophical teachings are "alam takambang menjadi guru", basabab bakarono, bakarano bakajadian.”
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Ubaidillah, Ahmad. "Geneologi Istilah Ekonomi Islam: Sebuah Perdebatan." AKADEMIKA 9, no. 2 (December 31, 2015): 189–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.30736/akademika.v9i2.62.
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Islamic economics as a doctrine recognized in Islam and a science Islamization project in the 21st century has shown astonishing progress.Throughout the history, there have been many Islamic-based financial institutions. On this stand, various higher education institutions have competed to launch such majors as Islamic economics and Islamic finance. However, there have been many criticizing, especially the geneology of the term "Islamic economics."This study aims to answer the questions: 1) when does the term "Islamic economics" appear according to Timur Kuran, the pioneer of Alternative-Critical School? 2), when does the term "Islamic economics" appear according to the Mainstream School in Islamic economics thought? This research is qualitative-descriptive while the unit of analysis is thematic one. In addition, the analysis technique used is taxonomy and critical discourse analysis. The source of data in this study is primary and secondary ones. The result of the research shows: 1) According to Alternative-Critical School, the genealogy of the term "Islamic economics" emerged in the 1940s at the end of colonial India. The term is first coined by Abu al-A'la Maududi. Other seminal contribution to Islamic economics literature is propagated by Sayyid Qutb (Egypt), and Mohammed Baqir Sadr (Iraq). The term "Islamic economics" is used by fundamentalist Islamic groups. 2) According to the Mainstream School, Maududi never coined the term "Islamic economics". The term "Islamic economics" no doubt emerged in the 20th century, but the idea has come into being since the early days of Islam and especially in the writings of Abu Yusuf, al-Mawardi, Ibn Hazm, and other Muslim intellectuals.Geneology
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Abdul Latiff, Latifah. "Sorotan Ringkas Penglibatan Orang Arab Hadhrami dalam Dakwah Islam dan Pentadbiran Agama di Malaysia." ‘Abqari Journal 27 (September 29, 2022): 193–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.33102/abqari.vol27no1.466.
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The history of the development of Islam in Malaysia is closely related to the involvement of the Arabs who played a significant role in spreading Islam in the country. However, not many people know the story of their involvement in dakwah activities and religious administration in this country. Thus, this paper attempts to spotlight the involvement of Arab Sayyid descent propagating Islam in the country since their arrival until the middle of the 20th century AD. This qualitative study analyzed a review of the works of literature and primary sources from archival material. Findings showed that the Arab Sayyids involved in missionary spreading Islam and also in religious administration in several Malay states like Johor, Terengganu, Pahang and Kedah. ABSTRAK Sejarah perkembangan Islam di Malaysia berkait rapat dengan penglibatan orang Arab yang berperanan penting dalam menyebarkan Islam di Malaysia. Namun, tidak ramai yang mengetahui sejarah penglibatan mereka dalam aktiviti dakwah dan pentadbiran agama di negara ini. Justeru, makalah ini cuba mengetengahkan penglibatan Arab keturunan Sayyid dalam mengembangkan syiar Islam di negara ini sejak kedatangan mereka hingga pertengahan abad ke-20 Masihi. Kajian kualitatif ini menganalisis tinjauan literatur dan sumber primer daripada bahan arkib. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan orang Arab keturunan Sayyid turut terlibat dalam dakwah Islam serta pentadbiran agama di beberapa buah negeri Melayu seperti Johor, Terengganu, Pahang dan Kedah (98 perkataan).
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Gumilar, Agung. "USE OF MALAY-ARABIC SCRIPTURES OF JAWI/PEGON IN NUMBER OF ANCIENT METAL CURRENCIES IN INDONESIA FROM PRE-INDEPENDENCE TO EARLY INDEPENDENCE." al-Urwatul Wutsqo : Jurnal Ilmu Keislaman dan Pendidikan 2, no. 1 (March 30, 2021): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.62285/alurwatulwutsqo.v2i1.21.
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Currency since the early times has a significant historical value, it was representing the culture from different periods. The Jawi/Pegon script has in long term isues since the emergence of Islam to the Nusantara archipelago in 7th century CE. This script can be found in Indonesian old coins which dated from 13th Century CE until the early Indonesian Republic in the first half of 20th Century. Therefore, it is important to do a research for the existence of the Arab-Malay scipt through coins. Moreover, deeper research is needed to know its true role in history. It is very necessary to do because the Arab Jawi/Pegon script as a part of the Nusantara cultural heritage has been “forgotten” for so long time. In studying the Arab Jawi/Pegon script existence and its role in old Indonesian monetary system, the writer prefers using literature studies. It means that this article will focused on library research because the analysis is directed the books and writings related to the discussion.
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Navruzov, Amir R. "ISLAMIC CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, PRINTING HOUSES, NATIONAL PRESS AND MUSLIM ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE NORTHERN CAUCASUS IN THE FIRST THIRD OF THE XX CENTURY." History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Caucasus 19, no. 1 (April 8, 2023): 67–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.32653/ch1167-83.
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The question of the origin and history of the development of the Muslim enlightenment of the North Caucasus in the first third of the 20th century has not been developed in the literature at all, there are almost no works on this topic, sources in the Eastern and Dagestan languages have not been studied and introduced into scientific circulation. This article is an attempt to fill this gap to some extent. Creation in 1903 The Islamic printing house of M. Mavraev in Temir-Khan-Shura marked the beginning of the mass publication of printed materials of an educational orientation in Arabic and Dagestan languages using Arabic graphics. The role of the cultural and educational societies of Dagestan, created during this period at the expense of the money of jamaats and sadak (donations), zakat, wills, waqfs, is enormous. The press in Arabic and national languages, which contributed to the enlightenment of the Dagestan peoples and the development of national languages and cultures, was of inestimable importance for the promotion of Islamic educational ideas and the formation of public opinion. In the first third of the 20th century, groups of like-minded people formed in the region, united by the idea of reviving the values of Islam among the peoples of the North Caucasus. We can name among them such names as Ali Kayaev, Abusufyan Akaev, Muhammadmirza Mavraev, Badavi Saidov, Muhammad Dibirov, Seifulla-kadi Bashlarov, editorial boards of newspapers in the Dagestan languages: Avar, Lak, Kumyk, as well as many other Muslim educators who collaborated in these publications. All these factors together gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of Muslim enlightenment in the North Caucasus in the first third of the 20th century.
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Navruzov, Amir R. "ISLAMIC CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, PRINTING HOUSES, NATIONAL PRESS AND MUSLIM ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE NORTHERN CAUCASUS IN THE FIRST THIRD OF THE XX CENTURY." History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Caucasus 19, no. 1 (April 8, 2023): 67–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.32653/ch19167-83.
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The question of the origin and history of the development of the Muslim enlightenment of the North Caucasus in the first third of the 20th century has not been developed in the literature at all, there are almost no works on this topic, sources in the Eastern and Dagestan languages have not been studied and introduced into scientific circulation. This article is an attempt to fill this gap to some extent. Creation in 1903 The Islamic printing house of M. Mavraev in Temir-Khan-Shura marked the beginning of the mass publication of printed materials of an educational orientation in Arabic and Dagestan languages using Arabic graphics. The role of the cultural and educational societies of Dagestan, created during this period at the expense of the money of jamaats and sadak (donations), zakat, wills, waqfs, is enormous. The press in Arabic and national languages, which contributed to the enlightenment of the Dagestan peoples and the development of national languages and cultures, was of inestimable importance for the promotion of Islamic educational ideas and the formation of public opinion. In the first third of the 20th century, groups of like-minded people formed in the region, united by the idea of reviving the values of Islam among the peoples of the North Caucasus. We can name among them such names as Ali Kayaev, Abusufyan Akaev, Muhammadmirza Mavraev, Badavi Saidov, Muhammad Dibirov, Seifulla-kadi Bashlarov, editorial boards of newspapers in the Dagestan languages: Avar, Lak, Kumyk, as well as many other Muslim educators who collaborated in these publications. All these factors together gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of Muslim enlightenment in the North Caucasus in the first third of the 20th century.
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Graw, Knut. "The Global Worlds of the Swahili: Interfaces of Islam, Identity and Space in 19th and 20th-Century East Africa." Die Welt des Islams 49, no. 1 (2009): 137–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006008x313835.
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Fogg, K. W. "Islam, Nationalism and Democracy: A Political Biography of Mohammad Natsir By AUDREY R. KAHIN * Islam in the Making of the Nation: Kartosuwiryo and Political Islam in 20th century Indonesia By CHIARA FORMICHI." Journal of Islamic Studies 25, no. 1 (May 29, 2013): 90–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jis/ett029.
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Abdrafikova, Gulnara Kh, Ilshat S. Igdavletov, and Akhat G. Salikhov. "Source Studies Aspects of the History of Islam in Russia on the Pages of the "Maglyumat" Magazine: 1908–17." Herald of an archivist, no. 1 (2023): 59–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2073-0101-2023-1-59-72.
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The early 20th century saw a rapid development of the Turkic Muslim periodical press in Russia. In a short time, a significant number of magazines and newspapers of various directions appeared in the country. They published materials about life, socio-economic situation of the peoples of Russia. The article is to analyze the articles and publications of the Arabic-language Turkic magazine Maglyumat, published in Ufa by the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly. It examines the history of the magazine’s creation and analyzes its publications. The object of the study is issues from 1908–10 and 1916–17. The research is based on materials from the issues preserved in the Manuscript Fond of the G. B. Khusainov Order of the Badge of Honor Institute of History, Language, and Literature of the Ufa Federal Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences (UFITs RAN) and in the Department of Rare Books of the Scientific Library of the UFITs RAN. Comparative-historical, systemic, and historical-typological methods have been used in the study. Archeographic study and systematic analysis of various issues show that the magazine’s publications were not limited to religious topics. They covered a wide range of issues of the Muslim population’s life, from government orders and resolutions to opening of new mosques and madrasahs. Unlike many other magazines of the period, it contained materials on the Muslims’ situation in the Russian Empire. Much attention was paid to the position of the Bashkirs, the land issue, there were publications of sources and historical works on the history of Bashkortostan, some were translated from Russian. Much attention was paid to the history and activities of the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly. A number of materials highlighted the publishing program of the magazine. At the time of its existence, the issue of Muslim education remained an urgent problem. The discussion continued between supporters of old- and new-fashioned education. One of the articles in defense of the new methods in education was written by a well-known Muslim figure Z. Rasulev together with like-minded people. Socio-political changes in the country after 1917 were also reflected on its pages. The research shows that the Maglumat is a valuable source for studying various spheres of the Muslims’ life in the early 20th century. Its materials reflect different aspects of the life of the society of the specified period and its condition, provide information on the socio-economic situation, cultural development of the Russian Muslims.
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Kukushkina, Evgeniya. "Malay Folk Beliefs and Rituals in the Prose Writings by Muslim Reformist Authors in the First Half of 20th Century." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 5 (2023): 201. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080027524-3.
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The study explores texts of Malay literature of 1920-s – early 1940-s focusing on pre-Islamic worldview and magic rituals. These topics were widely represented in Western research, but fiction of the time provides a unique opportunity to contemplate the attitude to traditional beliefs within Malay society itself at the important stage of its historical development. The authors’ evaluation of the whole complex of animistic beliefs and shamanistic practices is studied in the light of Islamic reformist thought. The first decades of the 20th century in British Malaya witnessed the rise of reformism with its preaching of socioeconomic progress based upon the purification of Islam from the remnants of archaic perception of being and upon public education. In the meantime, genres of modern literature were evolving with active participation of the writers who shared reformist ideas. On the one hand, the study reveals negative attitude of these authors towards what they called “dark superstitions”. This position is actualized in the texts of literature aiming to change the reader’s opinion through the revision of his convictions. The authors of early Malay prose aspired to expose the emptiness of traditional beliefs, powerlessness of magic rituals, amorality and deception of shamans. On the other hand, the analysis traces a number of motifs demonstrating the importance of traditional cults and the demand for their practitioners within the Malay community, that made them able to withstand the pressure of reformist thought. The paper specifies factors that contributed to the survival of traditional worldview.
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Alaverdov, Emilia. "The Politicization of Islamic Society in Post Soviet Russia." Journal of Education Culture and Society 11, no. 1 (June 27, 2020): 303–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.15503/jecs2020.1.303.311.
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Aim. The paper analyses the Islamic revival in Russia in the late 20th century and early 21st. This was reflected in the registration of religious communities, the publication of periodicals on Muslim literature, and, in my opinion, most importantly - the construction of mosques and madrassas. It highlights the roles of mosques and madrassas built in the North Caucasus, which later became the theological centers for the spread of Islam and educated youngsters according to their propaganda.
Methods. The study mainly uses an analysis method based on the study of historicism, documents and empirical material. The basis of the source are books, scientific articles, research works conducted by Russian and foreign experts.
Results. The post-Soviet wars (1994-1996 and 1999-2000) in Chechnya contributed to the politicisation and realisation of Islam in this region. In 1996-1999 there were 26 Sharia courts, numerous Islamic parties, charitable foundations and organisations in the republic and, most importantly, structures of Wahhabi organisations (Akaev, n.d.). The process of politicisation gradually turned into organisational formations in Russia in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Conclusion. The constructive transformation by reinforcing the modernist potentials of Islam has contributed to the real renewal of Russian Muslim societies, which led to the radicalisation of the whole region. The described events have shown that for the last 20 years, the revival of religious Islam was a revival of political organisations and activities, where religion is connected to politics and criminal activities. A small North Caucasian republic immediately turned up at the center of Russia's recent history.
Key Words: Islam, politics, revival, radicalization, Russia, North Caucasus
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Iqbal, Moch. "Pesantren di Bengkulu : Sejarah dan Perkembangannya." Nuansa 16, no. 1 (August 22, 2023): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.29300/njsik.v16i1.11236.
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The purpose of this paper is to examine the growth and development of Islamic Boarding Schools in Bengkulu. This study is important considering its very rapid development and high public response, especially at the beginning of the 21st century. Using library research methods, namely by researching available literature, related to relevant themes. Both off-line and on-line sources are widely available. The results of the study reveal that first, Islamic education in Bengkulu started from the school model pioneered by the Islamic modernist movement Muhammadiyah and other Islamic organizations from pre-independence until the end of the 20th century. Second, pesantren is a relatively new phenomenon, compared to the history of the birth and development of Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia. Third, the first Islamic boarding school that was established in Bengkulu was precisely at the initiative of President Soeharto who wanted Bengkulu to have an institution such as a pesantren, so that the Pancasila pesantren was born in 1973. Third, starting in the 2000s, pesantren emerged in the Bengkulu City area and its surroundings with a modernist style. Tujuan dari penulisan ini adalah untuk mengkaji tumbuh dan berkembangnya Pondok Pesantren di Bengkulu. Kajian ini penting mengingat perkembanganya yang sangat pesat dan respon masyarakat tinggi, terutama pada awal abad 21. Menggunakan metode penelitian pustaka, yaitu dengan meneliti literature yang tersedia, terkait dengan tema yang relevan. Baik sumber yang bersifat off-line maupun sumber on-line yang banyak tersedia. Hasil penelitain mengungkapkan bahwa pertama, pendidikan Islam di Bengkulu diawali dari model sekolah yang dipelopori oleh gerakan modernis Islam Muhammadiyah dan ormas islam lainnya sejak pra-kemerdekaan hingga akhir abad 20. Kedua, pesantren adalah fenomena relative baru, dibanding sejarah lahir dan berkembangnya pesantren di Indonesia. Ketiga, Pesantren pertama yang berdiri di Bengkulu justru atas inisiatif presiden Soeharto yang menginginkan Bengkulu mempunyai lembaga semacam pesantren, sehingga lahirlah pesantren Pancasila pada tahun 1973. Ketiga, mulai tahun 2000an, pesantren bermunculan di wilayah Kota Bengkulu dan sekitarnya dengan corak modernis.
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Kudriavtceva, Anna, Efim Rezvan, and Maryam Rezvan. "Russian Sources of the Qur’anic Ethnography II. Alexander A. Adamov and His “Arabic Iraq”." Manuscripta Orientalia. International Journal for Oriental Manuscript Research 27, no. 1 (2021): 45–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.31250/1238-5018-2021-27-1-45-60.
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The scholarly and documentary heritage, the museum collections associated with the name of Alexander A. Adamov (1870—1938), one of the leading Russian diplomats and practicing orientalists at the eve of the First World War, are undoubtedly an important source for studying the history of the Middle East at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the history of the rivalry of the great powers in the region. Today, however, the significance of Adamov's texts and collections takes on yet another dimension. It is Qur’anic ethnography, a new scientific field, based on the results of specialized studies of previous years, and it is closely related to the studies of the Qur’anic language and the language milieu of Arabia at the time of the Prophet, to the ethnographical field studies in Arabia and Qur’anic archaeology. Researchers of Arabia are very well familiar with the phenomenon of the long preservation of elements of traditional tangible culture and economic activities here. This phenomenon is mostly based on the specific natural and climatic conditions, which brought about a set of elements of tangible culture that have proved to be highly viable throughout many centuries. In this connection, we regard the itineraries and works of European travellers to Arabia in the second half of the 18th century — first third of the 20th century as a serious source for our research. Whereas the names and papers of the Western travellers are well known and have been often referred to in various research projects devoted to Arabia, similar Russian works are still waiting for their turn. The second article of the series is dedicated to the activities of a man who devoted a significant part of his life to the study of Iraq and the Gulf region, the areas that played a huge role in the complex and largely ambiguous processes that led to the emergence of Islam. Accurate historical and ethnographic observations of Adamov make it possible to obtain material that is important for the reconstruction of territorial units and types of settlements, types of clothing and dwellings, the specifics of water supply and irrigation methods, agriculture and horticulture, the role of different types of animals in economic circulation, and nutritional systems typical for Arabia in the time of the rise of Islam.
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Al-Rahbi, Ahmed Mohammed. "Modern Arabic Literature. “The Breaker” Edwar Al-Kharrat." Asia and Africa Today, no. 8 (2022): 78. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s032150750021327-1.
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The article is devoted to the developing of modernism in Arabic prose and the art of one of the most prominent figures of this trend - Edwar al-Kharrat (1926-2015). The end of the dominance of the classical novel exactly in the first half of the 20th century and the turn of the generation of the 60s to new artistic techniques is directly associated with the historical events of 1967 (Six-Day War). It is noted that one of the consequences of these events for literature was the change of discourse - from revival (an-Nahda) to defeat (an-Naksa). The artistic method of Edwar al-Kharrat is characterized in detail on the examples of his early story “Station” and the novel “Rama and the Dragon”, which was included in the top ten Arabic-language novels of all time by the Union of Arab Writers. The authors distinguish thematic blocks in the works of al-Kharrat: the eternal themes of love, life and suffering, which are passed through Hellenistic and Middle Eastern mythologies and Christian philosophy. Such techniques of al-Kharrat as playing with the chronotope, narration through the subjective perception, attention to sensations, replacing the plot with a description, using dichotomy - the opposition of male and female, Christianity and Islam etc. are highlighted. Also the authors stress the significance of al-Kharrat's theoretical works on literature, where the artistic method, defined by him as a “new sensibility” and opposed by critics to what was called “al-Mahfuzia”, is comprehended. The question is raised about the role of al-Kharrat in the history of the latest literature of the Arab countries, while the authors try to remove the contradiction that is seen in the inimitability of al-Kharrat and his simultaneous fundamental influence on subsequent generations of prose writers.
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Makaradze, Emzar. "Issues of Democratization and Intercultural Dialogue in Turkey of 21st Century." Balkanistic Forum 29, no. 3 (November 1, 2020): 84–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.37708/bf.swu.v29i3.4.
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There can be no peace without democratization and intercultural dialogue, which due to their importance lead to the ultimate result of what is called the union of civilizations among nations. In this regard, it is interesting to consider the issues of democratization and intercultural dialogue in Turkey in 21st century.In order to reach a high level of democratic development, any state needs a strong society and political will. At the beginning of the 20th century, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938), the founder of the Turkish Republic, took the course of state development of the country to the West and declared the path of Europeanization as the main principle of unchanging domestic and foreign policy.The current events in Turkey in the first decade of 21st century have shown that the country is developing as a strong state. So, it is interesting to observe how the Republican Turkey will continue to pursue democratic and European values and to support the state rule of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.For Turkey and its leader, Islam is a tool that helps to stabilize the political system and transform Turkey into a traditional, conservative society with fewer opportunities to generate protests related to social, ethnic and other civil rights.The coming decades will show whether the country with a Muslim culture will be able to adapt to a democratic Western civilization and what the consequences will be.
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Salman, Kautsar Riza. "Exploring the History of Islamic Accounting and the Concept of Accountability in an Islamic Perspective." Journal of Islamic Economic and Business Research 2, no. 2 (December 27, 2022): 114–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/jiebr.v2i2.34.
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The history of conventional accounting dominates the literature on the history of accounting, and it is still rare to find a history that describes Islamic accounting comprehensively. In addition, the concept of accountability is still dominated by financial accountability alone. This paper aims to describe the history of Islamic accounting starting from the period of the Prophet until the 20th century. This paper also attempts to describe the concept of accountability from an Islamic perspective. The research approach used in this paper is categorized as qualitative research. The bibliographic method or library analysis used in this study reviews some of the previous literature on the history of Islamic accounting and Islamic accountability. History proves that Muslims have implemented modern and sophisticated accounting systems and practices. The manuscript by Al-Mazindarani entitled "Halakiyah Kitab as-Syiyaqaf Essay" in 765H or 1363M describes the popular accounting practices applied at that time, namely jaridah al-kharaj, jaridah an-nafakat, jaridah al-maal, and jaridah al-masadarin. Even the accounting profession (al-katib) should not be held by everyone and only those who have qualifications such as technical competence, understanding of sharia values, being responsible and trustworthy. The history of Islamic accounting is inseparable from the awareness of avoiding usury, the formation of the first Islamic bank, and the role of professional organizations in terms of regulation of Islamic accounting standards. The Islamic accounting conceptual framework is very different from the conventional accounting conceptual framework in terms of meaning and definition, profit perception, going concern assumption, unit of measurement assumption, and disclosure principle. Accountability in Islam views the responsibility of each individual or company to God as the giver of the mandate (hablum minallah) and to humans (hablum minannas).
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Yanco, Jennifer J., and Mustapha Hashim Kurfi. "The Role of ʿAjamī in Hausa Literary Production." Islamic Africa 14, no. 2 (October 26, 2023): 162–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/21540993-20230004.
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Abstract Islamic education and literacy were present in Hausaland long before the jihad of Usman ɗan Fodio, which culminated in the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1804. While ʿAjamī made its way into Hausaland with the spread of Islam, its use today is not limited to sacred or religious texts. In fact, it serves as a medium for the diffusion of information through newspapers, personal correspondence, political and advertising signage, poetry, and even currency notes. At the same time, the Islamic values that inform Hausa culture are an integral aspect of these materials. Over time, Hausa scholars adapted the Warsh-based Arabic script to the particularities of the Hausa language, resulting in Hausa ʿAjamī’s enriched inventory of characters and diacritics. The ʿAjamī tradition remains strong and widespread, as shown in our collection of 20 manuscripts, most from the 20th century, that highlight a range of personal qualities valued by the Hausa people.
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Puspitasari, Dewi, and Retno Dewi Ambarastuti. "NASIONALISME H.O.S. TJOKROAMINOTO DALAM FILM GURU BANGSA HOS TJOKROAMINOTO KARYA SUTRADARA GARIN NUGROHO." Puitika 13, no. 1 (August 29, 2017): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.25077/puitika.13.1.1--19.2017.
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HOS Tjokroaminoto is one of national heroes known as Guru Bangsa (Teacher of the Nation). Tjokroaminoto gets this title as he and his thought inspire Indonesian political figures. Tjokroaminoto is the only person in the beginning of 20th century who vocally and bluntly stated that Indies (Indonesia) had to establish its own governance. It is then termed the independence. Independence can be realized with the awareness of national consciousness in the national level, not in local level anymore.The movie entitled Guru Bangsa HOS Tjokroaminoto tells about the history reflecting one of Indonesian national figures, Tjokroaminoto. This movie tells about Tjokroaminoto as the main figure driving the nationalism and describes the history of Indonesia. The interesting aspects from this movie are the nationalism values described on Tjokroaminoto. In this research, the researcher analyze the movie entitled Guru Bangsa HOS Tjokroaminoto with historical literature approach in order to reveal the nationalism thought of Tjokroaminoto and behavior supporting his thought. This research is expected to raise the nationalism awareness in the recent young generation of Indonesia. Based on the research result, there are four main facts about the nationalism in Tjokroaminoto in the movie entitled Guru Bangsa HOS Tjokroaminoto. These historical facts are nationalism thought and behavior of Tjokroaminoto based on four factors of nationalism according to Hertz (1958), (1) Desire to achieve the unity (in 1912, Tjokroaminoto joined Sarekat Islam/Islamic Union), (2) Desire to achieve the independence (in 1905 Tjokroaminoto retired from his job as clerk), (3) Desire to achieve independence, superiority, authenticity, and distinctiveness by wearing blangkon and jarik (cloth) as the nationalism symbol and by wearing suit and bowties to show the equality with foreign nation in terms of thought, (4) Desire to catch up the honor of nation with the progressive idea of Tjokroaminoto, compulsory education for 15 years.
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Rosenberg, Keren, and Tzachi Cohen. ""The King Messiah Comes to Jerusalem on a Lion's Back": The Lion Story from Shabtai Zvi to Bar Kochba." Moreshet Israel 21, no. 2 (2023): 237–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.26351/mi/21-2/5.
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The Messiah, the legendary king who would bring history to its end and allow Israel to realize its purpose, has occupied the Jewish imagination for significant periods of time: as an idea, as a literary form, and as a political motivation. In this light, a line may be proposed that connects Shabtai Zvi to Bar Kochba, each of whom led a major messianic movement that aroused both hopes and objections in Jewish society. Both movements were characterized by a messianic peak, followed by a partial or complete rupture when messianic aspirations failed to match reality – so with the failure of the Bar Kochba rebellion, and so with the conversion to Islam and later the death of Shabtai Zvi. This article aims to show that in addition to the historical connection between the characters, there is also a literary one: a story in which the Messiah (Bar Kochba or Shabtai Zvi), mounted on a lion’s back, leads the people to Jerusalem. Different versions of the story appear among Shabtai Zvi’s believers; with regard to Bar Kochba, iterations of the story are found in 19th-century Germany, then resurface in the children’s songs of 20th-century Zionism. This motifeme will be the focus of the literary study in the article. While various hypotheses have been put forward regarding the origins of the story of Bar Kochba and the lion, the story has not yet been linked to the mystical visions of Shabtai Zvi. This article notes the similarities between the stories and attempts to establish the connection between them. The article first examines the roots of the story in rabbinic literature, then suggests a literary connection. Finally, it claims that the literary parallels reflect a deeper connection between Zionism and the ethos it has fostered – in part through children’s songs and stories, as well as the reclamation of neglected Jewish symbols of strength and power – and Sabbateanism, which was revered more or less openly by early Zionists, and which some even viewed as a sort of predecessor to the Zionist political project. The two messiahs, Bar Kochba and Shabtai Zvi, occupied an important place in the culture that developed in the early days of Zionism. At the basis of this study is the concept of the structure of the thematic repeating story. This concept investigates narrative kernels, with all their constitutive components and levels. It deepens the comparative view and provides a tool for clarification. Further, it enables a broader discourse on the messages and meanings of sacrifice, as well as the difference between recurring narrative forms in the Jewish-national consciousness – a discourse that will also be of interest in this article.
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Prochwicz-Studnicka, Bożena. "Usul al-fi qh. Czym są klasyczne sunnickie „korzenie/podstawy wiedzy o prawie”?" Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne 65, no. 1 (November 2, 2018): 11–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/cph.2013.65.1.01.
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Usul al-fi qh is one of the disciplines of fiqh (the science of religious law in Islam), called for simplicity the theory of law, but actually comprising elements – from the Western perspective – of both theory and philosophy of law, theology, logic, epistemology and linguistics. Usul-al-fi qh literature was written until the end of the classical period in the history of Islamic law, i.e. until roughly the 19th century when the world of Islam came into contact on a larger scale with Western civilisation. As a result, Islamic law entered its modern era. The fi rst works on the theory of law (which have not survived or survived only in fragments) were written in the 10th century – at a time when legal practice had already been well established. A stimulus for the emergence of the theory of law most probably came from Iraq where the intellectual traditions of antiquity were still alive, especially Greek philosophical rationalism. It can be claimed that the theory of law developed by combining rationalistic and traditionalistic ideas in Muslim legal thought. Being an embodiment of this merger, the theory of law owed its beginnings to the community of Baghdad jurists gathered around the Shafi ʻte Ibn Surayj (d. 918). In the legal Sunni tradition, the theory of law was meant as a science of the sources of divine laws (rules), bringing order to human reality, and the methods of deriving them from revelation. These were usul – literally meaning ‘roots/foundations’ (of fiqh). They were made up of the revelation included in the Quran and the Sunna of the Prophet Muhammad, as well as a consensus of the mujtahids (ijmaʻ) and the method qiyas (most often understood as an analogy). These were the four basic ‘sources’ of law. There were also the so-called controversial ‘sources’ that were not recognised by all the schools of law but which comprised juristic preference (istihsan), custom (urf) or the principle of blocking actions that might lead to evil (sadd adh-dhara’iʻ). The theory of law was meant to serve the mujtahids (jurists taking up ijtihad or individual juristic effort aimed at deriving a rule for a specifi c case in reliance on the texts of the Quran and Sunna, rules of their interpretation and specifi c methods of juristic reasoning). In interpreting the sense of the texts, the concept of qara’in – contextual indicators – was adopted without, however, developing rules for their identifi cation. For this reason, the theory of law made it practically possible to justify individual views, which were recognized as following from the intention of the revealed texts. Because of the conviction about the divine origins of Islamic law (Shariʻa), a distinctive feature of usul al-fi qh was its embedding in a theological structure with which it made up an organic whole. Moreover, the theory of law was a highly inconsistent discipline because of the selective nature of borrowings from Greek logic and philosophy, adoption of various methods of juristic reasoning, or, fi nally, various fashions of presenting content in individual works. In turn, the common and constant features of this cumulative tradition of usul al-fi qh, which made the discipline a unity, ollowed from resting the whole legal system on four basic sources of law, developing the concept of abrogation and interpreting the sense of the Quranic and sunnaic utterances. In the early 20th century, with ever stronger voices heard in juristic-theological discourse, advocating the adoption of the rationalistic position, a multitude of proposals were put forward to review the classical theory of usul al-fi qh so that it could be practically used when faced with the needs of modern society.
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Gribanova, Valentina. "On the Question of the Trends in the Development of Islam in South Africa." ISTORIYA 13, no. 3 (113) (2022): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840020261-6.
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The article discusses the ways of penetration of Islam into South Africa and the forces that played a significant role in its spread in this territory. The development of reformist tendencies in South African Islam during the second half of the 20th century is analyzed. It is noted that although in South Africa there were supporters of progressive trends in the reform of Islam, their number was minimal. There were significantly more adherents of the conservative trend in Islam. The special role of the Deobandi school and the Tablighi Jamaat movement among the supporters of the conservative direction is noted. A review of Muslim organizations that were actively created during the 20th century is given. These organizations were aimed at strengthening Islam in South African society and increasing the number of believers. The strengthening of the role of tarikats — Muslim spiritual orders, in the religious life of South African Muslims from the end of the 20th century is noted. The role of Islamic education, which has been increasing its importance in South Africa in recent decades, is emphasized.
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Jonathan, Andreas. "Religious Identity and National Conflict in the 20th Century Indonesia." DINIKA : Academic Journal of Islamic Studies 2, no. 3 (December 30, 2017): 303. http://dx.doi.org/10.22515/dinika.v2i3.155.
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This study attempts to discuss on how religious identities contribute to or was in conflict with the emerging national identities, with focusing issue on the struggle of Islam in its relation to Indonesian identity as a multi-religious nation and Pancasila state. Based on the critical analysis from the various literature, the result of the study showed that Islam did both contribute and was in conflict with the Indonesian national identity. The Islamist fights for the Islamic state, the nationalist defends Pancasila state. As long as Islam is the majority in Indonesia and as long as there is diversity in Islam, especially in the interpretation of Islam and the state, Indonesian national identity will always be in conflict between Pancasila state and Islamic state. Even though, the role of religion in society and nation change is very significant. The Islamist is always there, although it is not always permanent in certain organizations. In the past, NU and Muhammadiyah were considered as Islamist, but today they are nationalist. At the same time, new Islamist organizations and parties emerge to continue their Islamist spirit. Keywords: Islam, Religious identity, Pancasila,
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Kamil, Maqsood P. "Islam and Christianity in 19/20th Century South Asian Debates." International Journal of Asian Christianity 5, no. 2 (August 30, 2022): 208–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/25424246-05020005.
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Abstract Islam and Christianity share much in common but also much that is different. The evidence of interactions between them go right back to the origins of Islam in the seventh century. In early Muslim traditions, Jesus was largely presented as an ascetic, whereas their prophet Muhammad was presented as a political and military ruler; Christianity as a quietist faith and Islam as conquering faith-polity. These early traditions possibly informed the rather oppositional South Asian debates of the nineteenth century. We know that the Muslim conceptions of Jesus have been changing over time. To what extent has the image of Muhammad among Christians changed over time is also a relevant question. Muhammad and Christ were unquestionably often the focal points of the Christian Muslim debates in the nineteenth and the early twentieth century South Asia. Preliminary enquiry of sources suggest that Christians largely looked at Christ and Muhammad as fundamentally opposing characters belonging to different domains; their Muslim counterparts attempted to argue that Muhammad and Christ had much in common and, that Muhammad was in fact the very fulfilment of Christ’s own prophecy. This paper digs both into Muslim (religious doctors) and Christian (missionaries/converts) sources: i. to bring to light a new context of debates (South Asia) on Christ and Muhammad; ii. To examine how Jesus and Muhammad were portrayed in these debates and; iii. To what extent, this South Asian evidence on how Jesus and Muhammad are seen aligns with what we know from writings about them from the Middle Eastern context?
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Cevizli, Antonia Gatward. "Islam e Firenze: Arte e collezionismo dai Medici al Novecento (Florence, Le Gallerie degli Uffizi and Museo Nazionale del Bargello, 22 June–23 September 2018). Catalogue Islam e Firenze: Arte e collezionismo dai Medici al Novecento/ Islamic Art and Florence: From the Medici to the 20th Century, ed. GiovanniCuratola. Florence: Giunti Editore and Firenze Musei, 2018. 352 pp., colour illus. €35.00. ISBN: 978‐88‐09‐86942‐4/ 978‐88‐09‐87285‐1." Renaissance Studies 33, no. 5 (January 28, 2019): 854–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/rest.12549.
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Jamora Nasution, Abdul Gani, Husna Ibrahim, Arwita Putri, Rinanti Ito Pohan, and Intan Nuraini. "ISLAM PADA MASA KESULTANAN LANGKAT ABAD XX." IJTIMAIYAH Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Budaya 6, no. 1 (June 30, 2023): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.30821/ijtimaiyah.v6i1.14588.
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<p><em>Today many people do not know history, especially the history of their own place of residence, in this case history is an important thing for us to know because by knowing history we can know the truth so that the history of a country, place of residence, etc. is not easy. vandalized, stolen by foreigners and so on. Therefore in this historical journal the focus is on reviewing Islam during the 20th century Langkat Sultanate. For this reason, the researcher formulated several problems regarding this research, namely how the biography of the sultan who served in the XX century and what were the policies of the sultan's government in the XX century and what Islamic policies had been achieved by the sultan of the XX century and the causes of the collapse of the Langkat sultanate. In this research we use historical methods which are studied through four stages to get perfect results, namely heuristics, verification, interpretation, and historiography. The purpose of research on Islam during the Langkat Sultanate in the XX century is to thoroughly discuss Islamic leadership during the Langkat Sultanate in the XX century, where in the XX century the Langkat Sultanate was led by 2 Sultans namely Sultan Abdul Aziz and Sultan Mahmud. When the 20th century became the glory of Islam, not only that, but its glory can be seen from many aspects such as the economy, education, politics and others, all of which were at their peak during the time of Sultan Abdul Aziz. However, in the subsequent leadership during the reign of Sultan Mahmud, these aspects experienced a decline and the collapse of the Langkat Sultanate also occurred during the leadership of Sultan Mahmud.</em></p><p><strong><em>Keywords: Islam, the Sultanate of Langkat</em></strong><em></em></p>
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Кирчанов, Максим Валерьевич. "The history of Islam in Indonesian politics of memory." Journal of the Belarusian State University. History, no. 3 (August 8, 2022): 82–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.33581/2520-6338-2022-3-82-92.
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The article analyses the perception of the history of the Muslim community in the modern Indonesian politics of memory. For the first time in Belarusian historiography, the features of the historical politics or the politics of memory in modern Indonesia are considered. The novelty of the article lies in the integration of Indonesian issues into the contexts of modern interdisciplinary memorial studies. The key subjects of the politics of memory in Indonesia are determined in contexts of the revision of the history of political Islam in the second half of the 20th century. The activity of the media is considered as the main form of the revision of history, criticism of old historical narratives and the formation of a new memorial canon of the history of Indonesian Islam. Attempts to revise the history of Islam are analysed, including new interpretations of Muslim activists, who impact participated in the national movement. The author analyses the contradictions of historical politics in the context of integration of the history of Indonesian political Islam of the 20th century into the secular memorial canon. It is assumed that attempts to construct the history of political Islam in the modern collective Indonesian memory have a compromise character. The author shows how intellectuals assimilate the history of Islam, integrating it into the current memorial canon. It is noted that within the framework of the politics of memory, ideologically and politically controversial points related to the history of radical political Islam, which in the early model of national memory were marginalised and forgotten. Modern manipulations with historical memory are analysed as attempts to achieve a memorial compromise between secular intellectuals and representatives of the Muslim community.
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Kudiņš, Jānis. "FRAGMENTARY AND MODERATE MODERNISM IN LATVIAN MUSIC HISTORY ." Culture Crossroads 19 (October 11, 2022): 111–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.55877/cc.vol19.31.
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The question of 20th century modernism in the history of Latvian academic genres music is still topical. The prevailing opinion in musicological research (literature) is that representation of modernism in the history of Latvian music has been fragmentary. In various decades of the 20th century (the first and second half of the century), Latvian composers have rarely turned to the most radical expression of modernism, the avant-garde. Much more often possible identified stylistically moderate manifestations of modernism. However, these issues have still been little researched. This article offers a focused (panoramic) characterisation, looking at local peculiarities of adaptation and representation of modernism in Latvian music history in the 20th century.
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Starikova, Nadezhda. "Questions of Description and Interpretation of Slavic Literatures of the 20th century (some aspects of the development of a monographic series)." Stephanos Peer reviewed multilanguage scientific journal 57, no. 1 (January 31, 2023): 128–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.24249/2309-9917-2023-57-1-128-136.
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The article gives information about the monographic series “Literature of the 20th century”, which is produced by the Department of Contemporary Literatures of Central and Southeastern Europe at the Institute of Slavic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. On the material of the author’s monographs by Victor A. Khorev “Polish Literature of the 20th century” (2009) and Galina Ya. Ilyina “Croatian Literature of the 20th century” (2015), as well as the collective work “Slovenian Literature of the 20th century” (ed. by Nadezhda N. Starikova, 2014), is presented a genre of “small” literary history, describing the most important stages in the Slavic peoples’ literary development during the last century. Each of the book in this series has created a canon of names and texts, reflecting the experience of specific Slavic literature of the 20th century, which allows Russian (and more broadly Russian-speaking) readers to be guided in its achievement.
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Rosli, Salsabila, and Firuz-Akhtar Lubis. "[Muhammad Asad: The Islamic Intellectual of 20th Century] Muhammad Asad: Intelektual Islam Abad Ke-20m." Jurnal Islam dan Masyarakat Kontemporari 22, no. 1 (June 10, 2021): 129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.37231/jimk.2021.22.1.551.
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Abstract
Muhammad Asad, a young European Jew, converted to Islam as early as 26 years old. Since then, together with Muslims he developed spectacular Islamic thoughts. He also became the bridge between two great civilizations: Islam and the West. This study details his intellectuality as an influential European Muslim of the 20th century. This study uses content and historical analysis as research techniques in obtaining information on; the Islamic traces of Muhammad Asad, his experience of Western and Islamic interaction, as well as his exceptional thinking. This study finds that there were various contributions of Muhammad Asad in Islamic intellectual world such as shariah thought, politics, literature and tafsir. Muhammad Asad's service to Islam clearly shows that he deserves to be appointed as an Islamic intellectual figure of the 20th century.
Keywords: Muhammad Asad, Western civilization, Islamic civilization, exceptional thinking
Abstrak
Muhammad Asad seorang pemuda Eropah beragama Yahudi, memeluk Islam seawal usia 26 tahun. Sejak itu, beliau bersatu bersama umat Islam dalam membangunkan pemikiran Islam yang unggul. Beliau juga menjadi penghubung dua ketamadunan besar; Islam dan Barat. Kajian ini memperincikan keintelektualan beliau sebagai seorang Islam Eropah yang berpengaruh pada abad ke-20. Teknik analisis kandungan dan kajian pensejarahan dilaksanakan untuk memperolehi maklumat mengenai; jejak Islam Muhammad Asad, pengalaman interaksi Barat dan Islam, serta pemikiran kebitaraan Muhammad Asad. Hasil kajian mendapati terdapat pelbagai sumbangan Muhammad Asad dalam dunia intelektual Islam seperti pemikiran shariah, politik, kesusasteraan dan tafsir. Jasa Muhammad Asad terhadap Islam jelas menunjukkan bahawa beliau layak diangkat sebagai tokoh intelektual Islam abad ke-20M.
Kata kunci: Muhammad Asad, tamadun Barat, tamadun Islam, pemikiran kebitaraan
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Goldbloom, David S. "The Early Canadian History of Anorexia Nervosa." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 42, no. 2 (March 1997): 163–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674379704200206.
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Objective: To examine several early Canadian descriptions of anorexia nervosa (AN) in light of modern understanding of the disorder. Method: Two clinical reports of AN from the late 19th century and early 20th century in Canada are cited and summarized. These original case descriptions are then compared with late 20th century knowledge of the disorder. Results: Both of these early descriptions contain many astute and prescient observations on the etiology and sequelae of AN and reveal a compassionate approach to patient care. Conclusions: Canadian contributions to the medical literature on AN prior to 1970 merit both careful scrutiny and appreciation in the world literature on this disorder.
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Kyrchanoff, Maksym Waler'evich. "The concept of the “short 20th century” as an interpretative model for studying the socio-political history of Indonesia." Исторический журнал: научные исследования, no. 2 (February 2024): 117–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0609.2024.2.69580.
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The purpose of this study is to analyze the “short 20th century” concept as an interpretative model of modern historical science that claims to be universal. The author analyzes the concept of the “short 20th century” proposed by Eric Hobsbawm. The subject of the article is the concept of the “short 20th century”, the object is the possibility of its application and transplantation into Indonesian historical research. The novelty of the study lies in the analysis of the concept of the “short 20th century” as an interpretative model that allows us to analyze the features of the historical, social and cultural development of Indonesia in the context of those transformation processes that were launched by the development of nationalism, modernization and secularization. It is assumed that the interpretive models proposed by Western historians have a claim to universality, although the effect of its transplantation into non-Western historical contexts may be limited. The article analyzes 1) the features of the social and economic components in the transformation of Indonesia during the “short 20th century”, 2) the role of the factors of nationalism and Islam in political changes within the framework of political competition and the confrontational model of relations between the Ummah and the ruling elites, 3) the consequences of “short 20th century” for the subsequent history of the region. The article shows the potential of the concept of the “short 20th century” for analyzing the history of social and political transformations in Indonesia. The results of the study suggest that the effect of using the concept of the “short 20th century” is limited. The author believes that this interpretative model can be effective relatively and useful for analyzing social and political dynamics through the prism of confrontation between secular and religious institutions as sources and drivers of change.
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Zohaib, Muhammad. "Women and Da‘wah in the 20th Century: An Analysis of Maryam Jameelah's Contributions." Journal of Religious and Social Studies 1, no. 01 (June 19, 2021): 17–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.53583/jrss02022021.
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Maryam Jameelah was a Jewish-American lady who, after embracing Islam, selected Pakistan as her adopted abode. Mostly her conversion to Islam and fierce criticism of western civilization became the topic of discussion among academics. However, her work for da‘wah, so evident since her childhood, did not find much attention in the literary circles. A study of her life and works can reveal answers to the questions such as how she engaged herself in this field, what is the methodology adopted by her, and how does her work is useful for the women interested in da‘wah. Analyzing her published books and articles along with the unpublished material found in her library, the current paper focuses on the practical aspects of her da‘wah activities. It is argued that being a convert, she was aware of the problems of people who either converted to Islam or had an interest in it. Thus, targeting an English-speaking audience, she did not only write a bulk of literature to disseminate her understanding of Islam in Euro-American communities, but also practically contributed to this field through her discussions with non-Muslims, correspondence, and economic support for Islamic organizations.
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Zohaib, Muhammad. "Women and Da‘wah in the 20th Century: An Analysis of Maryam Jameelah's Contributions." Journal of Religious and Social Studies 1, no. 01 (June 19, 2021): 17–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.53583/jrss02.01.2021.
Full textAbstract:
Maryam Jameelah was a Jewish-American lady who, after embracing Islam, selected Pakistan as her adopted abode. Mostly her conversion to Islam and fierce criticism of western civilization became the topic of discussion among academics. However, her work for da‘wah, so evident since her childhood, did not find much attention in the literary circles. A study of her life and works can reveal answers to the questions such as how she engaged herself in this field, what is the methodology adopted by her, and how does her work is useful for the women interested in da‘wah. Analyzing her published books and articles along with the unpublished material found in her library, the current paper focuses on the practical aspects of her da‘wah activities. It is argued that being a convert, she was aware of the problems of people who either converted to Islam or had an interest in it. Thus, targeting an English-speaking audience, she did not only write a bulk of literature to disseminate her understanding of Islam in Euro-American communities, but also practically contributed to this field through her discussions with non-Muslims, correspondence, and economic support for Islamic organizations.
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Tuoheti, Alimu. "The Retrospect of Modern China on Islamic Studies—Centered on People, Institutions and Their Academic Activities." International Journal of Social Science Studies 9, no. 5 (August 30, 2021): 166. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v9i5.5338.
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The academic history of Islam in China. It not only refers to the academic history of Chinese scholars' research on Chinese Islam, but also includes the carding of various researches and achievements of Chinese scholars on foreign Islam and Muslims. This includes the study of Islamic classics such as Koran and Hadith, History, Pedagogy, Philosophy, Politics, Society and Culture. Islam and Muslims in different regions of foreign countries also have different characteristics, and the research methods also respect this aspect of attention. On the origin of academic history: according to the author's own and previous research results, it can be concluded that academic research with contemporary significance began at the beginning of the 20th century. Under the background of the introduction of Western learning to the East, modern academic research methods also affected the research field of Islam in China. There are four imams with high academic level, such as Ha Decheng, Wang Jingzhai, Da Pusheng and Ma Songtin. There is also Chen Hanzhang, Chen Yuan and Chuan Tongxian non-Muslim scholars joining the ranks of Islamic researchers. There was little research before the 20th century. The year 2000 can be regarded as the dividing line in the evolution of modern Islamic academic history. The period from the beginning of the 20th century to the founding of new China can be regarded as the beginning period. The period from the founding of new China to the reform and development can be regarded as the initial period. During this period, due to various political movements and other reasons, China's Islamic academic history and many other fields suffered setbacks such as stagnation to varying degrees. The period from reform and development to 2000 can be regarded as the prosperous period of Islamic academic research in contemporary China. During the period from 2001 to now, the subject consciousness is clear and the research methods are diversified. Many industries and scholars have actively participated in this research field, that is, using the theories and methods of religion, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, history, philosophy, linguistics, culture, politics and other disciplines to systematically study the historical, political, economic, cultural and other phenomena of Islam and Muslims, so as to lay a foundation for the further development of China's Islamic research.
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Diakov, Nikolai. "Islam in the Colonial Policy of France: from the Origins to the Fifth Republic." ISTORIYA 12, no. 5 (103) (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840015901-0.
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History of relations between France and the Islamic world goes back to the first centuries of Hijra, when the Franks first faced the Caliphate and its troops in the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. On the eve of the New times Paris had already developed its numerous contacts with Turkey, Iran and the Arab West — the Maghreb area. The conquest of Algeria (from 1830) formed a basis of the French colonial empire in Africa and Asia with the growing role of Islam in political activities and ambitions of Paris. Millions of Muslims in French colonies contributed to growth of political and economic progress of their metropoly with its pretensions to become a great Muslim power. Meanwhile, thousands of them lost their lives during two great world wars of the 20th century. Waves of immigration gave birth to an impressive Islamic community (‘umma), in France, reaching about a million of residents by the middle of the 20th century. With the growth of Muslim immigration from Africa and the Middle East a number of Muslims among the natives of France also augmented. By the end of the last century the Muslims formed as much as about 10 % of the whole population of France. The “French Islam” born at the dawn of the 20th century. after a century of its evolution became an important civilizational reality of Europe, at times more attractive for the local youth than traditional Christian values, or the new ideals, brought with the winds of globalism, multiculturalism and a “non-stop consumerism”.
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Hudiana, Aden, Isna Fistiyanti, and Rina Juni Rianty. "Middle-Century Islamic Literature." JPUA: Jurnal Perpustakaan Universitas Airlangga: Media Informasi dan Komunikasi Kepustakawanan 12, no. 2 (December 30, 2022): 136–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/jpua.v12i2.2022.136-147.
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A B S T R A C T The research aims to find out the history of literature in the Umayyad era, the Abbasid era, and find out how the relationship between this Islamic library network is. The method used in this study is to use historical research methods. Historical research also has stages of research methods. The first is finding the topic first, the next is the heuristic stage which means finding and gathering sources to be able to find out all past historical events or events, and the next stage is interpretation. The conclusion of this study is that during the Umayyad Daula period a breakthrough was made by developing private libraries, but also developing public libraries. Not a few from this era there are figures who are writers or authors of works in certain fields. Meanwhile, during the Abbasid period, it became the pinnacle of Islamic civilization. Muslim scholars who were experts in various sciences, both religious and non-religious, also appeared at this time. The development of civilization that was so rapid was also supported by the economic progress of the empire which became a link between the eastern and western worlds. Relatively good political stability, especially during the early Abbasid period, also became a trigger for the progress of Islamic civilization. Scientific relations in relation to Islamic literature is a complex relationship. From a historical point of view, this relationship has been established between the West and the East and vice versa, long before the appearance of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, when the influence of Hellenism had spread to the eastern regions of Persia, Alexandria, Iraq. Keywords: Islamic Literature; Abbasid Daula; Umayyad Daula A B S T R A K Penelitian ini berusaha memahami hubungan antara jaringan perpustakaan Islam ini dengan sejarah sastra pada masa Bani Umayyah dan Abbasiyah. Pendekatan yang dilakukan dalam karya ini adalah dengan melakukan penelitian sejarah. Tahapan metodologi penelitian sering digunakan dalam studi sejarah. Menemukan topik didahulukan, kemudian muncul langkah heuristik, yaitu menemukan dan mengumpulkan informasi untuk mempelajari semua peristiwa atau peristiwa sejarah sebelumnya, dan terakhir adalah tahap interpretasi. Kesimpulan penelitian ini adalah bahwa periode Daulah Umayyah mengalami terobosan dalam perkembangan perpustakaan baik swasta maupun umum. Ada beberapa orang dari era ini yang merupakan sastrawan atau penulis karya dalam bidang tertentu. Sementara itu terjadi, ia naik ke puncak budaya Islam selama era Abbasiyah. Pada masa ini, para ilmuwan Muslim dengan keahlian di berbagai bidang—baik agama maupun sekuler—juga mulai bermunculan. Pertumbuhan ekonomi kekaisaran, yang berfungsi sebagai jembatan antara dunia timur dan barat, berkontribusi pada perkembangan peradaban yang cepat. Stabilitas politik yang umumnya kondusif, khususnya pada periode awal Abbasiyah, menjadi katalis bagi kemajuan peradaban Islam. Ada hubungan yang rumit antara sains dan sastra Islam. Dari segi sejarah, interaksi antara Barat dan Timur dan sebaliknya ini sudah terbentuk jauh sebelum masuknya Islam di Jazirah Arab, ketika Hellenisme sudah menjangkiti wilayah timur Persia, Aleksandria, dan Irak. Kata Kunci: Kepustakaan Islam; Daulah Abbasiyah; Daulah Ummayyah.
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Schwarb, Gregor. "Muʿtazilism in a 20th century Zaydī Qurʾān commentary." Arabica 59, no. 3-4 (2012): 372–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157005812x629293.
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Abstract The Zaydīs in Yemen are the only current within Islam that fostered the continuous transmission and study of Muʿtazilī kalām up to the present time. This article aims to examine the presence and quality of Muʿtazilī kalām in a major Zaydī composition of the 20th century, namely ʿAlī b. Muḥammad al-ʿAǧrī’s (1320-1407/1902-1987) Miftāḥ al-saʿāda, which was completed in May 1952. The Miftāḥ and other works of Zaydī scholars written during the first half of the 20th century provide us with valuable insights into Zaydī-Hādawī scholarship in Northern Yemen prior to the Republican revolution of 1962 and furnish important information about the education of 20th century Zaydī-Hādawī scholars and the contents of their libraries. The wide range of Muʿtazilī and non-Muʿtazilī sources used and quoted in the Miftāḥ sheds light on the distinct impact of various phases of a centuries-old school- and teaching-tradition.
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Kaywell, Joan F., and Kathleen Oropallo. "Young Adult Literature: Modernizing the Study of History Using Young Adult Literature." English Journal 87, no. 1 (January 1, 1998): 102–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.58680/ej19983519.
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Presents brief annotations of 61 books of young adult historical fiction and nonfiction that address other time periods (biblical time period, the 1700s, the 1800s, the 20th century, political unrest overseas, and chronicles) that could be used in the classroom as part of a unit of study. Describes possible activities using five of the books.
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Altuntaş, Nezahat. "Religious Nationalism in a New Era: A Perspective from Political Islam." African and Asian Studies 9, no. 4 (2010): 418–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156921010x534805.
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Abstract Nationalism is an ideology that has taken different forms in different times, locations, and situations. In the 19th century, classical liberal nationalism depended on the ties between the nation state and its citizenship. That form of nationalism was accompanied by “the state- and nation-building” processes in Europe. In the 20th century, nationalism transformed into ethnic nationalism, depending on ideas of common origin; it arose especially after World War I and II and after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Finally, at the beginning of 21st century, nationalism began to integrate with religion as a result of global political changes. The terrorist attack on the United States, and then the effects that the United States and its allies have created in the widespread Muslim geography, have added new and different dimensions to nationalism. The main aim of this study is to investigate the intersection points between religion and nationalism, especially in the case of political Islam.
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Auseichyk, Uladzimir. "From the History of Studies on Old Believers in Northwestern Belarus: Literature Review (Second Half of the 18th Century–1980)." Slavistica Vilnensis 67, no. 2 (December 30, 2022): 141–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/slavviln.2022.67(2).101.
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The article examines the historiography and the current state of research on the Old Believers in Northwestern Belarus. Four basic stages are distinguished in the history of studies on Old Believers in the region: second half of the 18th century – beginning of the 20th century; the interwar period (1920–1930 years); the Soviet period (1950–1980 years); the modern period (1990–2000 years). The characteristic of these stages is given, the methodology of conducted research is analyzed, the value of published works in this direction is revealed. The article analyzes research conducted from the second half of the 18th century to the last two decades of the 20th century. The main attention is given to the analysis of the works published during the second half of the of 19th century and the early 20th century.
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Ihsan, Muhammad, and Ishmatul Karimah Syam. "Ideologi Islam Reformis dalam Tafsir." Jurnal Iman dan Spiritualitas 2, no. 1 (February 4, 2022): 61–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.15575/jis.v2i1.15845.
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This study aims to explain the interpretation of the reformist era, in terms of ideology, influence, commentators who existed at that time, and criticisms of their commentators on traditional Islam. This study uses qualitative methods with descriptive analysis sourced from literature studies. This paper concludes that reformists took place in the 20th century due to European expansion. The presence of this ideology also affects science, especially in the field of interpretation. Tafsir in this century was heavily influenced by the thoughts of Egyptian reformers such as Muhammad Abduh and others. Its development has progressed rapidly, such as various new styles and methods coming afterward. The commentators are Oemar Bakri, Buya Hamka, KH. Bisri Musthofa, Mahmud Yunus, and Quraish Shihab, the reformists, also criticized the traditionalists who were considered too blind to taqlid towards the ulama. Also, their thoughts which are still shackled by customs, have become sharp criticisms of the reformists against traditionalists. This reformist or renewal is considered a breath of fresh air for Muslims to be more modernist, technological, and not lagging behind western progress.
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Bax, Sander, and Erwin Mantingh. "Een web van twintigste-eeuwse literatuur." Nederlandse Letterkunde 23, no. 3 (December 1, 2018): 257–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/nedlet2018.3.003.bax.
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Abstract A web of 20th century Dutch literature. Towards a new approach for teaching 20th century literary historyThis article presents the first results of work-in-progress of a teacher development team that works on teaching Dutch 20th century literature. The starting point of this project was: so-called modern literature has to be dealt with as a phenomenon that is historical to students in secondary education. Our analysis of the main problems that teachers experience with 20th century literary history has led to a set of principles that will serve as guidelines for the design of a model for teaching 20th century literature. We present a first draft of this model that aims to offer a series of lessons in a digital framework resembling a network of texts. This web of 20th century literature will combine two perspectives: at the one hand a contextual perspective on the literary text (‘text in context’), in which a central literary text is compared to contemporary historical texts and developments, at the other hand a longitudinal perspective (‘text in frame’), in which the text is compared to texts and developments from different time periods by using transhistorical themes or frames. The development of the first series of lessons according to our guidelines provides insights that will contribute to a next version of the web under construction.
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Harun, Jelani. "Raja Haji Yahya in the History of 20th Century Malay Literature." Malay Literature 28, no. 1 (June 1, 2015): 32–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.37052/ml.28(1)no2.
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Very little is known about the role of courtiers in the tradition of the Malay lipur lara (folklore) although the probability of them playing a role is hardly deniable. One such courtier is Raja Haji Yahya who lived in Chenderiang, Perak. Aside from producing works on the genealogy and history of the rulers of Perak, Raja Haji Yahya too was known to serve as penghulu (headman), pawang istana (royal medicine man), collector of folklore, and poet. In addition, he was well-acquainted with a prominent penglipur lara (folklorist) in Perak named Pawang Ana. This article aims to trace the life story of Raja Haji Yahya and discuss his contribution to the history of Malay literature in Perak. The study is based on several works of Raja Haji Yahya that have been found and also on information gathered from his next-of-kin who are still around today. The last part of the article puts forward a number of conclusions about the status of Raja Haji Yahya as a courtier who was blessed with deep insights into the literature and socio-cultural life of the Malays such that he deserves to be acknowledged as one of the leading lights in the history of Malay literature of 20th century Perak. Keywords: Raja Haji Yahya, history of Malay literature, Pawang Ana, folklorist, Perak Abstrak Kewujudan “orang istana” dalam tradisi lipur lara Melayu masih belum banyak diketahui walaupun beberapa kemungkinan tentang peranan mereka sememangnya ada. Salah seorang “orang istana” yang dimaksudkan ialah Raja Haji Yahya yang tinggal di Chenderiang, Perak. Di samping menghasilkan penulisan tentang salasilah dan sejarah raja-raja Perak, Raja Haji Yahya juga pernah berkhidmat sebagai penghulu, pawang istana, pengumpul cerita rakyat, pengarang syair, dan mempunyai hubungan dengan tokoh penglipur lara di negeri Perak yang bernama Pawang Ana. Makalah ini bertujuan mengesan sejarah hidup Raja Haji Yahya dan membicarakan sumbangannya dalam sejarah kesusasteraan Melayu di negeri Perak. Kajian ini berasaskan beberapa contoh hasil karya Raja Haji Yahya yang telah ditemui dan juga maklumat yang diperoleh daripada waris keturunannya yang masih ada pada hari ini. Beberapa kesimpulan dibuat tentang kedudukan Raja Haji Yahya selaku “orang istana”, yang mempunyai pelbagai kearifan tentang sastera dan sosiobudaya kehidupan masyarakat Melayu, sehingga beliau diangkat sebagai salah seorang tokoh penting dalam sejarah kesusasteraan Melayu di Negeri Perak pada abad ke-20 yang lalu. Kata kunci: Raja Haji Yahya, sejarah kesusasteraan Melayu, Pawang Ana, Penglipur lara, Perak
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Kochieva, Madina A. "MUSLIM COMMUNITY OF NORTH OSSETIA IN THE POST-SOVIET ERA. INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS." History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Caucasus 18, no. 2 (June 23, 2022): 388–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.32653/ch182388-409.
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In our work, we attempt to describe the events that impacted the life of the Muslim community in the multi-confessional republic of North Ossetia-Alania at the end of the 20th – beginning of the 21st century; to analyze their causal link, the influence of Caucasian and global trends on them. During the study, we applied descriptive-narrative and historical-genetic methods. We have come to the conclusion that at the end of the 20th – early 21st century the Ossetian Muslim community turned out to be receptive to global trends, while the Ossetian “neophytes” – to the ideas of radical Islamic movements. However, by now the split of the Muslim community of Ossetia into supporters of moderate Islam and supporters of radical views has been overcome. The terrorist attack in Beslan in 2004 had unprecedented consequences for the Muslim community in Ossetia and noticeably changed the attitude towards Islam within the Ossetian society. It has also become evident that if in the first decade of the 21st century tension between the Islamic clergy of Ossetia and representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church were dominant, then in the second decade of the century the conflicts of Muslims with passionate adherents of the traditional Ossetian religion were actualized.